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in

GOVERNMENT OF TAMILNADU

HIGHER SECONDARY
SECOND YEAR

COMPUTER SCIENCE

A publication under Free Textbook Programme of Government of Tamil Nadu

Department of School Education

Untouchability is Inhuman and a Crime

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Government of Tamil Nadu

First Edition - 2019
Revised Edition - 2020, 2022, 2023
Reprint - 2021, 2024
(Published under New syllabus)

NOT FOR SALE

Content Creation

The wise
possess all

State Council of Educational

Research and Training
© SCERT 2019

Printing & Publishing

Tamil NaduTextbook and Educational

Services Corporation
www.textbooksonline.tn.nic.in

II

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The tremendous effect of the computer and computing technology is in

shaping the modern society for the betterment of mankind. Human
civilization achieved the highest peak with the development
of computer known as “Internet Era”.

PREFACE Python being a high level language is good

for beginners to learn due to its easy syntax
and powerful memory management. For any
internet applications, it is good to learn as python being the
better choice.
The user of this textbook being acquainted with the knowledge of C++ in
std XI will have no difficulty in studying python language. No substantial
knowledge nor experience, is required as the examples illustrated in the
book are easy to follow

HOW
 his book does not require
T TO USE
prior knowledge in computer
Technology
THE BOOK?
 ach unit comprises of simple
E
activities and demonstrations which can be done by
the teacher
and also students.
Technical terminologies are listed in glossary for easy understanding
 he “ Do you know?” boxes enrich the knowledge of reader with
T
additional information
 orkshops are introduced to solve the exercises using software
W
applications
QR codes are used to link supporting additional
materials in digital form
How to get connected to QR Code?
o 
Download the QR code scanner from the google play store/
apple app store into your smartphone
o Open the QR code scanner application
o Once the scanner button in the application is clicked, camera opens
and then bring it closer to the QR code in the textbook.
o Once the camera detects the QR code, a URL appears in the screen.
Click the URL and go to the content page.

III

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23-12-2022 13:19:01
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Table of Contents
Computer Science-II Year
UNIT NO. CHAPTER COMPUTER SCIENCE PAGE NO MONTH
UNIT- I 1 Function 1 June
Problem 2 Data Abstraction 11 June
Solving 3 Scoping 21 June
Techniques 4 Algorithmic Strategies 31 June
5 Python -Variables and Operators 47 July

UNIT- II 6 Control Structures 67 July

Core Python 7 Python functions 89 July
8 Strings and String manipulation 114 Aug
UNIT-III 9 Lists, Tuples, Sets and Dictionary 132 Aug
Modularity
and OOPS 10 Python Classes and objects 170 Aug

UNIT-IV 11 Database Concepts 182 Oct

Database
12 Structured Query Language (SQL) 198 Oct
concepts and
MySql 13 Python and CSV files 224 Oct
Importing C++ programs in
14 259 Oct
UNIT-V Python.
Integrating 15 Data manipulation through SQL 278 Nov
Python with
MySql and C++ Data visualization using pyplot: line
16 307 Nov
chart, pie chart and bar chart
Glossary 321
Annexure List of Python functions 327
Practical Exercises 331

E - book Assessment
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CHAPTER 1
Unit I
FUNCTION

1.2 Function with respect to

Learning Objectives Programming language

After the completion of this chapter, the A function is a unit of code that is
student will be able to: often defined within a greater code structure.
Specifically, a function contains a set of
• Understand Function Specification.
code that works on many kinds of inputs,
• Parameters (and arguments). like variables, expressions and produces a
• Interface Vs Implementation. concrete output.
• Pure functions. 1.2.1 Function Specification
• Side - effects (impure functions). Let us consider the example a:= (24).
a:= (24) has an expression in it but (24)
1.1 Introduction is not itself an expression. Rather, it is a
The most important criteria in function definition. Definitions bind values
writing and evaluating the algorithm is the to names, in this case the value 24 being
time it takes to complete a task. The duration bound to the name ‘a’. Definitions are not
of computation time must be independent expressions, at the same time expressions are
of the programming language, compiler, also not treated as definitions. Definitions
and computer used. As you aware that are distinct syntactic blocks. Definitions can
algorithms are expressed using statements have expressions nested inside them, and
of a programming language. If a bulk of vice-versa.
statements to be repeated for many numbers 1.2.2 Parameters and arguments
of times then subroutines are used to finish
the task. Parameters are the variables in a
function definition and arguments are
Subroutines are the basic building the values which are passed to a function
blocks of computer programs. Subroutines definition.
are small sections of code that are used to
1. Parameter without Type
perform a particular task that can be used
repeatedly. In Programming languages these Let us see an example of a function
subroutines are called as Functions. definition:

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When we write the type annotations

