Reviewer for Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs)

Definition: A Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) is a specialized digital computer used

for automation of electromechanical processes, such as control of machinery on factory assembly
lines, amusement rides, or light fixtures. PLCs are designed to handle multiple inputs and outputs
to manage complex systems effectively.
Historical Context: Initially, PLCs were primarily used for simple on-off control or logical
operations. Over time, advancements in technology have made PLCs capable of performing
complex control tasks, integrating features like PID control, data logging, and networking
capabilities.

Control Dynamics
• Dynamic Systems: When implementing a control system, it is crucial to understand the
dynamics of the system being controlled. For example, in a reservoir control application,
the PLC monitors water levels and adjusts the pumping rate accordingly.
• Integral Control: This approach adjusts the output based on the accumulated error over
time. However, using pure integral control in systems like tanks can lead to instability
(self-sustained oscillations). Therefore, it is essential to analyze the combined dynamics
of the control law and the system.

Industrial Robustness of PLCs

• Design for Durability: Unlike personal computers, which can freeze or crash, PLCs are
built to endure harsh industrial environments, including extreme temperatures, vibrations,
and electromagnetic interference.
• Applications in Mining: PLCs are commonly used in the mining sector for controlling
large mobile equipment, ensuring reliable operation even under challenging conditions.

Typical Areas of Application

• Continuous Operation: PLCs are favored in industrial settings for their ability to run
continuously for extended periods, often measured in months or years without
interruption. This reliability makes them suitable for critical control applications in
manufacturing, processing, and infrastructure.

Ladder Logic
• Definition: Ladder Logic is the most widely used programming language for PLCs,
resembling electrical relay logic diagrams. It visually represents the control processes in a
format that mimics electrical circuits.
 • Relay Ladder Logic: This is the foundational programming concept where logic
operations are represented using relay symbols. Each rung of the ladder represents a
specific control condition or action.

Ladder Logic Instructions

• Basic Instructions: Ladder Logic allows for simple control tasks through basic
instructions. Common instructions include:
o Contacts: Represent conditions (e.g., whether a switch is open or closed).
o Coils: Represent outputs (e.g., energizing a motor).
• Advanced Instructions: PLCs support a wide range of instructions, from timers and
counters to complex control functions like PID controllers and arithmetic operations.

Multi Input/Output Rungs

• Logical Operations: When multiple inputs are used in series, they function as a Boolean
AND operation, meaning all conditions must be true for the output to activate.
Conversely, using bridges in rungs represents a Boolean OR operation, where only one
condition needs to be true.
• Multi-Output Rungs: Outputs can be controlled simultaneously, but they must be
arranged in parallel to maintain clarity and avoid logical conflicts.

Start-Stop Rung Example

• Push Button Control: A typical start-stop control circuit uses push buttons to activate or
deactivate outputs. For instance, pressing the start button energizes a coil, turning on a
motor, while pressing the stop button deactivates the coil, turning the motor off.
• Latching Logic: The coil remains energized even after the start button is released,
showcasing latching behavior, which provides a maintained output until a stop condition
is met.

Other PLC Programming Languages

• Variety of Languages: Besides Ladder Logic, PLCs may utilize several programming
languages:
o Structured Text: Similar to high-level programming languages, using
conditional statements (if-then-else) and loops.
o Sequential Function Chart (SFC): A graphical representation resembling
flowcharts for sequential control processes.
PLC Modules
• Modular Components: PLCs consist of various modules that simplify design,
installation, and maintenance. These include:
o Digital I/O Modules: Handle on/off signals from switches and sensors,
commonly using 24V DC or 120V AC.
o Analog I/O Modules: Process variable signals (e.g., temperature, pressure) in
voltage or current form, typically using 4-20 mA current loops for reliability.

Memory and Addressing

• Memory Organization: PLC memory is structured into data files, each assigned a
unique identifier and character prefix (e.g., timers, counters).
• Addressing Format: The addressing format specifies the physical location of I/O points,
allowing precise control of connected devices (e.g., I:12/03 for a specific input).

PLC Programming Architecture

• Subroutines: Programs can be broken down into subroutines, which are executed in a
specific order. This modular approach enhances code organization and troubleshooting.
• Example Structure: Programs might include subroutines for different control tasks, like
pump sequencing or alarm reporting.

Commercially Available PLCs

• Examples of PLC Brands: Various brands offer PLC solutions, including:
o Allen-Bradley (Rockwell Automation): Known for user-friendly programming
and robust applications.
o Siemens Simatic: Offers a wide range of PLCs with advanced features and
networking capabilities.
o Modicon TSX: Recognized for its flexibility and scalability in industrial
automation.

