Instant ebooks textbook Program Evaluation for Social Workers: Foundations of Evidence Based Programs 7th Edition, (Ebook PDF) download all chapters
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8
Contents in Detail
Preface
1. Toward Accountability
3. The Process
The Process
Step 1: Engage Stakeholders
Why Stakeholders Are Important to an Evaluation
9
The Role of Stakeholders in an Evaluation
STEP 2: Describe the Program
Using a Logic Model to Describe Your Program
Step 3: Focus the Evaluation
Types of Evaluations
Narrowing Down Evaluation Questions
Step 4: Gathering Credible Data
Step 5: Justifying Your Conclusions
Step 6: Ensuring Usage and Sharing Lessons Learned
Summary
4. Standards
5. Ethics
Code of Ethics
Step 3: Focusing the Evaluation
Step 3A: Refine Evaluation Question Through the Literature
Step 3B: Selecting an Evaluation Design
Step 3C: Specifying How Variables Are Measured
Step 4: Gathering Data
Step 4A: Selecting Evaluation Participants
Step 4B: Selecting a Data Collection Method
Step 4C: Analyzing the Data
Step 6: Ensure Usage and Share Lessons Learned
Revealing Negative Findings
Special Considerations
International Research
Computer and Internet-Based Research Guidance
Students as Subjects/Students as Researchers
Summary
6. Cultural Competence
Our Village
Working with Stakeholder Groups
Your Evaluation Team
The Impact of Culture
Bridging the Culture Gap
Cultural Awareness
Intercultural Communication
Cultural Frameworks
Orientation to Data
Decision-Making
Individualism
10
Tradition
Pace of Life
Culturally Competent Evaluators
Develop Cultural Awareness
Develop Intercultural Communication Skills
Develop Specific Knowledge about the Culture
Develop an Ability to Adapt Evaluations
Summary
7. The Program
The Agency
Mission Statements
Goals
The Program
Naming Programs
An Agency Versus a Program
Designing Programs
Evidence-Based Programs
Writing Program Goals
Preparing for Unintended Consequences
Program Goals Versus Agency Goals
Program Objectives
Knowledge-Based Objectives
Affect-Based Objectives
Behaviorally Based Objectives
Writing Program Objectives
Specific (S)
Measurable (M)
Achievable (A)
Realistic (R)
Time Phased (T)
Indicators
Practice Objectives
Example: Bob’s Self-Sufficiency
Practice Activities
Logic Models
Positions Your Program for Success
Simple and Straightforward Pictures
Reflect Group Process and Shared Understanding
Change Over Time
Summary
11
Models Begin with Results
Logic Models and Effectiveness
Basic Program Logic Models
Assumptions Matter
Key Elements of Program Logic Models
Nonlinear Program Logic Models
Hidden Assumptions and Dose
Building a Logic Model
From Strategy to Activities
Action Steps for a Program Logic Model
Creating Your Program Logic Model
Summary
Planning Ahead
Strategy 1: Working with Stakeholders
Strategy 2: Managing the Evaluation
Strategy 3: Pilot-Testing
Strategy 4: Training Data Collection Staff
Strategy 5: Monitoring Progress
Strategy 6: Reporting Results
Interim Reporting
Disseminating Final Results
Strategy 7: Developing a Plan
Strategy 8: Documenting Lessons Learned
Strategy 9: Linking Back to your Evaluation Plan
Summary
12
Secondary Data
Individual Interviews
Group Interviews
Telephone and Mail Surveys
Step 4D: Analyzing and Displaying Data
Quantitative Data
Qualitative Data
Step 6A: Disseminating and Communicating Evaluation Results
Summary
Definition
Example
Purpose
Improving a Program’s Operations
Generating Knowledge
Estimating Cost Efficiency
Step 3A: Deciding What Questions to Ask
Question 1: What Is the Program’s Background?
Question 2: What Is the Program’s Client Profile?
Question 3: What Is the Program’s Staff Profile?
Question 4: What Is the Amount of Service Provided to Clients?
Question 5: What Are the Program’s Interventions and Activities?
