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yt De Mente takes the 'inscrutable'
out of japan,"-BOOKLIST
How to express 1,000

different ideas with just
100 key words and phrases!
IRevised Edition I
TUTTLE PUBLISHING
Boston ' Rutland, V~rmont • Tok~'o
by Boye Lafayette De Mente
www.tuttlcpubli~hing.com
Printw in C.ln~~
Published by Tuttle Publishing, an imprint of Periplus Editions
with editorial offices at 153 Milk Street, Boston. MA 02109 and Contents
130 Joo Seng Road 106-01103, Singapore 368357
Copyright C 1993 by Charles E. Tuttle Publishing Co., Inc. Preface 4

Copyright C 2003 Periplus Editions (HIQ ltd. Writing Japanese 5
All rights reserved. How to Pronounce Japanese words 6
lCC Card Number: 93-60054 Kana and Pronunciation Chart 7
ISBN 0-8048-3366-4
PART 1: Words 1-10 11
Printed in Canada Developing Verbal Skill 13
Distributed by: Double Consonants 17
Japan PART 3: Words 21-30 19

Tuttle Publishing More Notes on Pronouncing Japanese 22
Yaekari Building 3F
5-4-12 Osaki, Shinagawa-ku PART 4: Words 31-40 24
Tokyo 141 -0032, Japan Those Kanji Characters! 32
Tel : (03) 5437 0171 Fax: (03) 5437 0755
Email: tuttle-salesOgol.com PART 5: Words 41-50 33
North America, Latin America & Europe Writing Japanese "English" 40
Tuttle Publishing
364 Innovation Drive PART 6: Words 51-60 42
North Clarendon, VT 05759-9436, USA Dealing with Japanized English 51
Tel: (802) 773 8930 Fax: (802) 773 6993
Email: infoOtuttlepublishing.com PART 7: Words 61-70 52
www.tuttlepublishing.com Levels of Politeness in Japanese 59
Asia Pacific
Berkeley Books Pte ltd
130 Joo Seng Road, 06-01 /03
, Japanese Dialects 70
Singapore 368357 1 PART 9: Words 81-90 71

Tel: (65) 6280 1330 Fax: (65) 6280 6290 Giving Up on Japanese! 75
~
Email: inquiriesOperiplus.com .sg
www.periplus.com PART 10: Words 91-100 77
Special Set Phrases 80
08 0706 05
876543 j Common Everyday Expressions
Additional Vocabulary
83
84
1
i
1
Preface Writing Japanese
A lillie language goes a long way! There are four different ways of writing the Japanese language
It is a well -established fact that most people of average - although one of them is generally limited to foreign words
intelligence and education use a vocabulary of only five or six written phonetically so they can be prono unced easily. These
hundred words in going about their daily lives. The reason for four ways are:
this is that it is possible to express a variety of thoughts by using
various fonns of a single word. Each additionaJ word exponen- 1. Kanji UJ\}v 1,;) o r logograms (origin all y imported from
tially increases the number of thoughts one can express. Ano- Ch ina), which are used togethe r with a pho netic script called
ther obvious reason why a limited vocabulary is enough to get hiragana <V 60 f./1tJ:)o This is the standard and most common
most people through a day is because they are primarily way of writing Japanese.
involved in basic situations that are repeated day after day.
The Japanese lang uage is especially flexible because there 2. Hiragana < D 60 f./t tJ:) is a phoneti c script that is used
are so many "set" expressions found in common , everyday situ- (together with ka nj i) for verb endings, prepositions, etc. In
ations. One can, for example, express over len complete texts wri tten for children it is commOn to use only hiragana ,
thoughts by using the different fonns of a single Japanese verb. because that is what they first learn to read.
Mastering just ten verbs and their fomls therefore makes it pos-
sible to say over one hundred things. 3. Katakana (tJ ~ tJ T) This is another phonetic script, and
This handy guide is designed to show how a very small is primarily reserved for tran sc ribing fo reign words into
vocabulary is enough to quickly and fluently communicate over Japanese sy llables. For exampl e, the Japanese word for
1,<X>O ideas in Japanese. And because Japanese can be easily "hote l" is hoteru (*T)("~ and is always written in katakana
rendered into English phonetics, virtually all problems with pro- script.
nunciation can be eliminated. With the exceptio n of the vowe ls a , i , D, e and 0 and the
[IJSUlnI Japanese contains a phoneticized pronunciation consonant n , all hiragana and katakana consist o f a conso-
guide and all the key words and ex pressions you need to cover nant-vowel combination.
most of the personal situations you are likely to encounter dur-
ing a visit to Japan . 4. Romaji (0 - ? 1,;), o r " Roman lette rs," was o rig inall y
used by and for the benefit of foreigners who could not read
kanji or hiragana. It is now co mmo nl y used on signs all
over Japan- us ually in conjunction with kanji, hiraga na , or
both . The reading and writing of Romanized Japanese
• (Romaji) is not taught as a regular co urse in public school s,
4 Writing Japanese 5
so only those who slUdy privately develop skill in reading it. Kana and Pronunciation Chart
Romaji is, however, commonly used on a variety of school
materials, advertising, shop signs and so on, though some·
times, it seems, just for exotic effect. This chart contains all of the syllables that make up the
sounds in the Japanese language, along with their hiraga na
in this book, all Japanese words and expressions are present· and katakana equivalents.
ed in Romaji as well as in hiraga na or katakana. For cor·
A U E 0
rect pronunciation, refer to the explanations and the chart on
the following pages. if> (7) ,,(..,. ) 01(07) X(I) tl(~)
KA KI KU KE KO
IJ'(;IJ) >!( ~ ) «:7) 'H'r) ;:(::1)
How to Pronounce Japanese
SA SHI SU SE SO
The Japanese language is very easy to pronounce. It is made up <'! (<7) [.. ( "') TC;<') tt (t) ~('.I)
of precise syllables that are based on just five vowel sounds: a (as
TA CHI TSU TE TO
in "ah"), i (as in "free"), u (as in "boo"), e (as in "met"), and 0 ::>(.y) <: ( 7') I: (1-)
" ( 9) "' (7')
(as in "so", only shorter).
When consonant sounds are added to these vowel sounds, NA NI NU NE NO
syllables are created which follow the same sound pattern: f~ (1-) 1:(=) 0(;> un t.l(*) (1)(/)
ka (I),) . ki (~). ku (O. ke Ot), ko ( ;: ) ,andsa (In,
shi ([..) , su (T ), se ( tt ). so (~) ,andsoforth. HA HI FU HE HO
11(1\) 1.'(1::) .s-(7) ,,( .1\,) "1'( *)
in Japanese, the H and G sounds are always pronounced
as in "how" and "go." There are no true L or V sounds in MA MI MU ME MO
Japanese; thus they do not appear in the list of syllables. When £( ? ) J;(,,) (!(.l.) IOU) t>('E)
the Japanese attempt to pronounce these sounds in English
words, the L comes Oul as R and the V comes out as B. YA YU YO
'I"(-v) 1<1>( ::1. ) .1:(3)
All you have to do to pronounce these syllables (and the
words Ihey make up) correctly, is to voice them according to
RA RI RU RE RO
the phonetics taught in this book. When you pronounce the G(:;) ~ ('J) >"(M tl ( v ) O',(D)
Japanese words and phrases phonetically, the sounds come
out "in Japanese." WA (W)O
b ('7) ~
6 How to Pronounce Japanese Words 7

GA GI GU GE GO HYA HYU HYO
ti' un ~( "' ) «if) If (7') ;:'(:1) D"I'>( t 1') DI¢J ( t ;J.) DJ:( t 3)
ZA JI ZU ZE ZO MYA MYU MYO

~(-tf) [; (;) 9'CO tf (1:) :f ('/) .7;>"1'> (" -\,) .7;>(";J.) .7;>J:("3)
DA JI ZU DE DO RYA RYU RYO

15(7") -;1(,:/) "('(7') I:'(~) IJ"I'>(')-\') IJI¢J( I);J.) IJ J: ( I) 3)
t,,-(;/)
(Ro ll the R a bit)
8A 81 8U 810 80 GYA GYU GYO
It (1\) tJ ( 1::) "\~(:1) «(<<) 1£ (;j()
~"I'>( "' -\,) ~I<»("';J.) ~J:( "' 3 )
PA PI PU PE PO JA JU JO
It (I~) tJ(t:') ..\;(:1) « ( << ) 1£ (;j() [;"I'>(;)-\') [;I¢J(;);J.) [;J: (;)3)
The R sound in Japanese is close to the L sound in 8YA 8YU 8YO

Eng lish , requiring a slight trilling sound to get it right. It tJ"I'>( t:' -\, ) tJl<» ( I::;J.) tJJ: (1:: 3 )
resembles the R sound in Spanish.
The following syllables are combinations of some of PYA PYU PYO
tJ"I'>(t:'-\,) tJtl>(t:' ;J.) tJJ:(t:'3)
those appearing above. The two primary syllables are com-
bined into one simply by merging the pronunciations. N
Pronounce the Y here as you do in the word "yes." Iv (;,,)
KYA KYU KYO Keep in mind that the sound s in the chart above are to
~"I'>( 'f- -\,) ~1¢J( 'f- ;J.) ~J:( 'f- 3)
be pronounced as on e syllable , not two . Native Engli sh
SHA SHU SHO speakers ohen find rya I) ~. ryu f) loP. and ryo 1:J.t the
(.,"1'>(",-\,) (.,I¢J("';J.) (.,J:{"'3) hardest to pronounce as one syllable. Try asking a native
speaker to say them for you so you can hear how they
CHA CHU CHO should sound.
<;"I'>(f--\') <;1¢J(f-;J.) <;J:(f-3) There are long , short , and silent vowe ls in Japanese. as
well as double con sonants. Long vowels are shown in
NYA NYU NYO
I: I<» ('::;J. ) I:J: ( '::3) Romaji (that is, the We stern alphabet) by a macron (a little
1: "1'>('::-\' )
mark above the letter a means a doubled aa sound). In hira-
8 Kana and Pronunciation Chart 9

gaDa, they are represented by a following vowel (for a that is PART 1
always an extra i, for e and i another i, and for the others usu-
ally an u), while in katakana the sound is simply extended Words 1-10
by a small bar: - .
Examples: 1 ohayo gozaimasu (olr-hai-yoe go-zai-mahss)

sabisu -tt - ~ A (service) good morning t;J1J:? ;:"~"£"t
oishii ;t.)t,\I,...t,\ (delicious) Unlike the English " Good morning", which can be used
kiiko <?~? (airport) right up until lunchtime, ohayo gozaimasu is nonnally
eiga ~t,ltJt (movie) only said when you meet someone first thing in the
morning, up until about II a.m ..
To get the most out of this guide , first practice pronounc-
ing the syllables--out loud- until you can enunciate each 2 konnichi wa (kone-nee-chee wah)
one easily without having to think about it. Before long you good afternoon :: Iv I: " 11
will be able to recognize individual syllables in the Japanese
Note thai the wa (wah) .1, when it stands alone, is pro-
words you hear. nounced wa. See p. 16 for an explanation of the gram-
Then go to the key-word and key-phrase portion of the
matical particle wa.
book and practice pronouncing each word and sentence, repeat-
ing the words and sentences aloud until you can get them out in
3 konban wa (kome·bahn wah)
a smooth flow. good evening :: Ivlt Iv 11
You ' ll be happy to find that you can communicate in
Japanese instantly- simply by following the pronunciation
4 domo arigato (doe-moe ah-ree-gah-toe)
instructions consistently.
thank you very much I!.? t> if> ~ fl' I: ?
5 sumimasen (sue-me-mah-sen)
pardon me, excuse me, I am sorry, thank you.
"t.;;. £ tt lv
Because of its variety of meanings, sumimasen is an
extremely useful word. Use it liberally. It is often short-
ened to simasen.
10 Kana and Pronunciation Chart 11

