Unit-III

SINLE PHASE TRANSFORMERS

3.1 Introduction
The transformer is probably one of the most useful electrical devices ever invented. It
can change the magnitude of alternating voltage or current from one value to another. This
useful property of transformer is mainly responsible for the widespread use of alternating
currents rather than direct currents i.e., electric power is generated, transmitted and
distributed in the form of alternating current. Transformers have no moving parts, rugged and
durable in construction, thus requiring very little attention. They also have a very high
efficiency—as high as 99%.
A transformer is a static piece of equipment used either for raising or lowering the
voltage of an a.c. supply with a corresponding decrease or increase in current. It essentially
consists of two windings, the primary and secondary, wound on a common laminated
magnetic core as shown in Fig. (5.1). The winding connected to the a.c. source is called
primary winding (or primary) and the one connected to load is called secondary winding (or
secondary). The alternating voltage whose magnitude is to be changed is applied to the
primary. Depending upon the number of turns of the primary and secondary ( ), an
alternating e.m.f. is induced in the secondary. This induced e.m.f. in the secondary
causes a secondary current . Consequently, terminal voltage will appear across the load.
If , it is called a step up-transformer. On the other hand, if , it is called a step-
down transformer.

3.2 Working Principle of a Transformer

 A transformer is a static (or stationary) piece of apparatus by means of which electric
power in one circuit is transformed into electric power of the same frequency in another
circuit. It can raise or lower the
voltage in a circuit but with a
corresponding decrease or
increase in current. The physical
basis of a transformer is mutual
induction between two circuits
linked by a common magnetic
flux. In its simplest form, it
consists of two inductive coils
which are electrically separated but magnetically linked through a path of low reluctance as
shown in Fig. 5.2. The two coils possess high mutual inductance. If one coil is connected to a
source of alternating voltage, an alternating flux is set up in the laminated core, most of
which is linked with the other coil in which it produces mutually-induced e.m.f. (according to
Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction e = MdI/dt). If the second coil circuit is
closed, a current flows in it and so electric energy is transferred (entirely magnetically) from
the first coil to the second coil. The first coil, in which electric energy is fed from the a.c.
supply mains, is called primary winding and the other from which energy is drawn out, is
called secondary winding. In brief, a transformer is a device that
1. transfers electric power from one circuit to another
2. it does so without a change of frequency
3. it accomplishes this by electromagnetic induction and
4. where the two electric circuits are in mutual inductive influence of each other.
When an alternating voltage is applied to the primary, an alternating flux is set
up in the core. This alternating flux links both the windings and induces e.m.f.s and in
them according to Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction. The e.m.f. is termed as
primary e.m.f. and e.m.f. is termed as secondary e.m.f.
The losses that occur in a transformer are:
a) Core losses—eddy current and hysteresis losses
b) Copper losses—in the resistance of the windings
In practice, these losses are very small so that output power is nearly equal to the
input primary power. In other words, a transformer has very high efficiency.
(i) Transformer on DC
A transformer cannot be operate on dc supply and never be connected to a dc source.
If a rated dc voltage is applied to the primary of a transformer, the flux produce in the
transformer core will not vary but remain constant in magnitude and, therefore, no emf will
be included in the secondary winding except at the moment of switching on. Thus the
transformer is not capable of raising or lowering the dc voltage. Also there will be no self
induced emf in the primary winding, which is only possible with varying flux linkage, to
oppose the applied voltage and since the resistance of primary winding is quite low,
therefore, a heavy current will flow through the primary winding which may result in the
burning out of the primary winding. This is reason that dc is never applied to a transformer.

3.3 Transformer Construction

The simple elements of a transformer consist of two coils having mutual inductance
and a laminated steel core. The two coils are insulated from each other and the steel core.
Other necessary parts are: some suitable container for assembled core and windings; a
suitable medium for insulating the core and its windings from its container; suitable bushings
(either of porcelain, oil-filled or capacitor-type) for
insulating and bringing out the terminals of windings
from the tank. In all types of transformers, the core is
constructed of transformer sheet steel laminations
assembled to provide a continuous magnetic path with a
minimum of air-gap included. The steel used is of high
silicon content, sometimes heat treated to produce a high
permeability and a low hysteresis loss at the usual
operating flux densities. The eddy current loss is minimised by laminating the core, the
laminations being insulated from each other by a light coat of core-plate varnish or by an
oxide layer on the surface. The thickness of laminations varies from 0.35 mm for a frequency
of 50 Hz to 0.5 mm for a frequency of 25 Hz. The core laminations (in the form of strips) are
joined as shown in Fig. 5.2. It is seen that the joints in the alternate layers are staggered in
order to avoid the presence of narrow gaps right through the cross-section of the core. Such
staggered joints are said to be ‘imbricated’.
3.4 Types of Transformers
Constructionally, the
transformers are of two
general types, distinguished
from each other merely by the
manner in which the primary
and secondary coils are placed
around the laminated core. The
two types are known as
(i) core-type and
(ii) shelltype.
(iii) Another recent development is spiral-core or wound-core type, the trade
name being spirakore transformer.
In the so-called core type transformers, the windings surround a considerable part
of the core whereas in shell-type transformers, the core surrounds a considerable portion
of the windings as shown schematically in Fig. 5.4 (a) and (b) respectively.

