Industrial Revolution

Context
• The Industrialization of Europe, occurred between 1780 and 1914,
starting in Britain.

• The Industrial revolution refers to structural changes in the

economies of certain European countries in this period, which were
as follows-
• A reduction in the contribution of the agrarian sector to the economy and an
increase in industrial and commercial sector’s contribution
• Discovery and use of new sources of power which revolutionized production,
• A subsequent shift to manufacturing on a large scale-in factories,
• Technological innovations and new types of investment.
 The Third phase
The First phase (late1890s-
(1780s-1820s) 1914)
• Britain • Japan

The Second
phase (1840-
1870)
• France
• German States
• U.S.A.
 General Causes of Industrial Revolution
• Prior to the mid-18th century all European economies were marked by a
large agrarian sector and craft manufacturing carried out by manual
household labour, within the house, for local or regional markets.

What Changed?

• Europe witnessed a population explosion from the 18th century peaking in

the mid 19th century. Between 1800 and 1850 Europe’s population
increased by 43%, with greatest increase in industrializing regions.

• Introduction of new agricultural methods and expansion of the agrarian

base, to sustain the increase in population contributed to industrialization.
• Remarkable technological changes and improvement in transport-
which included the development of railroads and steam ships
contributed to industrialization

• Europe’s dominance in world trade led to acquisition of cheap raw

material and capital from colonies and development of markets
across Asia, Africa and South America for European manufactures.

• Presence of raw materials recourses in Europe also facilitated

Industrial revolution. Large coal deposits were found in Britain,
Belgium, northern France and Germany.
 Why Britain
I. Agricultural Revolution (mid 17th century – 19th century)
• Increased production
• Better Labour productivity
• Raw materials for industries

Reason

• Enclosure Movement- Enclosure of Public Land by Upper Strata-

Population expansion but agriculture cannot absorb.

• Invention of Agricultural tools- Horse drawn Seed Drill - plant 3

rows of seeds at a time

• Rotherham Plough - cut labour costs and saved time by

requiring only one man and 2 horses.
Geographical advantages
• Long Coastline
• Navigable rivers
• Colonial Markets and
• Availability of Coal and Iron
Colonies

• Political stability
• Parliamentary System • Banking System and Commercial
• Constitutional Monarchy Development
English Protestants
• Anglican Nation
• Minimal intervention
• Cosmopolitan

• Growth in domestic markets due to population rise and growth in

international markets due to increasing international trade both of which
stimulated manufacturing of goods
 Inventions

• 1733:Flying Shuttle-John Kay

• 1765:Spinning Jenny-James Hargreaves
• 1769:Water Frame-Richard Arkwright
(stronger thread-pure cotton fabrics could
be woven rather than fabrics that combined
linen + cotton yarn)
• 1779:Mule-Samuel Crompton (strong +
fine yarn)
• 1787:Power loom-Edmund Cartwright
• 1794:Cotton Gin-Ely Whitney
• 1844:Sewing Machine-Elias Howe
 Power Loom

Samuel Crompton’s Spinning Mule-1779 Edmund Cartwright’s Power

loom-1787

Ely Whitney’s Cotton Gin-1794

Elias Howe’s Sewing Machine-1844

 The Process

Britain was unique, as its

Enclosure Acts passed in Consolidation led to
guilds which protected
Britain which called for increase in agrarian
artisans disappeared by
consolidation of production to feed the
the 18th century. Guilds
agricultural land into growing population as
inhibited introduction of
large farms, with capital well as created a large
new technology and
intensive farming began population of jobless
workers, this factor
much earlier in Britain farmers who were
eliminated, employers
than anywhere else. looking for work.
were free to experiment.
 The Process

Fourthly British government

aided economic change as its
laws favoured British Finally Britain’s good coastline
Britain’s leading role manufacturers with protective and navigable rivers as well as
intercontinental trade and its tariffs on goods imported into rich mineral deposits of coal and
colonies provided capital, cheap Britain (18th century) and iron ore near rivers made all
raw materials and markets for encouraging banking, it banned provided ideal conditions for the
British industry. workers unions, it made it easier first industrial revolution to occur
to found companies, passed in Britain.
Enclosure Laws and improved
transportation networks.
 First Phase: Cotton Revolution
• Britain’s industrial revolution began around the 1760-1770s and it was led by the cotton
industry.

• Cotton was the first sector to industrialize as, firstly cotton fibre was easier to mechanize that
wool and linen (the traditional textiles produced in Britain)

• Secondly cotton had a large market in Asia, especially India, a British colony, it also had a
growing domestic market in Europe as it was a novel cloth and could be coloured brightly.

• Thirdly raw cotton could to imported at low rates into Britain from its colonies in India and
America

• Finally British workers were open to training from scratch in cotton production as it was a new
textile industry.
 Phase II
• The second sector after cotton textiles which began to mechanize and increase
output rapidly was the metallurgy and mining sector.

• Rise of Iron Industries- From producing just 25,000 tons of pig iron in 1720, the
industry grew to produce 2,50,000 tons by 1804 and 4 million tons by 1860.

• Growth in the Iron Industry stimulated two other major sectors-(i) Coal mining
and (ii) Machine Building.