6 dozo (doe-zoe) 10 watakushi (wah-tock-she)
please I'. 'J-T! I (formal) b ~ < L-
This is one of the many words that means "please" in Walakushi can be used by both men and women in for-
Japanese. Dozo is used in the sense of "please go first ," mal as well as informal situations.
"please continue," or "after you."
7 kudasai (koo-dah-sai)
Developing Verbal Skill
please <t!.. ~ 1, \
This word for "please give me" is almost never used by In order to develop verbal fluency in Japanese, it is necessary
itself. Rather, it normally follows the command form of to train the mouth as well as the mind. Simply memorizing
verbs as in tabete kudasai (loh-bay-tay koo-doh-sai) words and sentences on a page is obviously nOI enough. You
~ '"'l. < t!. ~ t,. l , "please eat," or noode kudasai (noall- must be able to say the words or sentences clearly enough
d(IY koo-dah-sai) q) fv"1'! <t! ~ !') , "please drink." It is that they can be understood.
also used with nouns to convey the meaning of "please," This means that you must physically train your mouth
as in "please bring me water" or "please hand me that." and tongue to say the foreign words properly-to gel them
out in a smooth, even flow. In other words, language learning
8 mizu (me-zoo) (if you wish to speak the language) must be approached as a
water h~ physical skill, like juggling, playing the guitar, or singing.
For example, pronunciation of the Japanese word do
- Please give me (a glass of) water. h 1'" ~ <t:.t! Ir \ c
itashimashite (doe-ee-tah-she-mahssh-Iay) oj !,. \~ L, ~ L,
Mizu 0 kudasai. (me-zoo all koo-doh-sai)
L or "don't mention it," requires seven different tongue and
o (oh) ~ is a grammatical particle used to indicate that mouth positions. The on ly way you can master this phrase is
the preceding word is the direct object of the action- in to say it over and over again, preferably oul loud, because this
this examp le, water. There are no indefinite or definite
increases confidence in your ability to say it and trains your
articles (a, the) in Japanese, and only a few plural fonns.
hearing at the same time.
The key to learning how to speak Japanese is to speak it
9 watashi (wah-tah-she)
repeatedly-not just read it or read about it-until it comes
I b~L-
out automatically, without you having to work too hard.
There are several commonly used terms in Japanese for
Repeating words and sentences out loud, kurikaeshi
the word "I," based on gender and other factors, but
kurikaeshi (koo-ree-kai-eh-she koo-ree-kai-eh-she) < IJ tJ,,,-
watashi (wah-tah-she) b ~ t.., is common and can be
J., < IJ tJ\ "- J.,-"over and over again"-is the key to devel-
used by anyone in any situation.
oping verbal skill in any language.
12 13
PART 2 15 de wa arimasen (day wah ah-ree-mah-sen)
am not, is not, are not -r ,t itJ rJ ~ it Iv
Words 11-20 Pla in fonns of thi s incl ude de wa nai (day wah nai) -r
It t.J.lt\ andjanai (jahflai) t;~ t.J.It\.
11 watashi ni (wah-tah-she nee) 16 deshita (desh-tah)

to me b"- L.I: was, were -r L 1'::
Ni (nee) I;: is a grammati ca l particle thai can indicate
The plain form of this is datta (doh-tah) t.'.? "-.
that the preceding word is the indirect object of the
action. In thi s instance ni changes " I" to " me" as in " to
me" or " for me,"
17 de wa arimasen deshita
(day wah ah-ree-mah-sen desh-tah)
12 watashi no (wah-tall-she no) was not, were not. --r 1;1 ~ rJ ~ it Iv --r L 1'::
my, mine b t.; L- 0) Plain fonn s of thi s include de wa nakatta (day wah
No (no) (]) is a grammatical particl e that can change "ah-kaht-tah) -r 1;1 t~ iJ> ? "- and ja nakalta (jah
what precedes it to the possessive case. In thi s example, nah-kaht-tah ) t; {> t.J. 'IF? 1'::.
adding no to watashi changes " I" to "my" or " mine,"
18 namae (na h-my)
13 watashi-tachi / watashi-tachi no name fJ:*A
(wah·tah·she·tah-chee / wah-tah-she-Iah-chee 110)
we / our,ours b"-L."-t; / b"-L.fot; (]) - My name is Boye De Mente.
Addi ng -tachi (-tah -chee) 1!. ~ to personal pronouns b"-L. (]) ~~~ ~ #~~~~~ -rT.
(" ' ," "you," "she" etc.) makes them plural. Watashi no namae wa Boy~ De Mente desu.
(wah-tall-she no nah -my wah Boye De Mente dess)
14 desu (dess) Wa (wall) 11 is a grammatical particle used to indicate
am, is, are 1:."1"" that the preceding word or words are the topic in a sen-
Desu (dess) 1:."T is a poli te word without meaning. but tence.
can be thought of as functio ning like the verb "to be" in
English. Neither desu nor any of its forms (see foll ow- - My name is not Smith.
ing page) are used by them selves, but they are as essen- b"-L. (]) t~~~ 1;1 A'3.A -r 1;1 if., Q~1tIv.
tial for making correct, complete sentences in Japanese Watashi no namae wa Sumisu de wa arimasen.
as the English " I am," "you are," " he is," and so fo nh. (wall-tall-sh e no nah -my wah sue-me-sue day wah ah-
The plain form of desu is da (da h) t.'.. ree-mah-sen)
14 15
17nan I nani (nalln/nalln-nee) - We are British.
what t~lv/t~l: bt.:.l.,t.:.t. I~ -(""J;>; t;1v -r-;.
Watashi-tachi wa Igirisu-jin desu.
(wah-tah-she-tah-chee wah ee-gee-ree-soo-jeen dess)
18 anat a I anata no (ah-nah-tall / ah-na/Hah no)
you / your, yours ~t~t.:. /~t~t.:. (/) - Iameanadian. bt.:.l., I~ :iJT1Yt;1v -r-;.
The word a nata (ah-nah-tah) it) t.;.."k is normally best Watashi wa Kanada-jin desu.
avoided, since it can convey inappropriate familiarity. (wah-tah-she wah kah-nah-dah-jeen dess)
Where possible, address people by their name, or drop
the word for "you" entirely (see examples 20 and 21). - We are Australian.
Another option is for you to use the honorific prefix 0 -.
bt.:.l.,t.:.t. ~ ~-A~'Y7t;1v -r-;.
Watashi-lachi wa 0sutoraria-ji n desu.
For example: (wah-tah-she-tah-chee oh-slle-toe-rah-ree-ah-jeen dess)
- What is your name? t3t.;.. £:;t let t.;..1v 1:.'1' 'IJ\.

O-namae wa nan desu ka?· (oh nah-my wah nahn dess kah) Double Consonants
Ka (kah) 'IJ\ at the end of a sentence makes it a question. Many words in Japanese have double consonants that begin-
ning speakers mispronounce. This can result in language that
19 Amerika-jin (ah-may-ree-kah-jeen) sounds like gibberish or something entirely different from
an American person or American people 7 j. I) j]!;A, what is intended. There is an easy way to overcome lhis prob-
lem because Japanese is a language made up of precise sy lla-
- I am American. bles. The doub le consonant is represented in hiragana by a
bt.:.l., I~ 7 j. 'J :iJ t; Iv -r-;. smaller-sized tsu (r'sue) -::>, which is not pronounced, but
Watashi wa Amerika-j in desu. which occupies a period of time (a "beat") equivalent to (hat
(wah-tall-she wah ah-may-ree-knh-jeen dess) of the other hi ragana.
All you have to do is mentally divide the sounds of such
20 Nihon-j in (nee-hone-jeen) words into their phonetic equivalents (as all Japanese words
a Japanese person or people I:: lilA, r.; Iv are in this book), and account for the double consonant
sounds by allowing for an extra "beat" for the small tsu. Try
Are you Japanese? pronouncing the fol lowing examples. To pronounce these
1:1~1vt;1v -r-; tJ' . words correctly, just say each of the individual phonetic sylla-
Nihon-jin desu ka? bles fully and clearly. You will hear a very slight pause before
(nee-hone-jeen dess knh) the doub le consonants, similar to the sound in the English
word '"bookkeeper."
'6 17
kekko (keck-ko) PART 3
fine, alright It ? ::?
Words 21-30
matte kudasai (maht-tay koo-dah-sai)
please wait *- '? "( <t= ~ to \ 21 donata / donata no (doe-nah-tah / doe-nah-rah no)
who / whose ~ct.. / ct..
to (J)
itte kudasai (eeHay koo-doh-sai)
pleasego !,o\ ? "( <t:.~t.\ Whoareyou? cfJ..~ -r1"" '!J\ .
Donata desu ka? (doe-nah-tah dess kah)
tomatte kudasai (toe-maht-lay koo-doh-sai)
pleasestop t.i:.?"( <t:.~\,\ 22 kore (koe-ray)
this ;: t1
haitte kudasa i (hire-ray koo-doh-sai)
please come in 11 P ? L <1:."2 !,d - Whose is this? .:. tl 11 c. tJ..t:.. (J) -e T fJ\ .
Kor e wa donata no desu ka?
gakko (gahk-ko) (koe-ray wah doe-nah-tah no dess kah)
school tJt ? ;:?
- It is mine. bt:.. L. (J) "'rT .
yukkuri (yuke-koo-ree) Watashi DO desu. (wah-tall-she 110 dess)
(The " iI" is understood)
slow ~ ? < t)
- It is ours. h t::. l, f! !> (/) -C T .
Watashi-tachi no des-u. (wah-tah-she-tah-chee no dess)
23 sore (soe-ray)
that -t-tt
_ What is that? -t-t1 11 t.l./v ""C.'T '!J' .

Sore wa nan desu ka? (soe-ray wah naJm dess kah)
- Whose isthat? -t-tt 11 ct.. ~ (J) 1?T "'.