Question 6: What Administrative Supports Are in Place?
Question 7: How Satisfied Are the Program’s Stakeholders?
Question 8: How Efficient Is the Program?
Step 4A: Developing Data Collection Instruments
Easy to Use
Appropriate to the Flow of a Program’s Operations
Obtaining User Input
Step 4B: Developing a Data Collection Monitoring System
Determining Number of Cases to Include
Determining Times to Collect Data
Selecting a Data Collection Method(s)
Step 4C: Scoring and Analyzing Data
Step 4D: Developing a Feedback System
Step 6A: Disseminating and Communicating Evaluation Results
Summary
Purpose
Uses
Improving Program Services to Clients
Generating Knowledge for the Profession
Step 3: Specifying Program Objectives
Performance Indicators Versus Outcome Indicators
Step 4A: Measuring Program Objectives
Pilot-Testing the Measuring Instrument
Step 4B: Designing a Monitoring System
How Many Clients Should Be Included?
When Will Data Be Collected?
How Will Data Be Collected?
13
Step 4C: Analyzing and Displaying Data
Step 4D: Developing a Feedback System
Step 6A: Disseminating and Communicating Evaluation Results
Summary
Purpose
Workers’ Roles
Administrative Support
Creating a Culture of Excellence
Establishing an Organizational Plan
Collecting Case-Level Data
Collecting Program-Level Data
Collecting Data at Client Intake
Collecting Data at Each Client Contact
Collecting Data at Client Termination
Collecting Data to Obtain Client Feedback
Managing Data
Managing Data Manually
Managing Data with Computers
Writing Reports
A Look to the Future
Summary
14
15. Making Decisions
Principle Duties
Knowledge, Skills, and Abilities
Overarching Items
Step 1: Engage Stakeholders
Step 2: Describe the Program
Step 3: Focus the Evaluation Design
Step 4: Gather Credible Data
Step 5: Justify Conclusions
Step 6: Ensure Use and Share Lessons Learned
Stakeholders’ Anxiety
Evaluators’ Anxiety
Interactive Evaluation Practice Continuum
15
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Evaluation Capacity Building Framework
Dual Concerns Model
Evaluation Context
Evaluation Logistics
Data Collection
Data Analysis
Dissemination of Evaluation Findings
One-Group Designs
One-Group Posttest-Only Design
Cross-Sectional Survey Design
Longitudinal Designs
Cohort Studies
One-Group Pretest–Posttest Design
Interrupted Time-Series Design
Internal Validity
History
Maturation
Testing
Instrumentation Error
Statistical Regression
Differential Selection of Evaluation Participants
Mortality
Reactive Effects of Research Participants
Interaction Effects
Relations between Experimental and Control Groups
Two-Group Designs
Comparison Group Pretest–Posttest Design
Comparison Group Posttest-Only Design
Classical Experimental Design
Randomized Posttest-Only Control Group Design
External Validity
Selection–Treatment Interaction
Specificity of Variables
Multiple-Treatment Interference
Researcher Bias
Summary
16
Basic Yearly Progress Timeline
Milestone Table
Gantt Chart
Shared Calendar
Strategy 4: Periodic Evaluation Progress Reports
Evaluation Progress Report
Evaluation Status Report
Data Source(S)
People
Existing Data
People or Existing Data?
Sampling Methods
Probability Sampling
Nonprobability Sampling
Collecting Data
Obtaining Existing Data
Obtaining New Data
Data Collection Plan
Summary
Why Measure?
Objectivity
Precision
17
Levels of Measurement
Nominal Measurement
Ordinal Measurement
Interval Measurement
Ratio Measurement
Describing Variables
Correspondence
Standardization
Quantification
Duplication
Criteria for Selecting a Measuring Instrument
Utility
Sensitivity to Small Changes
Reliability
Validity
Reliability and Validity Revisited
Measurement Errors
Constant Errors
Random Errors
Improving Validity and Reliability
Summary
Glossary
References
Credits
Index
18
19
Preface
The first edition of this book appeared on the scene over two decades ago. As with the previous six editions,
this one is also geared for graduate-level social work students—as their first introduction to evaluating social
service programs. We have selected and arranged its content so it can be mainly used in a social work program
evaluation course. Over the years, however, it has also been adopted in graduate-level management courses,
leadership courses, program design courses, program planning courses, social policy courses, and as a
supplementary text in research methods courses, in addition to field integration seminars. Ideally, students
should have completed their required foundational research methods course prior to this one.