In the simplified diagram for the core type transformers [Fig. 5.4 (a)], the primary and
secondary winding are shown located on the opposite legs (or limbs) of the core, but in actual
construction, these are always interleaved to reduce leakage flux. As shown in Fig. 5.5, half
the primary and half the secondary winding have been placed side by side or concentrically
on each limb, not primary on one limb (or leg) and the secondary on the other.
 In both core and shell-type transformers, the individual laminations are cut in the form
of long strips of L’s, E’s and I’s as shown in Fig. 5.6. The assembly of the complete core for
the two types of transformers is shown in Fig. 5.7 and Fig. 5.8.

As said above, in order to avoid high reluctance at the joints where the laminations are
butted against each other, the
alternate layers are stacked
differently to eliminate these joints as
shown in Fig. 5.7 and Fig. 5.8.
(i) Core-type Transformers
The coils used are form-
wound and are of the cylindrical type. The general form of these coils may be circular or oval
or rectangular. In small size core-type transformers, a simple rectangular core is used with
cylindrical coils which are either circular or rectangular in form. But for large-size core-type
transformers, round or circular cylindrical coils are used which are so wound as to fit over a
cruciform core section as shown in Fig. 5.9(a). The circular cylindrical coils are used in most
of the core-type transformers because of their mechanical strength. Such cylindrical coils are
wound in helical layers with the different layers insulated from each other by paper, cloth,
micarta board or cooling ducts.
 Fig. 5.9(c) shows the general arrangement of these coils with respect to the core.
Insulating cylinders of fuller board are used to separate the cylindrical windings from the core
and from each other. Since the low voltage (LV) winding is easiest to insulate, it is placed
nearest to the core (Fig. 5.9).
Because of laminations and insulation, the net or effective core area is reduced, due
allowance for which has to be made (Ex. 5.7). It is found that, in general, the reduction in
core sectional area due to the presence of paper, surface oxide etc. is of the order of 10%
approximately.

As pointed out above, rectangular cores with rectangular cylindrical coils can be used
for small-size core-type transformers as shown in Fig. 5.10 (a) but for large-sized
transformers, it becomes wasteful to use rectangular cylindrical coils and so circular
cylindrical coils are preferred. For such purposes, square cores may be used as shown in Fig.
5.10 (b) where circles represent the tubular former carrying the coils. Obviously, a
considerable amount of useful space is still wasted.
 A common improvement on square core is to employ cruciform core as in Fig. 5.10
(c) which demands, at least, two sizes of core strips. For very large transformers, further core-
stepping is done as in Fig. 5.10 (d) where at least three sizes of core plates are necessary.
Core-stepping not only gives high space factor but also results in reduced length of the mean
turn and the consequent loss. Three stepped core is the one most commonly used
although more steps may be used for very large transformers as in Fig. 5.10 (e). From the
geometry of Fig. 5.10, it can be shown that maximum gross core section for Fig. 5.10 (b) is
0.5 d2 and for Fig. 5.10 (c) it is 0.616 d2 where d is the diameter of the cylindrical coil.

(ii) Shell-type Transformers

In these case also, the coils are form-would but are multi-layer disc type usually
wound in the form of pancakes. The different layers of such multi-layer discs are insulated
from each other by paper. The complete winding consists of stacked discs with insulation
space between the coils–the spaces forming horizontal cooling and insulating ducts. A shell-
type transformer may have a simple rectangular form as shown in Fig. 5.11 or it may have
distributed form as shown in Fig. 5.12.
 A very commonly-used shell-type transformer is the one known as Berry
Transformer–so called after the name of its designer and is cylindrical in form. The
transformer core consists of laminations arranged in groups which radiate out from the centre
as shown in section in Fig. 5.13.