Sore wa donata no desu ka?
(soe*ray wah doe*nah-tah no dess kah)
18 19
.. Is that yours? -i".t1 It ···~Iv (J) "'('"9 tJ\R Ga (gah) tJ1 is similar to wa (wah) l;t, but nonnally indi-
Sore wa (person's narne)-san no desu ka? cates the grammatica l subject of a sentence or phrase.
(soe-ray wah ... -san no dess kah) Once a subject or topic has been mentioned at the begin-
ning of a conversation, it is often deleted from subsequent
24 ana hito / ana hito no sentences, which is why you don 't always see a wa or ga
(ah-no-ssh-toe / ah-no-ssh-foe 110) in each sentence.
he, she, him, her / his, hers a; 0) "I:: / a; 0) 0-1:: 0)
26 itsu (eat-sue)
.. That is hers. -i".t1 l;t ~(J) Dc (J) "'('"9R when ~)::>
Sore wa ano hilo no desu.
(soe-ray wah ah-no-ssh-toe no dess)
.. Wheni s it ? ~)"? "'('"9 tJ'.
Itsu desu ka? (eat-sue dess koh)
.. Who is that? ~(J) Dc l;t c t.l..t.:.. L'"9 tJ).
Ano hilo wa donata desu ka?
(ah-llo-ssh-toe wah doe-nah-tah dess kah) 27 doko (doe-koe)
where c'::'
.. What is his name?
a;0) 0-1:: 0) g.~ ~ g~ ~~ ~. .. Where is it? c'::' ""('"9 tJ).
Ano hilo no namae wa nan desu ka? Doko desu ka? (doe-koe dess kah)
(ah-rlO-ssh-toe 110 noh-my wah nahn dess kall)
.. Where is the bathroom (toilet/washroom)?
.. His name is Green. if I) - /" l.'"9o t3""Ca;G" 11 cC: ~~ Il'.
Gurin desu. (goo-reen dess) O-tearai wa doko desu ka?
("his name" is understood) (oh-tay-ah-rai wah doe-koe dess kah)
There are specific words for bathroom and toilet, but the
25 messeji (may-say-jee) most common genera l tenn that is used is o-tearai (oh-
message j. "/ t - Y
tay-ah-rai) :13 --r if;) ~ l,.) . Literally it means "honorable
hand wash," (in other words, "wash room").
.. Do you have a message for me?
btoL. I: ,,·yt-;J Il' a;~.~Il'. 28 hai (hi)
Watashi ni messeji ga arimasu ka?
yes l;t~).
(wah-tah-she nee may-say-jee gah ah-ree-mahss kah)
The word hai (hi) l;t P does not always simply mean
"yes." It can have a variety of meanings, including "I' m
20 21
listening," or even " Pardon me?" When confinning or The key to pronouncing Japanese properly is found in the
agreeing with something, it is beuer to use So desu (soh vowels: a, i, u, e and o. in Japanese the a is pronounced as ah,
dess) -f oj ""('9, or Hai, so desu (hi soh dess) ~1t.\. -f the i as ee, the u as 00, the e as eh, the 0 as oh-just as in the
-j 1:'"t. above languages. For example, Na r ita (Nall-ree-tall) tJ.1'J t:.,
the name of Tokyo 's international airport, would be pro-
29 So desu. (soh dess) nounced in a simi lar way in Spanish, and vice-versa. The
Yes, that's so, that's right. ~ -j 1:'"t. Spanish word "coso" is pronounced almost the same in both
languages, as are "mesa," "cora," "rio," "Maria, " and so on.
30 iie (eee-eh) A significant difference between the pronunciation of
no (,.l(,.},:t Spanish and Japanese words is found in the L and V sound s.
There is no true L or V sound in Japanese. The L comes out
- No. mat is not correct. as an R sound and the V as a B sound. So "Lolita" in
"~,,;to ~-j 1:' 11 <II ~ "'ttlv. Japanese is Rorlta 0 1) -~; "via" becomes bia ~7, etc.
lie, sO de wa arimasen.
(eee-ell soh day wah ah-ree-mah-sen)
The word "no" is not used as much in Japanese as it is
in English. Instead. the preferred way of expressing
"no" is to use the negative form of the key verb. For
example, iki masu ka? (ee-kee-mah -soo kah) 1,) ~ 9 *
"IJ\ meaning "are you going?" is generally answered
with the negative ikimasen (ee-kee-mah-sen) t.-)~ *tt
lv , "I'm not going," rather than iie (eee-eh) t.-)t.-).it. a
blunt " no."
More Notes on Pronouncing Jap anese

Anyone familiar with the pronunciation of Latin, Italian,
Spanish, Portuguese, or Hawaiian. has a head start in learning
how to pronounce Japanese correctly. In fact. when the sounds
of the Japanese language are transcribed into Roman letters
(the familiar ABCs). they are pronounced virtually the same as
in these languages.
22 23
PART 4 Ikimashita. (ee-kee-mahssh-tah)
1went. He/she went. "<! '" G/:: .
Words 31-40
Ikitai desu. (ee-kee-ta; dess)
31 iku (ee-koo) I want to go. l-\ i! "k..l-\ ""('9".
to go (plain) "<
Ikimasho. (ee-kee-mall-show)
ikimasu (ee-kee-malzss) Let's go. "l! '" G J:?
to go (polite neutral) "i! iI; ..
Japanese verbs are regularly used alone in their present, Itte kudasai. (eat-toy kao-dah-sa;)
past, and future tenses as well as in their negative and
Please go_ l- l ? "C <t:!.~l-\ .
interrogative fonns. as complete sentences. The rest of
the meaning is understood from the context.
Japanese verb endings do not change when the sub- Where are you going? C;:, I: l-\'i!*-r tJ' .
jects change as they do in English. Therefore ikimasu Doko oi ikimasu ka? (doe-koe nee ee-kee-mahss kalt)
(ee-kee-mahss) v) ~ £"9 can also mean "I go," "yo u
go," "he goes," "she goes," "it goes," "we go" or "they - Where is he going?
go."
In the following example sentences only one sub-
;1;17) "'I: I~ C::' I: "<!"' .. fi' .
Ano hito wa doko ni ikimasu ka?
ject is translated into English for simplicity, but don't (all-no ssh-toe wah doe-koe nee ee-kee-mahss kah)
forget that a variety of subjects is possible.
32 hoteru (hoe-lay-rue)
Ikimasu. (ee-kee-mahss) hotel $7')~
1go, 1am going. I shall go. "<!"' ...
Jwanttogotomyholel. *7")l" I: l-\i!"k..~\ ""("1'".
Ikimasen. (ee-kee-mah-seTl) Hoteru oi ikitai desu_ (hoe-lOy-rue nee ee-kee-tai dess)
1do not go, 1am not going. 1shall not go.
"<!"'ttA,. - J want to go to the New Otani Hotel.
The plain form is ikanai (ee-kall-nai) ~~tJ,t.l.l-\.
=.3.- ;;t-~= *7")l" I: Pi!~!'" ""("1'".
Nyu Otani Hoteru oi ikita i desu_
Ikimasu ka? (ee-kee-mahss kall) (knew olt-tah-Ilee hoe-toy-rue nee ee-kee-ta; dess)
Are you going? l-\~*T 'IJ' .
24 25
_ My holel is the Miyako Holel Tokyo. - Where do you wanl 10 eal?
tJr.:1.- il) *7)~ 11 ,,-\':J *7)~ c':>>! .. ':> c;: ""(' 'k..r.tt.:.ltl ""('9 f)\ .
Doko de tabetai desu ka?
""('T.
(doe-koe day tah-hay-ta; dess kall)
Watashi no hoteru wa Miyako Hoteru Tokyo desu.
(wah-tah-she 110 hoe-tay-me wah Me-yah-koe Hoe-tay-
- What do you wanl to eat?
rue Tokyo dess) t",l: €" 'k..r.tl:..ltl ""('T f)\.
Nani 0 tabetai desu ka? (nah-llee all tah-bay-ta; dess kah)
33 taberu (rah-bay-rue)
toeat t:..r.t;" 34 shokuji (show-koo-jee)
food, meal 1.- .. < t:
Tabemasu . (tall-bay-mallss)
I eat (it). I shall eat. I am ready to eat. r.: '" £ T . - Let's (go and) eat. Let's have a meal.
1.- .. < t: ~ 1.-£1.- .. ':> .
Shokuji 0 shimashO. (show-koo-jee ali sliee-mali-show)
Tabemasu ka? (rah-bay-mahss kah)
Will you eat (it)? Do you eat (that)? r.: '" £ T ~,
35 washoku (wah-show-koo)
Japanese food tJ I.- .. <
Tabemasen. (lall-bay-mah-sen)
I am not going to eat. I do not eat (that). r.: '" £ tt A, .
I want to eat Japanese food.
tJl.- .. < ~ r.:"'r.:~' ""(,T.
Tabemashita. (rah-bay-mahssh-rah) Washoku 0 tabetai desu.
I ate. He/she ate, we ate. r.: '" £ I.- r.: . (wa-show-koo oli tali-hay-ta; dess)
As mentioned earlier, 0 (oh) ~ is a grammatical particle
Tabetai desu. (rah-bay-rai dess) used to indicate that the preceding word is the direct
I want to eat. t.:. r.tt:..I,) "r"9. object of the sentence.
Tabemasho. (rah-bay-mah-show) 36 yoshoku (yoh-show-koo)

Let's eat. I:.. r.t ~ L.. .t oj . Western food J: ':> I.- .. <
- Let's eat western food.

Tabete kudasai. (rah-bay-ray koo-dah-sai) J:?I.- .. < ~ r.:"'£I.- .. ':> .
Please eat. 'k..r.t-C < t:.t!. It).
26 27
Yfishoku 0 tabemashO. Mo nomimashita. (mo no-me-mahssh-tah)
(yoh·show·koo oh tah·bay·mah·show) I drank (already). b:) 0)"'''' Gt,.
_ Whereshallweeat? C!..;:' I: "f=.«.*l.t? tJ\o
Nomitai desu. (no-me-ta; dess)
Doko de tabemasho ka? I want to drink. (J)1:J.~(,} 1:90
(doe-koe day tah-bay-mah-show kah)
Nomimasho. (no-me·mah-show)
_ Have you already eaten? t;,? ~ ~ £: l"f=. '/)\. Let's drink. (J)JJ.. £: l.t j .
Mo tabemashita ka? (moe tah·bay-mahssh·tah kah)
Mo means "already."
Nonde kudasai. (noan-day koo-dah-sa;)
_ I don't want to eat. ~ ~~ <t,;. (,) 1:90 Please drink. (J)lvl: <t!.~(,)o
Tabetaku nai desu.
(tah·bay·tah-koo na; dess)
Nomanai de kudasai. (no-mail-na; day /wo-dah-sa;)
_ I don't want to eat Western food. Please don't drink. O)"'t~"1? <"''''''.
J::)GJo< ~ ~"'t,<t~" 1?"9.
Yoshoku 0 tabetaku nai desu. - Would you like something to drink?
(yoe-show-koo oh tah·bay·tah-koo lIa; dess) tJ:l:tJ\ (J)h-t::..(,} 1:9 '/)\"
Nani ka nomitai desu ka?
37 nomu (no-moo) (noh-nee kah no-me-tai dess kah)
to drink ont Putting ka (kah) tJ\ after nani (nah-nee) tJ.. I: changes
the meaning from "what" to "something."
Nomimasu. (no-me-mailss)
I drink. I shall drink. 0).,. "'"9. - I'd like to drink a cola. ~-7 ~ (J)1:J.t:..(,} 1:9.
Kora 0 nomitai desu. (koe-rah oh no-me·tai dess)
Nomimasen. (no-me-mah-sen)
I do not drink. I shall not drink. 0)'" '" tt 1<,. - I'd like (10 drink) a beer. I:-)v ~ O).,.~"
Biro 0 nomitai desu. (bee-rue oh no-me-ta; dess)
1?"9.
This phase may also be used for " I don't want anything to
drink."
- I do not drink sake. ~ ~t ~ (J):Jj.. £: it Iv 0
Sake 0 nomimasen. (sah-kay oh no-me·malz-sen)

Nomimasu ka? (no-me-mahss ka)
Will you (have a) drink? 0)"''''"9 ~'.
28 29
Nomitakunai desu. (no·me·tah·ku nai dess) Uisuki ga suki de wa arimasen.
I don't want to drink I I don't want anything to (oo· iss·key gah ski day walr ah-ree·mah-sen)
drink. Q)iIj.~<f~" -e1'.
39 Itadakimasu (ee-tah-dah-kee-mahss)
to receive, accept ~\'kt=~*9 .
38 suki (ski)
like (be fond of, love) l' ~ This expression is invariably said just before begin ning a
meal (panicu larly when you are a guest). The literal
meaning of it is " I receive/accept (this food)." In generaJ
- Do you like sushi? T l,.. tJ1 T ~ "'("T tJ\ .
Sushi ga suki desu ka? (sue·she gah ski dess kah) this is also a fonnal , polite way of expressing apprecia-
tion and thanks . Prior to taking the first drink , the tradi-
- Idon ',Jikeit. 1'll' -e 1;1: I>~"'ttlu .
tional Japanese salutation is kampai! (kahm-pai) tJ'Jv,;r
Suki de wa arimasen. (ski de wah ah-ree-mah·sen) t. '. "Cheers! "
_ I want (would like) to eat sushi. GochisOsama deshita (go-chee-solr-sah-mllh desli-tall)