Before we began writing this edition we asked ourselves one simple question: “What can realistically be
covered in a one-semester course?” You’re holding the answer to our question in your hands; that is, students
can easily get through the entire book in one semester.
GOAL
Our principal goal is to present only the core material that students realistically need to know in order for
them to appreciate and understand the role that evaluation has within professional social work practice. Thus
unnecessary material is avoided at all costs. To accomplish this goal, we strived to meet three highly
overlapping objectives:
1. To prepare students to cheerfully participate in evaluative activities within the programs that hire them
after they graduate.
2. To prepare students to become beginning critical producers and consumers of the professional evaluative
literature.
3. Most important, to prepare students to fully appreciate and understand how case- and program-level
evaluations will help them to increase their effectiveness as beginning social work practitioners.
CONCEPTUAL APPROACH
With our goal and three objectives in mind, our book presents a unique approach in describing the place of
evaluation in the social services. Over the years, little has changed in the way in which most evaluation
textbooks present their material. A majority of texts focus on program-level evaluation and describe project
types of approaches; that is, one-shot approaches implemented by specialized evaluation departments or
external consultants. On the other hand, a few recent books deal with case-level evaluation but place the most
emphasis on inferentially powerful—but difficult to implement—experimental and multiple baseline designs.
This book provides students with a sound conceptual understanding of how the ideas of evaluation can be used in
the delivery of social services.
20
We collectively have over 100 years of experience of doing case- and program-level evaluations within the
social services. Our experiences have convinced us that neither of these two distinct approaches adequately
reflects the realities in our profession or the needs of beginning practitioners. Thus we describe how data
obtained through case-level evaluations can be aggregated to provide timely and relevant data for program-
level evaluations. Such information, in turn, is the basis for a quality improvement process within the entire
organization. We’re convinced that this integration will play an increasingly prominent role in the future.
We have omitted more advanced methodological and statistical material such as a discussion of celeration
lines, autocorrelation, effect sizes, and two standard-deviation bands for case-level evaluations, as well as
advanced methodological and statistical techniques for program-level evaluations.
The integration of case- and program-level evaluation approaches is one of the unique features of this book.
Some readers with a strict methodological orientation may find that our approach is simplistic, particularly
the material on the aggregation of case-level data. We are aware of the limitations of the approach, but we
firmly believe that this approach is more likely to be implemented by beginning practitioners than are other
more complicated, technically demanding approaches. It’s our view that it’s preferable to have such data, even
if they are not methodologically “airtight,” than to have no aggregated data at all. In a nutshell, our approach
is realistic, practical, applied, and, most important, student-friendly.
THEME
We maintain that professional social work practice rests upon the foundation that a worker’s practice activities
must be directly relevant to obtaining the client’s practice objectives, which are linked to the program’s
objectives, which are linked to the program’s goal, which represents the reason why the program exists in the
first place. The evaluation process presented in our book heavily reflects these connections.
Pressures for accountability have never been greater. Organizations and practitioners of all types are
increasingly required to document the impacts of their services not only at the program level but at the case
level as well. Continually, they are challenged to improve the quality of their services, and they are required to
do this with scarce resources. In addition, few social service organizations can adequately maintain an internal
evaluation department or hire outside evaluators. Consequently, we place a considerable emphasis on
monitoring, an approach that can be easily incorporated into the ongoing activities of the social work
practitioners within their respective programs.
In short, we provide a straightforward view of evaluation while taking into account:
21
• The present evaluation needs of students as well as their needs in the first few years of their careers
Publishing a seventh edition may indicate that we have attracted loyal followers over the years. Conversely, it
also means that making major changes from one edition to the next can be hazardous to the book’s long-
standing appeal.