It may be pointed out that cores and coils of transformers must be provided with rigid
mechanical bracing in order to prevent movement and possible insulation damage. Good
bracing reduces vibration and the objectionable noise–a humming sound–during operation.
The spiral-core transformer employs the newest development in core construction.
The core is assembled of a continuous strip or ribbon of transformer steel wound in the form
of a circular or elliptical cylinder. Such construction allows the core flux to follow the grain
of the iron. Cold-rolled steel of high silicon content enables the designer to use considerably
higher operating flux densities with lower loss per kg. The use of higher flux density reduces
the weight per kVA. Hence, the advantages of such construction are
i. a relatively more rigid core
ii. lesser weight and size per kVA rating
iii. lower iron losses at higher operating flux densities and
iv. Lower cost of manufacture.
Transformers are generally housed in tightly-fitted sheet-metal; tanks filled with
special insulating oil*. This oil has been highly developed and its function is two-fold. By
circulation, it not only keeps the coils reasonably cool, but also provides the transformer with
additional insulation not obtainable when the transformer is left in the air.
In cases where a smooth tank surface does not provide sufficient cooling area, the
sides of the tank are corrugated or provided with radiators mounted on the sides. Good
transformer oil should be absolutely free from alkalies, sulphur and particularly from
moisture. The presence of even an extremely small percentage of moisture in the oil is highly
detrimental from the insulation viewpoint because it lowers the dielectric strength of the oil
considerably. The importance of avoiding moisture in the transformer oil is clear from the
fact that even an addition of 8 parts of water in 1,000,000 reduces the insulating quality of the
oil to a value generally recognized as below standard. Hence, the tanks are sealed air-tight in
smaller units. In the case of large-sized transformers where complete air-tight construction is
impossible, chambers known as breathers are provided to permit the oil inside the tank to
expand and contract as its temperature increases or decreases. The atmospheric moisture is
entrapped in these breathers and is not allowed to pass on to the oil. Another thing to avoid in
the oil is sledging which is simply the decomposition of oil with long and continued use.
Sledging is caused principally by exposure to oxygen during heating and results in the
formation of large deposits of dark and heavy matter that eventually clogs the cooling ducts
in the transformer.
No other feature in the construction of a transformer is given more attention and care
than the insulating materials, because the life on the unit almost solely depends on the
quality, durability and handling of these materials. All the insulating materials are selected on
the basis of their high quality and ability to preserve high quality even after many years of
normal use.
All the transformer leads are brought out of their cases through suitable bushings.
There are many designs of these, their size and construction depending on the voltage of the
leads. For moderate voltages, porcelain bushings are used to insulate the leads as they come
out through the tank. In general, they look almost like the insulators used on the transmission
lines. In high voltage installations, oil-filled or capacitor type bushings are employed.
The choice of core or shell-type construction is usually determined by cost, because
similar characteristics can be obtained with both types. For very high-voltage transformers or
for multi winding design, shell type construction is preferred by many manufacturers. In this
type, usually the mean length of coil turn is longer than in a comparable core-type design.
Both core and shell forms are used and the selection is decided by many factors such as
voltage rating, kVA rating, weight, insulation stress, heat distribution etc.
2nd Classification
Another means of classifying the transformers is according to the type of cooling
employed. The following types are in common use:
a) oil-filled self-cooled
b) oil-filled water-cooled
c) air-blast type
 Small and medium size distribution transformers–so called because of their use on
distribution systems as distinguished from line transmission–are of type (a). The assembled
windings and cores of such transformers are mounted in a welded, oil-tight steel tank
provided with steel cover. After putting the core at its proper place, the tank is filled with
purified, high quality insulating oil. The oil serves to convey the heat from the core and the
windings to the case from where it is radiated out to the surroundings. For small size, the
tanks are usually smooth-surfaced, but for larger sizes, the cases are frequently corrugated or
fluted to get greater heat radiation area without increasing the cubical capacity of the tank.
Still larger sizes are provided with radiators or pipes.
Construction of very large self-cooled transformers is expensive, a more economical
form of construction for such large transformers is provided in the oil-immersed, water-
cooled type. As before, the windings and the core are immersed in the oil, but there is
mounted near the surface of oil, a cooling coil through which cold water is kept circulating.
The heat is carried away by this water. The largest transformers such as those used with high-
voltage transmission lines, are constructed in this manner.
Oil-filled transformers are built for outdoor duty and as these require no housing other
than their own, a great saving is thereby effected. These transformers require only periodic
inspection.
For voltages below 25,000 V, transformers can be built for cooling by means of an
air-blast. The transformer is not immersed in oil, but is housed in a thin sheet-metal box open
at both ends through which air is blown from the bottom to the top by means of a fan or
blower.
3.5 Concept of ideal transformer
An ideal transformer is one which has
1. Its windings have no ohmic resistance and hence which has no losses.
2. There is no magnetic leakage and hence which has no core losses. In other words, an
ideal transformer consists of two purely inductive coils wound on a loss-free core (or
Leakage flux is zero i.e. 100% flux produced by primary links with the secondary).
3. Permeability of core is so high that negligible current is required to establish the flux
in it.
Although ideal transformer cannot be physically realized, yet its study provides a very
powerful tool in the analysis of a practical transformer. In fact, practical transformers have
properties that approach very close to an ideal transformer.