1'1.- ~ ~"'~" -e1'. Thank you for the meal (or drinks).
Sushi 0 tabetai desu. (sue·she 011 tah·bay-ta; dess) ;:-!,~?;!!'" -el.-~ .
This is a fonna l and common way of expressing thanks
_ I don 't like that.
and appreciation to the person who has prepared. hosted,
~n ~ 1'~ -e ~ I>~"'ttlu .
Sore ga suki de wa arimasen. or paid for a meal or drinks.
(soe·ray gah ski day wall all·ree·mah-sell)
40 oishii (oh-ee-she-e)
- I like this. ;:n ~l 1'll' -e1'. (it is) delicious .:at.) l,.. t.)
Kore ga suki desu. (koe·ray gall ski dess)
- Is it good? t:H' l,.. t.) l.'T n\.
_ Idon" Jikethis. ;:n ~l 1'l! -e 1;1: I>~"'ttlu. Oishii dt"Su ka? (oh-ee-she-e dess kah)
Kore ga suki de wa arimasen.
(koe-ray gah ski day wah ah·ree·mah-sen) Oishikatta desu. (oh-ee-she-knht-tah dess)
(It was) delicious. :l.H' I.-~'? ~ -e1'.
- I don't like whiskey.
~.~.- ~ 1'll' -e ~ m~"'ttlu .
30 31
Those Kanji Characters! PART 5
Originally the Japanese imported over 60,000 Chinese char·
acters kanji, (kahn·jee) 'IJ~1v 1;, but only a small percentage Words 41-50
of this number is commonl y used today. Successive language
reforms that began in Japan shortly after the fall of the 41 au (ah-oo)
Tokugawa shogunate in 1868 have greatl y red uced the num· to meet if)?
ber of kanji taught in schools and used for official purposes. Remember that subjects are often unex pressed in
In 198 1 the number of c haracters was officially set at Japanese. The following sentences are tran slated into
1,945. Thi s list is referred to as the Joyo Kanji (joe·yoh English usi ng the subject " I ," but could also be under·
kahn .jee) [; ..t ? J::: ? tJ\ Iv [; or "Chinese Characters in stood to mean " he," "she," " they," "we," "i t," " that per·
General Use:' The last major reform occurred in 1989, when son," and so forth .
the lotal number of characters children are required to learn
during Iheir first six years of school was increased to 1,006. Aimasu. (eye-ma hss)
I shall meet (someone). <I; P *1".
Aimasen. (eye·mah·sen)
I shall not meet (someone). <l;1'*ttA,.
Aimasu ka? (eye-ma hss koh)

Will you meet me? il;t-~*"'t tJ\ .
(Person's name)·san ni aimashita.

(... ·sahn nee eye·mahssh·tah)
I met (person's name) . ... t! A, I: <1;1'* L.I:: .
Aitai desu. (eye·tai dess)

I want to meet (you). <I; PI:: I' <:1" .
Aimasho. (eye·mah show)

Let's meet. ®" '" L. J: ?
32 33
.. Where shall we meet? .. What time do you eat? What time are we going to eat?
c ;: <? ,M ' £ L, Jo ? Ii'. t~luJ; I: t:"' £-; tJ' .
Doko de airnasho ka? Nanji ni tabernasu ka? (nahn~jee nee tah-bay~mahss ko.h)
(doe-koe day eye-mah-show kah) . .
The word preceding the particle de (day) --r: often mdl~ .. When shall we meet? ~ ) :J ~ !t \*L ct? f)).
cates a place where the action of the verb happens. Itsu airnashO ka? (eat-sue eye~mah~show koh)
.. Please meet meat the hotel. *7)V ""7: ~~\ * L ct? .. 43 aru (ah-rue)
Hotero de airnasho. to be, have (for objects) <\; <>
(Hoe·tay~rue day eye~mah·show)
Arimasu. (ah-ree~mahss)
.. Please meet me in the lobby. Let's meet in the lobby. There is. There are. I have. ~ t) *'9 "
0 1:::- ""7: .:f) ~ \*l" ct?
Robi de airnasho. (roe-bee day eye~mah-show)
Arimasen. (ah-ree~mah~sen)
There is not. There are not. I do not have (it, any).
42 nanji? (llahn~jee) <\; ~ £ttlu .
what time? tJ.1u t.:
Arimashita. (ah-ree~mahssh-Iah)
.. What time shall we meet? There was. There were. I had. <\; ~ £ L, t: .
t~luJ; I: ,M '£ L,Jo? Ii' .
Nanji oi airnasho ka? .. Do you have some (any/it)? Is there any?
(llahn~jee nee eye-mah~show kah)
<\;~£-; tJ' .
Arimasu ka? (ah-ree~mahss koh)
.. Where shall we meet tonight?
;:lu lilu c;: <? ,M' £ L, Jo?
Kornban doko de airnasho ka?
tJ'. .. No, I don't have any (it). There is none.
Arimasen. (llh~ree~mah-sen)
~ t) *it Iu ..
(kone -bahn doe~koe day eye-mah-show kllh)

44 ikura (ee-koo-rah)
.. What time do you want to go?
tJ.IuG 1= ~\~t.:!t) --r:'9 tJ\.
how much v) < ~
Nanji oi ikitai desu ka?
(nahn-jee nee ee~ kee~tai dess kllh) .. How much is it? ~ \ < ~ ""7: '9 tJ\ "
[kura desu ka? (ee-koo-rah dess koh)
34 3S
How much is this? ;::tl. ~1 L-\< 6 "('"'9 tJ\ o Shimasu ka? (she-mahss kah)
Kore wa ikura desu ka? Do you do (it)? Will you do? I., £~ to'.
(koe-ray wah ee-koo-rah dess kah)
Shimashita. (she-mahssh-tah)
• How much is that? -ttl. 11 L-~< 6 "('"'9 IJlo I did (it). I., £ I., to.
Sore wa ikura desu ka?
(soe-ray wah ee-koo-rah dess kah)
Shitai desu. (she-rai dess)
45 takai (tah-kai) I want to do (it). I.,t:" -e~.
high, expensive ~tJ\P
Shimasho. (she-mah-show)
• That is expensive. -ttl. ~1 t=.tJ\L-) "('-t. Let's do (it). I., £ I., J: Ol.
Sore wa takai desu. (soe-ray wah tah-kai dess)
Shite kudasai. (she-toy koo-dah-sai)
46 yasui (yah-sue-e) Please do (it). VC <to""'.
cheap, inexpensive ~-tL-)
Shinaide kudasai. (she-nai day koo-dah-sai)

• Do you have a cheap one? Please don't do (it). I.,t~,,-e < "'''' ".
~~" ~ 11 ;;~;Jo~ to'.
Yasui no wa arimasu ka?
(yah-sue-e no wah ah-ree-mahss kah) • What shall we do? tJ: I: ~ L- ~ L J:. '5 tJ\ .
Nani 0 shimasho ka? (noh-nee oh she-mall-show kah)
47 suru (sue-rue)
• What are you doing? tJ:l: ~ L--C L-)~"'9 tJl .
to do ~~
Nani 0 shite imasu ka?
(noh-nee oh ssh.tay ee-mahss koh)
Shimasu. (she-mahss)
I do (it). I shall do. I am going to do. 1.,;Jo ~.
Shite imasu (ssh-tay ee-mahss) (V-r L-\~T) is the
present progressive fonn of shimasu, which changes
"do" into "doing."
Shimasen. (she-mah-sen)
I do not do (it). I shall not do. I am not going to
.. What are you (we) going to do? What shall we do?
do. l.,;Jottlv. COl 1.,£, to' .
DO shimasu ka? (doh she-mahss kah)
36 37
_ How should it be done? / How should 1 do it? Kore wa ii desu ka? (koe-ray wah eee dess kah)
C'5 t,..~5 ..s..,5 I:: L*"t~).
Do iu m ni shimasu ka? (doh yoo fuu nee she-mahss kah) - That's tine. -i"tt ~i ~)~) 1."'9.
Sore wa ii desu. (soe-ray wah eee dess)
Do (doh) C' ? can mean "what," " how," or "why,"
depending on the usage. Do iu fii oi (doh yoofuu nee)
- Is it okay togo? ~)?"( 'b ~ \ t,.. \ "r"t tJ).
C'? ~~?..s,? I:: means "How," "In what manner."
Ute rno ii desu ka? (eo Hay moe eee dess kah)
Ute (eat-toy) ~)? "'( is the so-called "te-form" form of
_ What is he (it/that person) doing?
~O) U/: I~ f~l: ~ V[ "£, ~'.
the verb ikimasu (meaning go) that by itself is a com-
mand. Mo ii desu kat (moe eee dess kah) ... 'b ~)~)
Ano hilo wa nani 0 shite imasu ka?
(ah-no ssh-roe wah nah-nee oh ssh-ray ee-mahss kah) -r"t ~) after the "te-form" of a verb adds the sense of
" May I. .. ?" or "Is it alright to ... ?"
_ What do you want to do? fl.!:: ~ Lt::..~) "r"t tJ\~
Nani 0 shitai desu ka? (noh-nee oh she·tai dess kah) - Is it okay to eat? t=.«."( 'b ~\~) -r"t tJ)~
Tabete rno ii desu ka? (tah-bay-tay moe eee dess kah)
_ I don't want to do anything. fJ.l:: 'b L t::.. < tJ. ~~ -r"t ~
Nani rno shitakunai desu. - Is it okay to do it? f....-r 'b ~\I"l "r"t tJ) .
(noh-nee moe she-tah-koo naj dess) Shite rno ii desu ka? (ssh-tay moe eee dess kah)
• What did you do? f~I:~ l- £ lJ.:~'. - What time are we (you) going?
Nani 0 shirnashita ka? (nah·nee oh she-mahssh-tah kah) f~A,t; I: "<!£, ~'.
Nanji oi ikimasu ka? (nahn-jee nee ee-kee-mahs kah)
• I didn't do anything. t~I:'b l-£ttA, -el-t.:.
Nanimo shimasen deshita. 49 dochira (doe-chee-rah)
(nah-nee moe she-mah-sen desh-tah) which (of two) c!; '"
48 ii (eee)
- Which one (of these two) is the best?
good (fine, acceptable) ,,', C'"tS ~ IJ1 1,,\1,,) 1."'9 tJ) o
Dochira ga ii desu ka? (doe-chee-rah gah eee dess kah)
- Is it okay? ~ ) ~\ "r"t tJ)o
Ii desu ka? (eee dess kah) - Which one is the more expensive (out of these two)?
C'"5 t> IJ1 t:;/J)I,,) "r"t tJ).
38 39
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In plan the privy is 4 by 4½ feet. The sills are secured to durable
posts set about 4 feet in the ground. The boarding is tight, and all
vents and windows are screened to exclude insects. The screens
may be the same as for pit privies or, if a more lasting material is
desired, bronze or copper screening of 14 squares to the inch may
be used. The entire seat is hinged, thus permitting removal of the
receptacle and facilitating cleaning and washing the underside of the
seat and the destruction of spiders and other insects which thrive in
dark, unclean places. The receptacle is a heavy galvanized-iron
garbage can. Heavy brown-paper bags for lining the can may be had
at slight cost, and their use helps to keep the can clean and
facilitates emptying. Painting with black asphaltum serves a similar
purpose and protects the can from rust. If the contents are frozen, a
little heat releases them. Of nonfreezing mixtures a strong brine
made with common salt or calcium chloride is effective. Two and
one-half to 3 pounds of either thoroughly dissolved in a gallon of
water lowers the freezing point of the mixture to about zero.
Denatured alcohol or wood alcohol in a 25 per cent solution has a
like low freezing point and the additional merit of being noncorrosive
of metals. The can should be emptied frequently and the contents
completely buried in a thin layer by a plow or in a shallow hand-dug
trench at a point below and remote from wells and springs.
Wherever intestinal disease exists the contents of the can should be
destroyed by burning or made sterile before burial by boiling or by
incorporation with a strong chemical disinfectant.
A privy ventilated in the manner before described is shown in figure
10. The cowl, however, is open on four sides instead of two sides as
shown in figures 8 and 9. The working drawings (fig. 8 and 9) show
that the construction of a privy of the kind is not difficult. Figure 11
gives three suggestions whereby a privy may be conveniently
located and the approach screened or partially hidden by
latticework, vines, or shrubbery.
Vault type.—A primitive and yet serviceable three-seat dry-earth
privy of the vault type is shown in figure 12. This privy was
constructed in 1817 upon a farm at Westboro, Mass. The vault,
made of bricks, was 6 feet long by 5 feet
wide, and the bottom was 1 foot below
the surface of the ground. The brickwork
was laid in mortar, and the part below the
ground surface was plastered on the
inside. The outside of the vault was
exposed to light and air on all four sides.
Across the long side of the vault in the
rear was a door swinging upward through
which the night soil was removed two or
three times a year, usually in the spring,
summer, and fall, and hauled to a near-by
field, where it was deposited in a furrow,
just ahead of the plow.
BPR-RE 1382 Especial attention is called to the
Fig. 10.—A well-ventilated privy shallowness of the vault and the lightened
in Montana.
labor of cleaning it out. The swinging door
at the rear facilitated the sprinkling of dry
soil or ashes over the contents of the
vault, thus avoiding the necessity of carrying dirt and dust into the
building and dust settling upon the seat. This privy was in use for
nearly 100 years without renewal or repairs. When last seen the
original seat, which always was kept painted, showed no signs of
decay. Modern methods would call for a concrete vault of
guaranteed water-tightness,[3] proper ventilation and screening, and
hinging the seat.
[3] Directions for mixing and placing concrete to secure water-
tightness are contained in an article entitled "Securing a dry
cellar," U. S. Department of Agriculture Yearbook, 1919; published
also as Yearbook Separate No. 824, and obtainable for 10 cents
from the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing
Office, Washington, D. C.
Fig. 11.—Screening the approach to a privy. A, Raised platform with lattice sides, suitable
for short distances, convenient and easily cleared of snow; B, walk hidden by lattice
work; C, walk enclosed by an arbor.
Working drawings for a very convenient well-built two-seat vault