• Coal mining surged, providing fuel for smelting iron and steam engines. Coal
production increased from 24 million tons in 1830, to 110 million tons by
1870(half the worlds production). Mining also caused advances in
transportation, as metal rails were laid to haul coal out of mine faster by
animal/human power
 Impact
Factory System of production
• Mass production – cheaper goods – Better quality of life for the middle class
• Boost to Internal and International trade
• Need to raise more money as debt – Stock exchange, banks, financing agencies

Social impact
• Division of society in two classes – Capitalist class and Working class (Proletariat)
• Factory towns as new urban centers (Leeds, Manchester, Lancashire etc)
• Rural to Urban migration - Urban Slums
• Dislocation of Old Family ties
• Exploitation of working class – Long working hours, inhuman conditions, Child
labour
The Second Phase (1840-1870)
 France
• In 1815 the French economy was in shambles after the Napoleonic Wars, as its
rich colonial and Mediterranean trade was disrupted by a British blockade, it
was cut off from British industrial technology and its agriculture was disrupted.
Phase I
Thus the French developed a unique model which differed from Britain model,
and was marked by three main feature:
• Economic growth was brought about by small scale agriculture and traditional
style labour intensive manufacturing rather than through agrarian
consolidation and at factories as in Britain.
• Slow Population growth subsequently and low demand-French population
increased by only 30% between 1880-1850 as compared to Britain where
population doubled now. By 1880s population growth stagnated in France.
• An active role played by the State in the French economy, as
opposed to Britain where a policy of free trade.

• France unlike Britain and Germany didn’t witness a mass rural

exodus.

• Yet this large agrarian population was not solely dependent on

agriculture and drew supplementary incomes from rural production-
spinning flax or smelting iron, traditional rights and temporary
migration to cities from the highlands as domestic servants, coal
sweepers, bar keepers.
 Phase II
• Yet despite this dominance of traditional methods France did experience industrialization.

• France focused on coal mining and iron industry-coal output increased thirteen fold between
1820-1870 while iron production sextupled.

• The French government bribed British entrepreneurs to set up modern metallurgical factories in
France.

• French businesses hired British skilled workers to train their work force- thus in 1830 there were
15,000 British workers in French metallurgical and textile plants.

• Textile industry too mechanized with new inventions like the mechanical loom and jacquard loom
being introduced.

• Railways was another very important sector that the government focused on from the 1840s.
 Unique Features
• Protectionist policies-protection of French manufacturers through
imposing tariffs, quotas and prohibitions on foreign imports.

• Through subsidies, it assisted businesses- canals, railways, gas,

sailing ships were all subsidized to protect indigenous industries
from cheaper foreign manufactures

• Through actively funding and building infrastructure- like road

networks by 1880, waterways till 1840s, railways between 1830-
80.
 Germany
• Germany was not politically unified, its customs union or zolverin created
a united market quite late in 1830, guilds and serfdom were abolished
late and absence of tariff protection for textiles hampered early industrial
growth.

• Germany initially had to smuggle, skilled workers and technology from

Britain yet by the 1840s its industrialization had begun, and real growth
appeared between 1850-70(economy grew at 2.5% p.a.).

• This was growth was due to the industrial sector that focused on heavy
industries especially- railways, production of coal, iron and steel.
• Nations that industrialized after Britain, had to develop a different emphasis, to compete with
industrialized nations and Germany did this successfully, as it developed larger and more
technologically advanced industrial concerns than Britain, due to its ‘latecomer’ advantage.

• Coal and iron and steel were the leading sectors.

• Coal mining output doubled in 1830s alone and expanded seven fold between 1840-70, as
deep mines were sunk in the Ruhr valley.

• In the 1870s Germany acquired France’s coal rich regions- Alsace and Lorraine. Coal was used
to produce steam power and coke to smelt iron.

• Iron and steel industry flourished from 1850s onward, causing advances in engineering as
pressed steel, metal pipers, boilers and factory machines were produced.
 Unique Features
• Fastest industrial growth and focused mainly on the heavy industries unlike Britain and France. This
was because of its large raw material-coal and iron deposits, unlike in France.

• Active role of the State in German, even though it was less than the role of the state in France but
greater than in Britain.

• Finally development of banking and commerce was another unique feature- joint stock companies
raised public capital, important joint stock banks- Deustche bank, Dresdner, Dramstadter all
channelled savings into domestic industry.

• From the 1870s banks and industry developed close ties and this was the hallmark of German
industrial capitalism.

• The agrarian sector and traditional manufacture still played an important role, which was lesser than
in France but greater than in Britain. 49% of labour still worked in Agri sector and 30% in industry.
 America
• Advantages – Natural resources, Transport, Cheap labour (African Slaves),
American society
By 1914 foremost Industrial power
• Napoleonic wars – Cut off supply of machines

• Challenges/Obstacles – North – South Divide – American Civil war

• Industrial growth after end of American Civil War

• Concentration of Business into few corporates and individuals – J D Rockfeller

(Oil), Cornelis Vanderbilt (Rail Roads), J P Morgan (Finance), Andrew Carnegie
(Steel)
Third Phase (late1890s-1914)
 Only Industrial power in Asia Japan
• Political stability from 1868 Meiji Restoration Actively tried to
industrialize after 1900
Power was restored in the office of Emperor and Shoguns were removed

• Scarce natural resource, limited land for agriculture – Import of raw

materials Town

• Till 1870s – External trade under Foreign domination

Plant
• Later technology centric industrial growth
• Rise of business conglomerates (Zaibatsu) – Mitsui, Mitsubishi, Yasuda
• Reverse engineering – Improvisation and invention
• Japanese state – Promotion of technical education Efficient Machines
• Japanese Work Ethic – Discipline, Work as religion, Integrity
 General Impact of Industrial Revolutions

• Importance of Colonies and Colonial Exploitation

• State and Industrialist Nexus

Wars became Bloodier

• Capital Formation and Revolutionization of Military Technology

• Social Differentiation
Weapons of mass destruction

• Concept of Industrial Time

• Destitution

• Nuclear Families and Family Labour

• Gendered Impact- Women in Public and Private

• Poverty- Have and Have Nots- Inequality

• Changing Dietary Habits

• Context for Rise of New Ideologies of Marxism and Socialism

Summary
Summary
Summary