PLC Terminology
• On-line vs. Off-line: Refers to the current program in the PLC memory (on-line) versus
the stored version on a computer (off-line).
• Upload/Download: Involves transferring code between the PLC and the programming
computer, with care needed to prevent data loss.
• Run/Program Mode: Indicates whether the PLC is actively executing control logic or is
in a state for programming.
Programming Procedure
• On-line Edits: Changes can be made to the PLC program while it is running. The
procedure involves inserting edit rungs, testing them, and then assembling the code for
permanent updates.

Programming Example
• Ladder Logic Example: A simple start-stop ladder logic diagram illustrates how to
control a motor using push buttons, detailing the input addresses and output actions.

Ladder Logic Example:

Reviewer for Control Systems

Introduction to Control Systems

• Control Systems: Interconnected components designed to achieve a desired purpose.
• System: Interconnection of elements and devices.
• Control System: A configuration providing a desired response.
• Process: The device or plant under control, illustrating the cause-and-effect relationship.

Key Types of Control Systems

1. Multivariable Control Systems: Handle multiple input and output variables.

2. Open-Loop Control Systems: Use a controller to obtain the desired response without feedback.
3. Closed-Loop Control Systems: Employ feedback to compare actual output with the desired
output.

Historical Context

• Watt’s Flyball Governor: 18th-century device regulating steam engine speed.

• Early Mechanisms: Float regulators in ancient Greece and Holland's temperature regulators.
• Advancements:
o 1920s: Automatic controllers for ships (Minorsky).
o 1930s: Nyquist stability analysis.
o 1940s: Frequency response methods for linear closed-loop systems.
o 1950s: Development of the root-locus method.
o 1960s: State-space and optimal control methods.
o 1980s: Exploration of learning controls.

Modern Control Systems

• Applications include advanced automobile control, energy efficiency improvements, and complex
manufacturing processes.
• Research extends to non-engineering systems like biological and socio-economic systems.

Control System Design

Design Example: Electric Ship Concept

• Integrated Power Systems reduce the number of prime movers, enhance fuel efficiency, and
simplify maintenance.
• Focus on automation and reducing auxiliary systems (e.g., steam and hydraulics).

Design Process

• Iterative Design: Addresses the design gap between the physical system and its model.
• Trade-offs: Complexity, performance, and cost must be balanced to meet specifications.

Mathematical Models of Systems

Six-Step Approach to Dynamic System Problems

1. Define the system and components.

2. Formulate the mathematical model with assumptions.
3. Write differential equations for the model.
4. Solve equations for desired outputs.
5. Analyze solutions and assumptions.
6. Reanalyze or redesign if necessary.

Differential Equations

• Describe the dynamic behavior of systems (mechanical, hydraulic, electrical).

• Linearization: Approximations used for nonlinear systems to apply Laplace transforms.
• Transfer Functions: Describe input-output relationships using mathematical models.
Laplace Transform
Definition and Application

• The Laplace transform converts time-domain functions into the frequency domain.
• Useful for analyzing linear time-invariant systems.

Key Properties

1. Linear Superposition: The response can be expressed as the sum of individual responses.
2. Initial-Value Theorem: Relates initial conditions to the Laplace transform.
3. Final-Value Theorem: Determines steady-state behavior.

Block Diagrams and Signal-Flow Graphs

Block Diagrams

• Graphical representation of control systems showing relationships between components.

• Reduction Methods: Simplify complex systems into equivalent transfer functions.
• A method to represent complex systems without needing reduction, focusing on the relationships
between system variables.

Transfer Functions of Linear Systems

• Describe the behavior of linear systems using Laplace transforms.
• Transfer functions help analyze stability, frequency response, and system dynamics.
Reviewer for System Models

• System Models: Abstract descriptions of systems for requirement analysis.

• Objectives:
o Explain the importance of modeling system context in the requirements engineering (RE)
process.
o Describe different modeling types:
▪ Behavioral modeling (Finite State Machines, Petri nets)
▪ Data modeling
▪ Object modeling (Unified Modeling Language, UML)

Importance of System Modeling

• User Requirements: Must be understandable by non-technical experts, often using natural
language.
• Detailed Requirements: Can be expressed more technically, typically documented as system
models.
• Graphical Representations: Help describe business processes and the system to be developed,
serving as a bridge between analysis and design.

System Modeling Perspectives

• External Perspective: Shows the system's context or environment.
• Behavioral Perspective: Illustrates the system's behavior.
• Structural Perspective: Displays system or data architecture.

Advantages of System Models

• Easier Understanding: Models are often clearer than verbose descriptions.
• Focused Abstraction: Emphasize important characteristics while omitting unnecessary details.
• Information Maintenance: Effective representations maintain essential system information.