privy are reproduced in figures 13 and 14. The essential features are
shown in sufficient detail to require little explanation. With concrete
mixtures of 1:2:3 (1 volume cement, 2 volumes sand, 3 volumes
stone) for the vault and 1:2:4 for the posts there will be required a
total of about 2 cubic yards of concrete, taking 3½ barrels of
cement, 1 cubic yard of sand, and 1½ cubic yards of broken stone
or screened gravel. The stone or gravel should not exceed 1 inch in
diameter, except that a few cobblestones may be embedded where
the vault wall is thickest, thus effecting a slight saving of materials.
CHEMICAL CLOSET.
A type of sanitary privy in which the excrements are received directly
into a water-tight receptacle containing chemical disinfectant is
meeting with considerable favor for camps, parks, rural cottages,
schools, hotels, and railway
stations. These chemical
closets,[4] as they are called,
are made in different forms and
are known by various trade
names. In the simplest form a
sheet-metal receptacle is
concealed in a small metal or
wooden cabinet, and the closet
is operated usually in much the
same manner as the ordinary
pail privy. These closets are
very simple and compact, of
good appearance, and easy to
install or move from place to
place. In another type, known
as the chemical tank closet, the
receptacle is a steel tank fixed
in position underground or in a
basement. The tank has a
capacity of about 125 gallons
per seat, is provided with a
Fig. 12.—A primitive vault privy in hand-operated agitator to
Massachusetts. Note the tight, shallow, secure thorough mixing of the
easily cleaned vault. A, Brick vault 5 by 6 chemical and the excretions,
feet, bottom about 1 foot in the ground;
B, water-tight plastering; C, rowlock and the contents are bailed,
course of brick; D, door hinged at top; E, pumped, or drained out from
door button; F, three-pane window time to time.
hinged at top; G, passageway.
[4] Among publications on
chemical closets are the
following: "Chemical Closets," Reprint No. 404 from the Public
Health Reports, U. S. Public Health Service, June 29, 1917, pp.
1017-1020; "The Chemical Closet," Engineering Bulletin No. 5,
Mich. State Board of Health, October, 1916; Health Bulletin; Va.
Department of Health, March, 1917, pp. 214-219.
Fig. 13.—Two-seat vault privy.
Click on image to view larger size.
Chemical closets, like every form of privy, should be well installed,

cleanly operated, and frequently emptied, and the wastes should
receive safe burial. With exception of frequency of emptying, the
same can be said of chemical tank closets. With both forms of closet
thorough ventilation or draft is essential, and this is obtained usually
by connecting the closet vent pipe to a chimney flue or extending it
well above the ridge-pole of the building. The contents of the
container should always be submerged and very low temperatures
guarded against.
Fig. 14.—Two-seat vault privy. Note the shallow, water-tight, easily cleaned concrete vault.
Click on image to view larger size.
As to the germicidal results obtained in chemical closets, few data

are available. A disinfecting compound may not sterilize more than a
thin surface layer of the solid matter deposited. Experiments by Dr.
Alvah H. Doty with various agents recommended and widely used for
the bedside sterilization of feces showed "that at the end of 20 hours
of exposure to the disinfectant but one-eighth of an inch of the fecal
mass was disinfected."[5] Plainly, then, to destroy all bacterial and
parasitic life in chemical closets three things are necessary: (1) A
very powerful agent; (2) permeation of the fecal mass by the agent;
(3) retention of its strength and potency until permeation is
complete. The compounds or mixtures commonly used in chemical
closets are of two general kinds: First, those in which some coal-tar
product or other oily disinfectant is used to destroy germs and
deodorize, leaving the solids little changed in form; second, those of
the caustic class that dissolve the solids, which, if of sufficient
strength and permeating every portion, should destroy most if not all
bacterial life. Not infrequently the chemical solution is intended to
accomplish disinfection, deodorization, and reduction to a liquid or
semiliquid state.
[5] Annual Report, Mass. State Board of Health, 1914, p. 727.
Fig. 15.—Chemical closet. A, Water-tight

sheet-metal container; B, metal or Fig. 16.—Chemical tank closet. A, Tank, 2
wooden cabinet; C, wooden or feet 3 inches by 4 feet 2 inches, 5⁄64-
composition seat ring; D, hinged inch iron, seams welded, capacity 125
cover; E, 3 or 4 inch ventilating flue gallons; B, 14-inch covered opening for
extending 18 inches above roof or recharging and emptying tank; C, 12-
to a chimney; F, air inlets. inch galvanized sheet-metal tube; D, 4-
inch sheet-metal ventilating pipe
extending above ridge-pole or to a
chimney; E, agitator or paddle.
A simple type of chemical closet is shown in figure 15, and the
essential features are indicated in the notation. These closets with
vent pipe and appurtenances, ready for setting up, retail for $20 and
upward. A chemical tank closet, retailing for about $80 per seat, is
shown in figure 16.
The Department of Agriculture occasionally receives complaints from
people who have installed chemical closets, usually on the score of
odors or the cost of chemicals.
LIQUEFYING CLOSET.
Another type of sanitary privy, known as a liquefying closet, makes
use of bacterial action as an aid to disposal. The excretions are
deposited in a tight receptacle containing water, where fermentation
and decomposition reduce a large part of the organic solids to liquid
and gaseous forms. Much of the liquid evaporates and the gases
diffuse, so that the volume of sewage is reduced materially. More or
less insoluble and undigested residue, known as sludge, gradually
accumulates at the bottom of the receptacle, which from time to
time must be cleaned out. Disposal of the partially clarified liquid
and the sludge, however, involves much less labor than would be
needed to handle the untreated excrements.
Liquefying closets have been used many years with fair satisfaction.
The receptacle sometimes is a tight brick vault, but more frequently
a barrel or hogshead with one end nearly flush with the ground.
Over this is mounted the seat, sometimes with iron bars beneath to
prevent accident to small children, and the whole is inclosed in a
small frame house. The vault usually is bailed or pumped out two or
three times a year.
Upon farms where slope, soil, and drainage conditions are favorable
the effluent from liquefying closets may be distributed and aerated
by means of drain tile laid in the top soil or in shallow beds filled
with cinders, coke, gravel, or stone. Figure 17 shows a simple one-
chamber liquefying closet with shallow distribution of the effluent in
a stone-filled trench. The vault or tank consists of vitrified sewer
pipe, a simple and cheap construction. Where a larger vault is
required concrete or brick may be used, the usual capacity being 12
or 13 gallons to a person.
Fig. 17.—Liquefying closet. A, Excavation about 3 feet 3 inches in diameter;
B, 3-foot length vitrified Y branch, 24 by 4 inches; C, 2-foot length of 24-
inch hard burned drain tile or vitrified sewer pipe; D, 4 by 4 inch Y
branch; E, 1-foot length of 4-inch cast-iron soil pipe; F, concrete bottom
making water-tight seal; G, joints made water tight by use of a strand of
jute or oakum and rich Portland cement mortar or hot bituminous
jointing compound; H; submerged outlet; I, removable strainer with
openings ¼ inch or larger; J, 4-inch removable plug; K, 4-inch drain tile
laid on good slope in trench about 15 inches deep, ends of tile butting,
joints covered with strips of tarred paper extending three-fourths of the
way around the tile; L, removable seat supported by end cleats; M, 4 by
4 inch ventilating flue, bottom portion removable; N, hinged door to
facilitate bailing out sludge.
Faults in liquefying closets are objectionable odor, clogging of the

screen over the outlet, or insufficient water in the vault to insure
proper bacterial action. A ventilating pipe should be provided
extending from beneath the seat to above the roof. The outlet pipe
should not be less than 4 inches in diameter, and the mesh of the
screen should not be less than one-fourth inch. The contents of the
vault should be diluted with water at intervals, depending upon the
number of persons using the closet and the rapidity of evaporation.
Dilution may be effected by pouring in 1 or 2 gallons with a pail, or a
small pipe may be led from the eaves trough of the closet to the
vault. The effluent may be light colored and apparently inoffensive,
but it still is sewage, and therefore the distributing tile never should
be laid in the vicinity of a well or spring.
DISINFECTANTS AND DEODORANTS.