New content has been added to this edition in an effort to keep information current while retaining
material that has stood the test of time. With the guidance of many program evaluation instructors and
students alike, we have clarified material that needed further clarification, deleted material that needed
deletion, and simplified material that needed simplification.
Like all introductory program evaluation books, ours too had to include relevant and basic evaluation
content. Our problem here was not so much what content to include as what to leave out. We have done the
customary updating and rearranging of material in an effort to make our book more practical and “student
friendly” than ever before. We have incorporated suggestions by numerous reviewers and students over the
years while staying true to our main goal—providing students with a useful and practical evaluation book that
they actually understand and appreciate.
Let’s now turn to the specifics of “what’s new.”
22
Tool J. Effective Communication and Reporting
Tool K. Developing an Action Plan
• We have moved the Evaluation Toolkit to the end of the book (Part V).
• We have significantly increased the number of macro-practice examples throughout the chapters.
• We have expanded the book’s Glossary to over 620 terms.
• Study questions are included at the end of each chapter. The questions are in the order the content is
covered in the chapter. This makes it easy for the students to answer the questions.
• A student self-efficacy quiz is included at the end of each chapter. Instructors can use each student’s
score as one of the measurements for a behavioral practice objective that can be reported to the Council
on Social Work Education (2015).
Students are encouraged to take the chapter’s self-efficacy quiz before reading the chapter and after
they have read it. Taking the quiz before they read the chapter will prepare them for what to expect in
the chapter, which in turn will enhance their learning experience—kind of like one of the threats to
internal validly, initial measurement effects.
• We repeat important concepts throughout the book. Instructors who have taught program evaluation
courses for several years are acutely aware of the need to keep reemphasizing basic concepts throughout
the semester such as validity and reliability; constants and variables; randomization and random
assignment; internal and external validly; conceptualization and operationalization; theory of change
models and program logic models; case-level evaluations and program-level evaluations; accountability
and quality improvement; standardized and nonstandardized measuring instruments; confidentiality and
anonymity; data sources and data collection methods; internal and external evaluations; practice
activities, practice objectives, program objectives, and program goals; in addition to standards, ethics, and
cultural considerations.
Thus we have carefully tied together these major concepts not only within chapters but across chapters
as well. There’s deliberate repetition, as we strongly feel that the only way students can really understand
fundamental evaluation concepts is for them to come across the concepts throughout the entire semester
—via the chapters contained in this book. Readers will, therefore, observe our tendency to explain
evaluation concepts in several different ways throughout the entire text.
Now that we know “what’s new” in this edition, the next logical question is: “What’s the same?” First, we
didn’t delete any chapters that were contained in the previous one. In addition, the following also remains the
same:
• We discuss the application of evaluation methods in real-life social service programs rather than in
artificial settings.
• We heavily include human diversity content throughout all chapters in the book. Many of our examples
center on women and minorities, in recognition of the need for students to be knowledgeable of their
special needs and problems.
In addition, we have given special consideration to the application of evaluation methods to the study
23
of questions concerning these groups by devoting a full chapter to the topic (i.e., Chapter 6).
• We have written our book in a crisp style using direct language; that is, students will understand all the
words.
• Our book is easy to teach from and with.
• We have made an extraordinary effort to make this edition less expensive, more esthetically pleasing, and
much more useful to students than ever before.
• Abundant tables and figures provide visual representation of the concepts presented in our book.
• Numerous boxes are inserted throughout to complement and expand on the chapters; these boxes
present interesting evaluation examples; provide additional aids to student learning; and offer historical,
social, and political contexts of program evaluation.
• The book’s website is second to none when it comes to instructor resources.
PARTS
Before we even begin to discuss how to conduct evaluations in Part III, Part I includes a serious dose of how
evaluations help make our profession to become more accountable (Chapter 1) and how all types of
evaluations (Chapter 2) go through a common process that utilizes the program’s stakeholders right from the
get-go (Chapter 3). Part I then goes on to discuss how all types of evaluations are influenced by standards
(Chapter 4), ethics (Chapter 5), and culture (Chapter 6).