Weaknesses of System Models

• Non-Functional Requirements: Typically do not address these aspects.
• Appropriateness: Models may not indicate if a method suits a given problem.
• Documentation Overload: Excessive documentation can be a drawback.
• Complexity: Some models may be too detailed for users to comprehend.

Types of System Models

1. Data Processing Model: Illustrates how data is processed at various stages.
2. Composition Model: Shows how entities are composed of other entities.
3. Architectural Model: Displays principal subsystems.
4. Classification Model: Defines entities with common characteristics.
5. Stimulus/Response Model: Depicts system reactions to events.
Context Models
• Purpose: Illustrate system boundaries.
• Challenges: Identifying boundaries can be complex, influenced by social and organizational
factors.
• Architectural Models: Show the system's relationship with other systems.

Process Models
• Definition: Show overall processes supported by the system.
• Data Flow Models: Illustrate processes and information flow from one process to another.

Behavioral Models
• Purpose: Describe system behavior.
• Types:
o Data Processing Models: Show how data is processed within the system.
o State Machine Models: Illustrate system responses to events.

Data Processing Models

• Data Flow Diagrams (DFDs):
o Used to model data processing steps as data flows through the system.
o Important for analysis, offering simple and intuitive notation.
• Utility: Document how data is processed, helping understand overall systems and data exchanges.

Statechart Diagrams
• Definition: Show system behavior in response to events.
• Components:
o States: Represent system conditions (rounded rectangles).
o Events: Cause transitions between states (arcs).
o Initial State: Denoted by a solid circle, optional.
o Final State: Represented by a solid circle with a ring.
• Actions: Described within states, detailing operations performe
•
 • Example: Microwave Oven Model

Finite State Machines (FSM)

• Definition: Models system behavior with a limited number of defined states.
• Components:
o States: Represent conditions or modes of the system.
o Input Alphabet: Represents possible inputs that can trigger transitions.
o Transition Function: Maps inputs and current states to next states.
• Behavior: Computation begins at the start state, changing states based on inputs and transitions.

Key Points
• Models are abstract views of systems, providing complementary information.
• Context Models: Illustrate system positioning within its environment.
• Data Flow Models: Document data processing.
• State Machine Models: Describe behavior in response to events.
Review of Transfer Function and Impulse Response Function

1. Transfer Function Definition

• Transfer Function (G(s)): For a linear time-invariant (LTI) system, it is defined as the ratio of
the Laplace transform of the output Y(s) to the Laplace transform of the input X(s) when initial
conditions are zero:

𝑌(𝑠)
𝐺(𝑠) =
𝑋(𝑠)

• Advantage of transfer function: It represents system dynamics by algebraic equations and

clearly shows the input-output relationship.

2. Comments on transfer function

• is limited to LTI systems.
• is an operator to relate the output variable to the input variable of a differential equation.
• is a property of a system itself, independent of the magnitude and nature of the input or
driving function.
• does not provide any information concerning the physical structure of the system. That
is, the transfer functions of many physically different systems can be identical.
5. Block Diagrams
• Definition: Pictorial representation of system components and their interactions.
• Components: Includes summing points, blocks (transfer functions), and branch points.

Closed-Loop Block Diagram

• Represents feedback systems where output is fed back into the input.

6. Open-Loop and Feedforward Transfer Functions

• Open-Loop Transfer Function: Ratio of the feedback signal B(s) to the error signal E(s):

𝐵(𝑠)
𝐺(𝑠) =
𝐸(𝑠)
Feedforward Transfer Function: Ratio of the output C(s) to the error signal E(s).
𝐶(𝑠) = 𝐺(𝑠)𝐸(𝑠)
7. Closed-Loop Transfer Function
• Expressed as:

𝐺(𝑠)𝑅(𝑠)
𝐶(𝑠) =
1 + 𝐺(𝑠)𝐻(𝑠)

8. Simplifying Block Diagrams

• Note that only one block is less meaning. However, with a block diagram, the interrelationship
between components and the signal flows can be revealed pictorially compared with the
mathematical expression of a set of equations.

Block diagram simplification (reduction):

• feedback;

• cascade;

• parallel;

• moving between two summing (branch) points;

• redrawing the block diagram for some special cases.

9. Mason’s Gain Formula

• A systematic method for finding the transfer function of complex systems with loops:

𝐹(𝑠)
𝐶(𝑠) =
Δ

where:

o P(s) is the sum of contributions from all forward paths.

o Δ is the determinant representing the effects of loops.

Key Points
1. Laplace Transform: Essential for analyzing linear systems.
2. Transfer Function: Key tool for understanding system dynamics.
3. Impulse Response: Provides complete information about system behavior.
4. Block Diagrams: Visual representation simplifies complex system analysis.
5. Feedback and Open-Loop Systems: Fundamental concepts in control theory.