Disinfection is the destruction of disease germs. Sterilization is the
destruction of all germs or bacteria, both the harmful and the useful.
Antisepsis is the checking or restraining of bacterial growth.
Deodorization is the destruction of odor. Unfortunately in practice
none of these processes may be complete. The agent may be of
inferior quality, may have lost its potency, or may not reach all parts
of the mass treated. A disinfectant or germicide is an agent capable
of destroying disease germs; an antiseptic is an agent merely
capable of arresting bacterial growth, and it may be a dilute
disinfectant; a deodorant is an agent that tends to destroy odor, but
whose action may consist in absorbing odor or in masking the
original odor with another more agreeable one.[6]
[6] Those desiring more explicit information on disinfectants and
the principles of disinfection are referred to U. S. Department of
Agriculture Farmers' Bulletins 926, "Some Common Disinfectants,"
and 954, "The Disinfection of Stables," and to publications of the
U. S. Public Health Service.
Of active disinfecting agents, heat from fire, live steam, or boiling
water is the surest. The heat generated by the slaking of quicklime
has proved effective with small quantities of excreta. Results of tests
by the Massachusetts State Board of Health[7] show that the
preferable method consists in adding sufficient hot water (120° to
140° F.) to cover the excrement in the receptacle, then adding small
pieces of fresh strong quicklime in amount equal to about one-third
of the bulk of water and excrement combined, covering the
receptacle, and allowing it to stand 1½ hours or longer.
[7] Annual Report, Mass. State Board of Health, 1914, pp. 727-
729.
Among chemical disinfectants a strong solution of sodium hydroxide
(caustic soda) or potassium hydroxide (caustic potash, lye) is very
effective and is useful in dissolving grease and other organic
substances. Both chemicals are costly, but caustic soda is less
expensive than caustic potash and constitutes most of the ordinary
commercial lyes. Chlorinated lime (chloride of lime, bleaching
powder) either in solution or in powdered form is valuable. For the
disinfection of stools of typhoid-fever patients the Virginia State
Board of Health[8] recommends thoroughly dissolving ½ pound of
best chloride of lime in 1 gallon of water and allowing the solution to
cover the feces for at least 1 hour. The solution should be kept in
well-stoppered bottles and used promptly, certainly within 2 or 3
days. Copper sulphate (blue vitriol, bluestone) in a 5 per cent
solution (1 pound in 2½ gallons of water) is a good but rather costly
disinfectant. None of the formulas here given is to be construed as
fixed and precise. Conditions may vary the proportions, as they
always will vary the results. The reader should remember that few, if
any, chemical disinfectants can be expected fully to disinfect or
sterilize large masses of excrement unless the agent is used
repeatedly and in liberal quantities or mechanical means are
employed to secure thorough incorporation.
[8] Health Bulletin, Va. State Board of Health, June, 1917, pp.
277-280.
Among deodorants some of the drying powders mentioned below
possess more or less disinfecting power. Chloride of lime, though
giving off an unpleasant odor of chlorine, is employed extensively.
Lime in the form of either quicklime or milk of lime (whitewash) is
much used and is an active disinfectant. To prepare milk of lime a
small quantity of water is slowly added to good fresh quicklime in
lumps. As soon as the quicklime is slaked a quantity of water, about
four times the, quantity of lime, is added and stirred thoroughly.
When used as a whitewash the milk of lime is thinned as desired
with water and kept well stirred. Liberal use of milk of lime in a vault
or cesspool, though it may not disinfect the contents, is of use in
checking bacterial growth and abating odor. To give the best results
it should be used frequently, beginning when the vault or cesspool is
empty. Iron sulphate (green vitriol, copperas) because of its affinity
for ammonia and sulphides is used as a temporary deodorizer in
vaults, cesspools, and drains; 1 pound dissolved in 4 gallons of water
makes a solution of suitable strength.
PREVENTION OF PRIVY NUISANCE.

The following is a summary of simple measures for preventing a
privy from becoming a nuisance:
1. Locate the privy inconspicuously and detached from the dwelling.
2. Make the receptacle or vault small, shallow, easy of access, and
water-tight.
3. Clean out the vault often. Do not wait until excrement has
accumulated and decomposition is sufficiently advanced to cause
strong and foul odors.
4. Sprinkle into the vault daily loose dry soil, ashes, lime, sawdust,
ground gypsum (land plaster), or powdered peat or charcoal. These
will absorb liquid and odor, though they may not destroy disease
germs.
5. Make the privy house rain-proof; ventilate it thoroughly, and
screen all openings.
OBJECTION TO PRIVIES.
All the methods of waste disposal heretofore described are open to
the following objections:
1. They do not take care of kitchen slops and liquid wastes incipient
to a pressure water system.
2. They retain filth for a considerable period of time with probability
of odors and liability of transmission of disease germs.
3. They require more personal attention and care than people
generally are willing to give.
By far the most satisfactory method yet devised of caring for sewage
calls for a supply of water and the flushing away of all wastes as
soon as created through a water-tight sewer to a place where they
undergo treatment and final disposal.
KITCHEN-SINK DRAINAGE.
A necessity in every dwelling is effective disposal of the kitchen-sink
slops. This necessity ordinarily arises long before the farm home is
supplied with water under pressure and the conveniences that go
with it. Hence the first call for information on sewage disposal is
likely to relate merely to sink drainage. This waste water though it
may not be as dangerous to health as sewage containing human
excrements is still a menace to the farm well and capable of creating
disagreeable odor.
The usual method of disposing of sink slops is to allow them to
dribble on or beneath the surface of the ground close to the house.
Such drainage should be taken in a water-tight carrier at least 100
feet downhill from the well and discharged below the surface of the
ground. Every sink should be provided with a suitable screen to keep
all large particles out of the waste pipe. An approved form of sink
strainer consists of a brass plate bolted in position over the outlet
and having at least 37 perforations not larger than one-fourth inch in
diameter. Provided a sink is thus equipped and is given proper care
and the land has fair slope and drainage, the waste water may be
conducted away through a water-tight sewer and distributed in the
soil by means of a short blind drain. The blind drain may be
conveniently made of drain tile in the manner shown in figure 17. A
simple installation, consisting of a kitchen sink and pump and means
of disposal as described, is shown in figure 18.
CESSPOOLS.
Where farms have water under pressure an open or leaching
cesspool is a common method of disposing of the sewage. Ordinary
cesspools are circular excavations in the ground, lined with stone or
brick laid without mortar. They vary from 5 to 10 feet in diameter
and from 7 to 12 feet in depth. Sometimes the top is arched and
capped at the ground surf ace by a cover of wood, stone, or cast
iron. At other times the walls are carried straight up and boards or
planks are laid, across for a cover, and the entire structure is hidden
with a hedge or shrubbery.
Fig. 18.—How to waste kitchen-sink drainage. A, Sink; B, waste pipe; C,
trap; D, clean-out; E, box filled with hay, straw, sawdust, excelsior,
coke, or other insulating material; F, 4-inch vitrified sewer-pipe, hubs
uphill, and joints made water tight for at least 100 feet downhill from a
well; G, 4-inch vitrified sewer pipe, hubs downhill, joints slightly open,
laid in an 18-inch bed of coarse sand, gravel, stone, broken brick, slag,
cinders, or coke; strip of tarred paper on burlap or a thin layer of hay,
straw, cornstalks, brush, or sods, grass side down; I, 12 inches of
natural soil; J, stone-filled pit. As here illustrated, water is drawn by a
pitcher or kitchen pump (K) through a 1¼ or 1½ inch galvanized-iron
suction pipe (L) from a cistern (M). The suction pipe should be laid
below frost and on a smooth upward grade from cistern to pump and
be provided with a foot valve (N) to keep the pump primed. If a foot
valve is used, pump and pipe must be safe from frost or other means
than tripping the pump be provided for draining the system.
Except under the most favorable conditions the construction and use
of a cesspool can not be condemned too strongly. They are only
permissible where no other arrangement is possible. Leaching
cesspools especially are open to these serious objections:
1. Unless located in porous soil, stagnation is likely to occur, and
failure of the liquid to seep away may result in overflow on the
surface of the ground and the creation of a nuisance and a menace.
2. They retain a mass of filth in a decomposing condition deep in the
ground where it is but slightly affected by the bacteria and air of the
soil. In seeping through the ground it may be strained, but there can
be no assurance that the foul liquid with little improvement in its
condition may not pass into the ground water and pollute wells and
springs situated long distances away in the direction of underground
flow.
For the purpose of avoiding soil and ground-water pollution
cesspools have been made of water-tight construction and the
contents removed by bailing or pumping. Upon the farm, however,
this type of construction has little to recommend it, for the reason
that facilities for removing and disposing of the contents in a clean
manner are lacking.
In some instances cesspools have been made water-tight, the
outflow being effected by three or four elbows or T-branches set in
the masonry near the top, with the inner ends turned down below
the water surface, the whole surrounded to a thickness of several
feet with stone or gravel intended to act as a filtering medium. Tests
of the soil water adjacent to cesspools of this type show that no
reliance should be placed upon them as a means of purifying
sewage, the fatal defects being constant saturation with sewage and
lack of air supply. To the extent that the submerged outlets keep
back grease and solid matters the scheme is of service in preventing
clogging of the pores of the surrounding ground.
Where the ground about a cesspool has become clogged and water-
logged, relief is often secured by laying, several lines of drain tile at
shallow depth, radiating from the cesspool. The ends of the pipes
within the cesspool should turn down, and it is advantageous to
surround the lines of pipe with stones or coarse gravel, as shown in
figures 17 and 18 and discussed under "Septic tanks." In this way
not only is the area' of percolation extended, but aeration and partial
purification of the sewage are effected.
Where a cesspool is located at a distance from a dwelling and there
is opportunity to lead a vent pipe up the side of a shed, barn, or any
stable object it is advisable to do so for purposes of ventilation.
Where the conditions are less favorable it may be best, because of
the odor, to omit any direct vent pipe from the cesspool and rely for
ventilation on the house sewer and main soil stack extending above
the roof of the house.
Cesspools should be emptied and cleaned at least once a year and
the contents given safe burial or, with the requisite permission,
wasted in some municipal sewerage system. After cleaning, the walls
and bottom may be treated with a disinfectant or a deodorant.
SEPTIC TANKS.
A tight, underground septic tank with shallow distribution of the effluent in porous soil generally is
the safest and least troublesome method of treating sewage upon the farm, while at the same
time more or less of the irrigating and manurial value of the sewage may be realized.
The late Prof. Kinnicutt used to say that a septic tank is "simply a cesspool, regulated and
controlled." The reactions described under the captions "How sewage decomposes," "Liquefying
closet," and "Cesspools" take place in septic tanks.
In all sewage tanks, whatever their size and shape, a portion of the solid matter, especially if the
sewage contains much grease, floats as scum on the liquid, the heavier solids settle to form
sludge, while finely divided solids and matter in a state of emulsion are held in suspension. If the
sludge is retained in the bottom of the tank and converted or partly converted into liquids and
gases the tank is called a septic tank and the process is known as septicization. The process is
sometimes spoken of as one of digestion or rotting.
History.— Prototypes of the septic tank were known in Europe nearly 50 years ago. Between
1876 and 1893 a number of closed tanks with submerged inlets and outlets embodying the
principle of storage of sewage and liquefaction of the solids were built in the United States and
Canada. It was later seen that many of the early claims for the septic process were extravagant.
In recent years septic tanks have been used mainly in small installations, or, where employed in
large installations, the form has been modified to secure digestion of the sludge in a separate
compartment, thus in a measure obviating disadvantages that exist where septicization takes place
in the presence of the entering fresh sewage.
Purposes.—The purposes of a septic tank are to receive all the farm sewage, as defined on page
4, hold it in a quiet state for a time, thus causing partial settlement of the solids, and by nature's
processes of decomposition insure, as fully as may be, the destruction of the organic matter.
Limitations.—That a septic tank is a complete method of sewage treatment is a widespread but
wrong impression. A septic tank does not eliminate odor and does not destroy all organic solids.
On the contrary, foul odors develop, and of all the suspended matter in the sewage about one-
third escapes with the effluent, about one-third remains in the tank, and about one-third only is
destroyed or reduced to liquids and gases. The effluent is foul and dangerous. It may contain even
more bacteria than the raw sewage, since the process involves intensive growths. As to the effects
upon the growth and virulence of disease germs little is known definitely. It is not believed that
such germs multiply under the conditions prevailing in a septic tank. If disease germs are present
many of their number along with other bacteria may pass through with the flow or may be
enmeshed in the settling solids and there survive a long time. Hence the farmer should safeguard
wells and springs from the seepage or discharges from a septic tank as carefully as from those of
liquefying closets and cesspools.
Further treatment of effluents.—The effluent of a septic tank or any other form of sewage
tank is foul and dangerous. Whether or not the solids are removed by screening, by short periods
of rest, as in plain or modified forms of settling tanks, or by longer quiescence, as in septic tanks,
the effluent generally requires further treatment to reduce the number of harmful organisms and
the liability of nuisance. This further treatment usually consists of some mode of filtration. In the
earliest example of such treatment the sewage was used to irrigate land by either broad flooding
or furrow irrigation. By another method the sewage is distributed underground by means of drain
tile laid with open joints, as illustrated in figures 17, 29, and 32.
Artificial sewage filters are composed of coarse sand, screened gravel, broken stone, coke, or
other material, and the sewage is applied in numerous ways. Since filtration is essentially an
oxidizing process requiring air, the sewage is applied intermittently in doses.[9]
[9] Artificial filters of various types are well described and illustrated in Public Health Bulletin
No. 101, "Studies of Methods for the Treatment and Disposal of Sewage—The Treatment of
Sewage from Single Houses and Small Communities." U. S. Public Health Service, December,
1919.
If properly designed and operated, filters of sand, coke, or stone are capable of excellent results.
Under the most favorable conditions it is unwise to discharge the effluent of a sewage filter in the
near vicinity of a source of water supply. Under farm conditions filters are usually neglected or the
sewage is improperly applied, resulting in the clogging and befouling of sand filters and the
discharge from stone filters of an effluent which is practically as dangerous and even more
offensive than raw sewage. Moreover unless the filters are covered there are likely to be annoying
odors, and there is always the possibility of disease germs being carried by flies where sewage is
exposed in the vicinity of dwellings. Hence it seems more practical for the farmer, avoiding the
expense of earth embankments or masonry sides and bottom for a filter bed, to waste the tank
effluent beneath the surface of such area of land as is most suitable and available. This method of
applying sewage to the soil or subsoil is often spoken of as subirrigation, but subsoil distribution of
sewage is different in principle and practice from subirrigation for the increase of crop yields.
Subirrigation is rarely successful unless the land is nearly level, the top soil porous and underlaid
with an impervious stratum to hold the water within reach of plant roots, and unless a relatively
large quantity of water is used and the work is skillfully done. On the other hand, the quantity of
sewage on farms being small, it may be wasted in hilly ground, which should be as porous, deeply
drained, and dry as possible.
Parts of a system.—The four parts of a septic-tank installation with subsurface distribution of the
effluent are outlined in figure 19: (1) The house sewer from house to tank; (2) the sewage tank
consisting of one or more chambers; (3) the sewer from tank to distribution field; (4) the
distribution field, where the sewage is distributed and wasted, sometimes called the absorption
field. These parts will be discussed in the order named, although the last should have the first
consideration.
Fig. 19.—Parts of a septic-tank installation.