So before students begin to get into the real nitty-gritty of actually designing social service programs (Part
II) and implementing evaluations (Part III), they will fully understand the various contextual issues that all
evaluative efforts must address. Part I continues to be the hallmark of this book as it sets the basic foundation
that students need to appreciate before any kind of evaluation can take place.
Students are aware of the various contextual issues that are involved in all evaluations after reading Part I.
They then are ready to actually understand what social work programs are all about—the purpose of Part II.
This part contains two chapters that discuss how social work programs are organized (Chapter 7) and how
theory of change and program logic models are used not only to create new programs, to refine the delivery
services of existing ones, to guide practitioners in the development of practice and program objectives, but to
help in the formulation of evaluation questions as well (Chapter 8).
The chapters and parts were written to be independent of one another. They can be assigned out of the order they
are presented, or they can be selectively omitted.
We strongly believe that students need to know what a social work program is all about (Part II) before
they can evaluate it (Part III). How can they do a meaningful evaluation of a social work program if they don’t
know what it’s supposed to accomplish in the first place? In particular, our emphasis on the use of logic
models, not only to formulate social work programs but to evaluate them as well, is another highlight of the
24
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book.
After students know how social work programs are designed (Part II), in addition to being aware of the
contextual issues they have to address (Part I) in designing them, they are in an excellent position to evaluate
the programs.
The first chapter in Part III, Chapter 9, presents a comprehensive framework on preparing students to do
an evaluation before they actually do one; that is, students will do more meaningful evaluations if they are
prepared in advance to address the various issues that will arise when their evaluation actually gets underway—
and trust us, issues will arise.
When it comes to preparing students to do an evaluation, we have appropriated the British Army’s official
military adage of “the 7 Ps,” Proper Planning and Preparation Prevents Piss Poor Performance. Not
eloquently stated—but what the heck—it’s official so it must be right. Once students are armed with all their
“preparedness,” the following four chapters illustrate the four types of program evaluations they can do with all
of their “planning skills” enthusiastically in hand.
The remaining four chapters in Part III present how to do four basic types of evaluations in a step-by-step
approach. Chapter 10 describes how to do basic needs assessments and briefly presents how they are used in
the development of new social service programs as well as refining the services within existing ones. It
highlights the four types of social needs within the context of social problems.
Once a program is up and running, Chapter 11 presents how we can do a process evaluation within the
program in an effort to refine the services that clients receive and to maintain the program’s fidelity. It
highlights the purposes of process evaluations and places a great deal of emphasis on how to decide what
questions the evaluation will answer.
Chapter 12 provides the rationale for doing outcome evaluations within social service programs. It
highlights the need for developing a solid monitoring system for the evaluation process.
Once an outcome evaluation is done, programs can use efficiency evaluations to monitor their cost-
effectiveness/benefits—the topic of Chapter 13. This chapter highlights the cost-benefit approach to
efficiency evaluation and also describes the cost-effectiveness approach.
In sum, Part III clearly acknowledges that there are many forms that evaluations can take and presents four
of the most common ones. Note that the four types of evaluation discussed in our book are linked in an
ordered sequence as outlined in the following figure.
25
Part IV: Making Decisions with Data
After an evaluation is completed (Part III), decisions need to be made from the data collected—the purpose of
Part IV. This part contains two chapters; the first describes how to develop a data information system
(Chapter 14), and the second (Chapter 15) describes how to make decisions from the data that have been
collected with the data information system discussed in the previous chapter.
Part V presents an Evaluation Toolkit that contains 13 basic “research methodology– type tools,” if you will,
that were probably covered in the students’ foundational research methods courses. The tools are nothing
more than very brief “cheat sheets” that create a bridge between Part III (four basic types of evaluations) and
Part IV (how to make decisions with data). So in reality, the tools briefly present basic research methodology
that students will need in order for them to appreciate the entire evaluation process.