Fig. 20.—Setting line and grade for house sewer. To the observer at A the
top edges of the grade boards appear as one; the half-driven nails
are set to line.
House sewer.—The length will vary with the slope of the ground and position of buildings, well,
and distribution field. Fifty to 100 feet is a fair length; a greater is still more sanitary. Wherever
possible the house sewer should be laid straight in line and grade. Figure 20 shows how this work
may be done. Suppose the distance from A to E be 100 feet; that grade boards be set 25 feet
apart crosswise of the trench at A, B, C, D, and E; that the ground at A be 4 feet lower than at E;
that the top of the sewer be 2½ feet below the surface of the ground at A and 4½ feet below the
surface of the ground at E; the fall of the sewer between A and E is 2 feet (4 + 2½ - 4½ = 2). If
the fall in 100 feet be 2 feet, in 25 feet it is one-fourth as much, or 6 inches. Hence, grade board B
is 6 inches higher than grade board A, C is 6 inches higher than B, and so on to E. The top edges
when all the boards are set with a carpenter's level and fastened in position should be in line. The
grade thus established may be any convenient height above the top of the proposed sewer, and
the measuring stick used to grade the pipe is cut accordingly. This height is usually a certain
number of whole feet. Fixing the line of the sewer is a mere matter of settling nails in the top
edges of boards A and E directly over the center of the proposed sewer and tightly stretching a
fish line or grade cord; nails should be set where the cord crosses boards B, C, and D.
If the cellar or basement contains plumbing fixtures, the house sewer should enter 1 to 2 feet
below the cellar floor. If all plumbing fixtures are on the floors above, the sewer may enter at no
greater depth than necessary to insure protection from frost outside the cellar wall. Digging the
trench and laying the pipe should begin at the tank or lower end. The large end of the pipes,
called the hub, should face uphill, and the barrel of each pipe should have even bearing
throughout its length. Sufficient earth should be removed from beneath the hubs to permit the
joints to be made in a workmanlike manner.
The house sewer may be vitrified salt-glazed sewer pipe, concrete pipe, or cast-iron soil pipe. The
latter, with poured and calked lead joints makes a permanently water-tight and root-proof sewer,
which always should be used where the vicinity of a well must be passed; 4, 5, or 6-inch pipe may
be used, depending mainly on the fall and in less degree on the quantity of sewage discharged. As
a measure of economy the 4-inch size is favored for iron pipe. If vitrified pipe is used, either the 5
or 6 inch size is preferable, as these sizes are made straighter than the 4-inch size and are less
liable to obstruction. Of the two the 5-inch size is preferable. The fall in 100 feet should never be
less than 2 feet for 4-inch size, 1½ feet for 5-inch size, 1 foot for 6-inch size.
Figure 21 shows methods of making good joints. A, B, C, D, E, F, and G are ordinary sewer pipe
joints; H, is cast-iron soil pipe.
A shows the use of a yarning iron to pack a small strand of jute into the joint space, thus centering the pipes
and preventing the joint filler running inside. The joint surfaces should be free of dirt and oil. The jute is cut in
lengths to go around the pipe; a small strand is soaked in neat Portland cement grout, then twisted and
wrapped around the small end of the pipe to be pushed into the hub of the last pipe laid. After the pipe is
pushed home the jute is packed evenly to a depth of not over ½ inch, leaving about 1½ inches for the joint
filler. Old hemp rope or oakum dipped in liquid cement or paper may be used in place of jute, and the packing
may be done with a thin file or piece of wood.
B shows the use of a rubber mitten or glove to force Portland cement mortar into the joint space. The mortar
should be thoroughly and freshly mixed in the proportion of one volume of cement to one volume of clean sand
and should be pressed and tamped to fill the joint completely.
C shows a section of finished joint. The fresh mortar should not
be loosened or disturbed when laying the next pipe.
D shows method of pouring a joint with grout, which is quicker,
cheaper, and better than using a rubber mitten. A flexible
sheet-metal form or mold, oiled to prevent the grout sticking, is
clamped tightly around the joint and is completely filled with
grout consisting of equal parts of Portland cement and clean
sand mixed dry, to which water is added to produce a creamy
consistency. The pipes should not be disturbed and the form
should not be removed for 24 hours.
E shows a section of grouted joint, well rounded out, strong,
and tight.
F shows the use of a pipe jointer for pouring a hot filler. The
pipe jointer may be an asbestos or rubber runner or collar or a
piece, of garden hose clamped around the pipe leaving a small
triangular opening at the top. The jointer is pressed firmly
against the hub, and any small openings between the jointer
and pipe are smeared with plastic clay to prevent leakage of
the filler. A clay dike or funnel about 3 inches high built around
the triangular opening greatly aids rapid and complete filling of
the joint space. The filler may be a commercially prepared
bituminous compound or molten sulphur and fine sand. The
former makes a slightly elastic joint; the latter a hard
unyielding joint. With good workmanship both kinds of joint are
practically water-tight and root-proof, and cost about the same
as cement mortar joints. The filler is heated in an iron kettle
over a wood, coke, or coal fire. It should be well stirred, and
when at a free running consistency should be poured with a
ladle large enough to fill the joint completely at one operation.
As soon as the compound cools the jointer is removed.
Sulphur-sand filler is made by mixing together dry and melting
equal volumes of ordinary powdered sulphur and very fine
clean sand, preferably the finest quicksand. A 5-inch sewer pipe
joint requires from three-tenths to nine-tenths of a pound
(according to the kind of pipe) of sulphur, worth 3 to 5 cents
per pound, and a like quantity of sand. From ½ to 1½ pounds
Fig. 21.—How to make good joints. See text for of bituminous filler are required for a 5-inch pipe joint.
directions and specifications.
G shows section of finished joint.
H shows the use of a pouring ladle in making lead joints in
cast-iron soil pipe. This pipe is in lengths to lay 5 feet, and the metal of the barrel is ¼ inch thick. The joint is
yarned with dry jute or oakum, as described above, and is poured full with molten, soft, pig lead to be
afterwards driven tightly with hammer and calking tools. About 1 pound of lead for each inch in diameter of
pipe is required. Prepared cements of varying composition have proved effective,, and, as they require no
calking, are economical. Among the best is a finely ground, thoroughly mixed compound of iron, sulphur, slag,
and salt.
I is a home-made pipe jointer or clay roll for use in pouring molten lead. A strand of jute long enough to
encircle the pipe and the ends to fold back, leaving an opening at the top, is covered with clay moistened,
rolled, and worked to form a plastic rope about 1 inch in diameter. The jointer gives the very best results but
must be frequently moistened and worked to keep the clay soft and pliable. The jointer shown in F is frequently
used for pouring lead joints.
Obstructions in house sewers are frequent. Among the causes are broken pipes, grade insufficient
to give cleansing velocities, newspaper, rags, garbage, or other solids in the sewage, congealing of
grease in pipes and main running traps (house sewer traps), and poor joint construction whereby
rootlets grow into the sewer and choke it. Good grade and good construction, with particular care
given to the joints, will avert or lessen these troubles. The sewer should be perfectly straight, with
the interior of the joints scraped or swabbed smooth. When the joint-filling material has set, the
hollows beneath the hubs should be filled with good earth free of stones, well tamped or puddled
in place. It is important that like material be used at the sides of the pipe and above it for at least
1 foot. The back filling may be completed with scraper or plow. No running trap should be placed
on the house sewer, because it is liable to become obstructed and it prevents free movement of air
through the sewer and soil stack. Conductors or drains for rain or other clean water should never
connect with the house sewer, but should discharge into a watercourse or other outlet.
Where obstruction of a house sewer occurs, use of some of the simple tools shown in figure 22
may remedy the trouble. It is not likely that farmers will have these appliances, except possibly
some of the augers; but some of them can be made at home or by a blacksmith, and most of
them should be obtainable for temporary use from a well-organized town or city sewer
department. The purpose of the several tools shown is indicated in the notation.
The tank.—The septic tank should be in an isolated location at least 50 to 100 feet from any
dwelling. This is not always possible, because of flat ground, but in many such instances
reasonable distance and fall may be secured by raising both the house sewer and tank and
embanking them with earth. Cases are known where tanks adjoin cellar or basement walls and the
top of the tank is used as a doorstep; in other cases tanks have been constructed within buildings.
Such practices are bad. It is difficulty to construct an absolutely water-tight masonry tank, and still
more difficult to make it proof against the passage of sewage odors.
In Northern States, particularly in exposed situations, it is desirable to have the top of the tank 1
to 2 feet underground, thus promoting warmth and uniformity of temperature in the sewage. In
Southern States this feature is less important, and the top of the tank may be flush with the
ground. Every tank should be tightly covered, for the reason above stated and to guard against
the spread of odors, the transmission of disease germs by flies, and accidents to children.
Fig. 22.—Sewer-cleaning tools—how to use them. A, Ordinary 1½ or 2 inch
auger welded to a piece of ¾-inch extra-strong wrought pipe about 5 feet
long; the stem is lengthened by adding other pieces of pipe with screw
couplings, and is fitted with a pipe handle; all cleaning work should
proceed upstream; B, twist or open earth auger; C, ribbon or closed earth
auger; D, spiral or coal auger; E, ship auger; F, root cutter; G, sewer rods
with hook coupling, usually of hickory or ash 1 or 11 inches in diameter
and 3 or 4 feet long; H, gouge for cutting obstructions; I, scoop for
removing sand or similar material; J, claw, and K, screw, for removing
paper or rags; L, scraper; M, wire brush for removing grease, drawn back
and forth with a wire or rope; N, home-made wire brush (for a 5-inch
sewer use a 1½-inch wooden pole to which is securely tacked a piece of
heavy rubber, canvas or leather belting or harness leather 5½ by 8
inches, spirally studded, as shown, with ordinary wire nails 1½ inches in
length).
Considerable latitude is allowable in the design and construction of septic tanks. No particular
shape or exact dimensions can be presented for a given number of people. One family of 5
persons may use as much water as another family of 10 persons; hence the quantity of sewage
rather than the number of persons is the better basis of design. Exact dimensions are not
requisite, for settlement and septicization proceed whether the sewage is held a few hours more
or a few hours less. As to materials of construction some form of masonry, either brick, building
tile, rubble, concrete, or cement block, is employed generally. Vitrified pipe, steel, and wood have
been used occasionally.
A plant for use all year round should have two chambers, one to secure settlement and
septicization of the solids and the other to secure periodic discharge of the effluent by the use of
an automatic sewage siphon. The first chamber is known as the settling chamber, the second as
the siphon or dosing chamber. The siphon chamber is often omitted and the effluent is allowed to
dribble away through subsurface tile, as illustrated in figures 17 and 18. The latter procedure is
not generally advised, but may be permissible where the land slopes sharply or has long periods of
rest, as at summer houses and camps.
The septic tanks shown in this bulletin are designed to satisfy the following conditions:
1. Water consumption of 40 gallons per person per day of 24 hours.
2. A detention period of about 24 hours; that is, the capacity of the settling chamber below the
flow line is approximately equal to the quantity of sewage discharged from the house in 24 hours.
3. Where a siphon chamber is provided, its size is such that the dose of sewage shall be
approximately equal to 20 gallons per person; that is, the capacity of the siphon chamber between
the discharge and low-water lines is roughly equal to the quantity of sewage discharged in 12
hours.
A simple one-chamber brick tank suitable for a household
discharging 180 to 280 gallons of sewage daily is shown
in figure 23. A small two-chamber tank constructed of
24-inch vitrified pipe, suitable for a household
discharging about 125 gallons of sewage daily, is shown
in figure 24. A typical two-chamber concrete tank is
shown in figure 25. Excepting the submerged outlet, all
pipes within the tank and built into the masonry are cast-
iron soil pipe with cast-iron fittings. Vitrified or concrete
sewer pipe and specials are generally used as they are
Fig. 23.—One-chamber septic tank—does nothing frequently more readily obtainable and a slight saving in
more than a tight cesspool. Brick construction, first cost may be effected. Cast iron is less liable to be
heavily plastered inside; size suitable for 180 to
280 gallons of sewage daily (nominally 4 to 7
broken in handling or after being set rigidly in masonry,
persons). and the joints are more easily made water-tight. The
submerged outlet is midway of the depth of liquid in the
settling chamber. The inside depth of the siphon chamber
is the drawing depth of the siphon plus 1 foot 5 inches.
The following table gives the principal dimensions with quantities of materials for four sizes of tank
as illustrated in figure 25:
Dimensions and quantities for septic tanks.

Settling chamber.
Number of Quantity of sewage in
Capacity below
persons. 24 hours. Length. Depth. Width. W. X. Y. Z.
flow line.
Galls. Galls. Ft. In. Ft. In. Ft. In. In. Ft.In. In. In.
5 180-280 240 4 0 5 0 2 0 6 2 0 4 6
10 320-480 420 5 0 5 6 2 6 6 2 3 4 6
15 520-680 620 5 6 6 0 3 0 8 2 6 5 8
20 720-960 860 6 0 6 6 3 6 8 2 9 5 8
Reinforcement
Quantity in top slab
Number of Siphon chamber. (strip of
of sewage Concrete. Cement. Sand. Stone. heavy stock
persons. in 24 fencing).
hours.
Length. Depth. Width. A. B. C. D. Length. Width.
Cu. Cu.
Galls. Ft. In. Ft. In. Ft. In. In. In. In. In. Cu. Yd. Bbls. Ft. In.
Yd. Yd.
5 180-280 5 0 2 8 2 0 3 4 15 18¼ 3 4½ 1⅓ 2⅔ 10 3
10 320-480 8 0 2 8 2 6 3 4 15 20¼ 4¼ 6¼ 2 3¾ 14 3
15 520-680 8 8 2 10 3 0 4 4 17 20¼ 6⅔ 9¾ 3 6 15⅔ 4
20 720-960 10 0 2 10 3 6 4 4 17 20¼ 8 12 3½ 7 17½ 5
Siphons.—Reference has already been made to the vital importance of air in sewage filtration. If
the spaces within a filter or soil are constantly filled with water, air is excluded, and the action of
the filtering material is merely that of a mechanical strainer with its clogging tendency. The
purpose of a siphon is twofold: (1) To secure intermittent discharge, thus allowing a considerable
period of time for one dose to work off in the soil and for air to enter the soil spaces before
another flush is received; (2) to secure distribution over a larger area and in a more even manner
than where the sewage is allowed to dribble and produce the conditions of the old-fashioned sink
drain—namely, a small area of water-logged ground.
Fig. 24.—Two-chamber septic tank, simple and inexpensive. Constructed of

24-inch vitrified sewer pipe; size suitable for 125 gallons of sewage
daily (nominally 3 persons). A, House sewer; B, settling chamber, made
of one double T branch and one length of straight pipe, each 3 feet
long and 2 feet in diameter, supported by 4 inches of concrete, all joints
made water-tight; C, submerged outlet, consisting of a metal T slipped
into the sewer-pipe branch; D, wire screen, 2-inch mesh; E, siphon
chamber made of one T branch 3 feet long and 2 feet in diameter; F,
siphon; G, 3-inch overflow; H, sewer to distribution field; I, tight cover
with lifting ring; J, concrete protection around sewer-pipe hubs.
>Fig. 25.—Typical two-chamber concrete septic tank. (See table for

dimensions and quantities for different sizes.)
Three types of sewage siphon are shown in figure 26. In all, the essential principle is the same: A
column of air is entrapped between two columns of water; when the water in the chamber rises to
a predetermined height, called the discharge line, the pressure forces out the confined air,
destroying the balance and causing a rush of water through the siphon to the sewer. The entire
operation is automatic and very simple. The siphons shown are commercial products made of cast
iron; they have few parts and none that move, and the whole construction is simple and durable.
The table (fig. 26) lists stock sizes adapted to farm use. Manufacturers furnish full information for
setting their siphons and putting them in operation. For example, take type 2, figure 26: (1) Set
siphon trap (U-shaped pipe) plumb, making E (height from floor to top of long leg) as specified;
(2) fill siphon trap with water till it begins to run out at B; (3) place bell in position on top of long
leg, and the siphon is ready for service. Do not fill vent pipe on side of bell.
Type 2
INCHES
Diameter of siphon A 3 3 4 4
Diameter of outlet B 4 4 4 4
Drawing depth C 13 15 14 17
Depth to floor D 16¼ 18¼ 17¼ 20¼
Height above floor E 7¼ 9¼ 8¾ 11¾
Clearance under bell F 2 2 2 2
Inside bottom of outlet, to
G 20½ 22½ 22¾ 25¾
discharge line
Discharge line, to top of wall H
Depth of outlet sump I
Length and width of outlet
J
sump
Diameter of carrier (R), R 4 4 4 4
and minimum fall (S)
S 2 ft. 2 ft. 7 ft. 8 ft.
in feet per 100 feet
R 5 5 5 5
S 1½ ft. 1½ ft. 2 ft. 2½ ft.
R 6 6 6 6
S 1 ft. 1 ft. 1 ft. 1 ft.
Type 3 Type 1
INCHES INCHES
Diameter of siphon A 3 3 4 4 4
Diameter of outlet B
Drawing depth C 13 15 14 17 5
Depth to floor D 17 17 19 22 15
Height above floor E 13 13 15 18 19
Clearance under bell F
Inside bottom of outlet, to
G 19 21 20 25
discharge line
Discharge line, to top of wall H 6 6 8 8
Depth of outlet sump I 13 13 11 12
Length and width of outlet sump J 18 19 19 18
[Transcriber Note: The data for Type 1 Siphon has been added to the
table.]
Fig. 26.—Three types of sewage siphon. The table gives dimensions for
setting standard 3 and 4 inch siphons; also the appropriate size and
grade of the sewer to carry the siphon discharge.
The overhead siphon, type 3, figure 26, may be installed readily in a tank already built by addition
of an outlet sump. If properly set and handled, sewage siphons require very little attention and
flush with certainty. Like all plumbing fixtures they are liable to stoppage if rags, newspaper, and
similar solids get into the sewage. If fouling of the sniffing hole or vent prevents the entrance of
sufficient air into the bell to lock the siphon properly, allowing sewage to dribble through, the
remedy is to clean the siphon. Siphons are for handling liquid; sludge if allowed to accumulate will
choke them.
Submerged outlet.—The purpose of a submerged outlet is to take the outflow from a point
between the sludge at the bottom and the floating solids or scum. The outlet in figure 25 may be
readily made of sheet metal by a tinsmith. Wrought iron or steel pipe with elbows or light lead
pipe may be used, the pipe being set in the concrete and left in place. Sometimes a galvanized
wire screen (¼-inch mesh) is fitted over the inner end to prevent large solids leaving the settling
chamber and possibly clogging the siphon or distribution tile. If a screen is used it should be easily
removable for cleaning.
Fig. 27.—Home-made reinforced concrete covers. (1) Slabs placed

crosswise permit uncovering the whole tank for cleaning, but as
inspection is somewhat difficult, cleaning is the more likely to be
neglected; (2) manhole, 18 inches square; cover, 22 by 22 by 3
inches thick, easy to make and to slide or lift from the opening.
Manhole frame and cover.—The frame and cover shown in figure 25 are stock patterns made
of cast iron and weighing about 250 pounds per set. The cover is 21 inches in diameter; it is tight
and, on account of its weight, is unlikely to be disturbed by small children. The frame or rim is
about 7 inches high and 31 inches in longest diameter. If desired, light cast-iron cistern or cesspool
covers obtainable from plumbing supply houses, home-made slabs of reinforced concrete (see fig.
27), or wooden covers (see fig. 23) may be used.
Overflow.—The purpose of an overflow is to pass sewage to the distribution field should the
siphon stop working. The overflow (fig. 25) is a 3-inch riser pipe with top 3 inches above the
discharge line and the bottom calked or cemented into the side outlet of a T-branch. The run of
the T-branch should correspond with the size of the sewer from the tank to the distribution field.
If this sewer is 4-inch pipe, a 4 by 3 inch T-branch is used, the 4-inch spigot end of the siphon
being calked or cemented into the branch, as shown in figure 25; if the sewer is 5-inch, a 5 by 3
inch T-branch is used and connected to the siphon with a 5-inch to 4-inch reducer (in vitrified
specials the equivalent is a 4-inch to 5-inch increaser); if the sewer is 6-inch, a 6 by 3 inch T-
branch is used and connected to the siphon with a 6-inch to 4-inch reducer.
Concrete work.—Before excavation for the tank is begun, two wooden forms should be built for
shaping the inside of the settling and siphon chambers. In most instances the ground is fairly firm,

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