For example, let’s say an instructor requires students to write a term paper that discusses how to do a
hypothetical outcome evaluation of their field placement (or work) setting. This of course, assumes they are
26
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II
Torpparia peloitti niin että hän tutisi, mutta hänen sielussaan oli
syttynyt kiihkeä himo päästä jotenkin saamaan sitä, jota ilman hän
koko elämänsä oli ollut, nimittäin rahaa, ja se himo sai hänet
voittamaan pelkonsa. Hän lähti hiipimään kirkkoa kohti ja oli jo
ovella, kun vieras ilmestyi hänen rinnalleen ja kahahti korvaan: "Jätä
viikate pois!" Torppari kääntyi säikähtäen ja kun viikatteen terä silloin
kilahti kirkon oveen, lensi se pois hänen olaltaan kuin salaman
viemänä. Torppari typertyi paikalleen säikähdyksestä, mutta selvisi
hetken perästä ja kosketti neuvon mukaan kirkon ovea saamallaan
rahalla. Ovi aukenikin aivan äänettömästi ja hän meni takaperin
sisään.
Kun hän sitten astui kotipirttiinsä, tuntui hänestä kuin olisi vuosia
kulunut siitä, kun hän sieltä lähti; hän ymmärsi myöskin, ettei hän
enää ollut sama mies kuin ennen. Jokin outo voima oli saanut hänet
valtaansa, istuttaen hänen sydämeensä sekä koston- että
rahanhimon, joka oli kokonaan muuttanut hänet. Hän tunsi, että
entinen huoleton onnellisuus ja iloisuus oli kadonnut, eikä voinut
katsoa vaimoaan silmiin. Vaitiollen hän laskeutui makuulle ja hänen
vaimonsa iltarukous tuntui hänestä joutavalta ja ilkeältä, mutta ei hän
sentään kehdannut mitään sanoa. Pian hän vaipui raskaaseen
uneen. Oli aivan pilkkoisen pimeä yö, myrsky raivosi, sade valui
virtana, ja silloin tällöin salama kaameasti valaisi tupaa sinertävällä,
väräjävällä valolla.
Kissalla oli pimeässä oma valonsa, niin että torppari näki hyvin sitä
seurata. Väliin sen silmät loistivat kuin lyhdyt ja väliin se hehkui koko
karvaltaan kuin tulipallo. Mutta kun torppari tuijotti siihen
tuijottamistaan, muuttikin se hänen silmissään muotoansa. Väliin se
mateli kuin pitkä ja loistava käärme nopeasti sammalikossa, väliin
taas käveli keinuen keveästi kuin nuori, ihana tyttö, katsahdellen
veikeästi taaksensa ja viittaillen hänelle suloisesti. Torpparin sydäntä
rupesi oudosti polttamaan, eikä hän voinut riistää katsettaan tuosta
näystä. Niin kuljettiin, mutta minne ja kuinka kauas, sitä ei torppari
voinut sanoa. Seutu oli synkkääkin synkempää, tuuli kohisi
tummassa kuusikossa, sade virtasi, salamat leimahtelivat tuon
tuostakin, ja metsästä kuului kammottavia, kirahtelevia ja valittavia
ääniä.
Vihdoin tytöksi muuttunut kissa pysähtyi korkean ja sammaleisen
kiven juurelle ja sanoi hänelle viehkeällä äänellä: "Niitä tästä
viikatteellasi!" Torppari teki kuten käskettiin, mutta jo ensi iskulla
lensikin koko multakerros syrjään ja maasta paljastui kammottavan
näköinen ruumis. Kun torppari kauhistuneena kumartui lähemmin
sitä katsomaan, oli sen kallossa ammottava reikä. "Niin", kuuli hän
tytön kuiskaavan, "se on voudin murhaaman ja ryöväämän miehen
ruumis. Ota nyt konttisi täyteen multaa tuosta pään vierestä, johon
veri on juossut". Taas torppari totteli, ammensi konttinsa täyteen
tuota kalmanmultaa ja kysyi: "Mitä minä tällä teen?" — "Vie kotiisi,
pane talteen ja katso aamulla", vastasi tyttö, "mutta seuraa sitä
ennen vielä minua". Ja torpparin täytyi seurata.
IV