(requires: b>=0 ) for ‘a’ and ‘b’ the parentheses are
(returns: a to the power of b) mandatory. Generally we can leave out
let rec pow a b:= these annotations, because it's simpler to
if b=0 then 1 let the compiler infer them. There are times
else a * pow a (b-1) we may want to explicitly write down types.
This is useful on times when you get a type
error from the compiler that doesn't make
In the above function definition
sense. Explicitly annotating the types can
variable ‘b’ is the parameter and the value
help with debugging such an error message.
which is passed to the variable ‘b’ is the
argument. The precondition (requires) and
The syntax to define functions is close
postcondition (returns) of the function
to the mathematical usage: the definition is
is given. Note we have not mentioned any
introduced by the keyword let, followed by
types: (data types). Some language compiler
the name of the function and its arguments;
solves this type (data type) inference
then the formula that computes the image
problem algorithmically, but some require
of the argument is written after an := sign. If
the type to be mentioned.
you want to define a recursive function: use
“let rec” instead of “let”.
In the above function definition if
expression can return 1 in the then branch,
Syntax: The syntax for function definitions:
shows that as per the typing rule the
entire if expression has type int. Since the
if expression is of type ‘int’, the function's let rec fn a1 a2 ... an := k
return type also be ‘int’. ‘b’ is compared to
0 with the equality operator, so ‘b’ is also Here the ‘fn’ is used as a function
a type of ‘int’. Since ‘a’ is multiplied with name. The names ‘a1’ to ‘an’ are variables
another expression using the * operator, ‘a’ used as parameters. The keyword ‘rec’ is
must be an int. required if ‘fn’ is to be a recursive function;
otherwise it may be omitted.
2. Parameter with Type
Now let us write the same function
definition with types for some reason: Note
A function definition which call
(requires: b>=0 ) itself is called recursive function.
(returns: a to the power of b )
let rec pow (a: int) (b: int) : int := For example: let us see an example to find
the factorial of a number.
if b=0 then 1
else a * pow a (b-1)

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Interface is a description of all functions.

(Requires: n>= 0)
In our example, anything that "ACTS LIKE"
let rec fact n :=
a light, should have function definitions like
if n = 0 then 1 turn_on () and a turn_off (). The purpose of
else interface is to allow the computer to enforce
n ✳ fact(n-1) the properties of the class.

The syntax for function types: The difference between interface and
implementation is
x→y
x1 → x2 → y Interface Implementation
x1 → ... → xn → y
Interface just Implementation
defines what carries out the
The ‘x’ and ‘y’ are variables indicating an object can instructions defined
types. The type x → y is the type of a function do, but won’t in the interface
that gets an input of type ‘x’ and returns an actually do it
output of type ‘y’. Whereas x1 → x2 → y is
a type of a function that takes two inputs, In object oriented programs classes are
the first input is of type ‘x1’ and the second the interface and how the object is processed
input of type ‘x2’, and returns an output of and executed is the implementation.
type ‘y’. Likewise x1 → … → xn → y has
type ‘x’ as input of n arguments and ‘y’ type 1.3.1 Characteristics of interface
as output. • The class template specifies the interfaces
to enable an object to be created and
Note operated properly.
All functions are static • An object's attributes and behaviour is
definitions. There is no dynamic controlled by sending functions to the
function definitions. object.

1.3 Interface Vs Implementation For example, let's take the example of

increasing a car’s speed.
An interface is a set of action that an
object can do. For example when you press
a light switch, the light goes on, you may
not have cared how it splashed the light. In
Object Oriented Programming language, an

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let min x y z :=
ENGINE if x < y then
if x < z then x else z
else
if y < z then y else z
getSpeed
1.4 Pure functions

required No Pure functions are functions which

Pull Fuel
speed will give exact result when the same
arguments are passed. For example the
Yes
mathematical function sin (0) always results
Return 0. This means that every time you call the
function with the same arguments, you will
always get the same result. A function can
The person who drives the car be a pure function provided it should not
doesn't care about the internal working. To have any external variable which will alter
increase the speed of the car he just presses the behaviour of that variable.
the accelerator to get the desired behaviour.
Here the accelerator is the interface between Let us see an example
the driver (the calling / invoking object) and
the engine (the called object). let square x:=

In this case, the function call would return: x * x

be Speed (70): This is the interface.

Internally, the engine of the car is The above function square is a pure
doing all the things. It's where fuel, air, function because it will not give different
pressure, and electricity come together to results for same input.
create the power to move the vehicle. All of
There are various theoretical
these actions are separated from the driver,
advantages of having pure functions. One
who just wants to go faster. Thus we separate
advantage is that if a function is pure, then
interface from implementation.
if it is called several times with the same
Let us see a simple example, consider arguments, the compiler only needs to
the following implementation of a function actually call the function once. Let’s see an
that finds the minimum of its three example
arguments:
let length s:=
i: = 0
if i <strlen (s) then
-- Do something which doesn't affect s
++i

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If it is compiled, strlen (s) is called Here the function Random is impure

each time and strlen needs to iterate over as it is not sure what will be the result when
the whole of ‘s’. If the compiler is smart we call the function.
enough to work out that strlen is a pure
1.4.2 Side-effects (Impure functions)
function and that ‘s’ is not updated in the
loop, then it can remove the redundant As you are aware function has side
extra calls to strlen and make the loop to effects when it has observable interaction
execute only one time. From these what we with the outside world. There are situations
can understand, strlen is a pure function our functions can become impure though
because the function takes one variable as a our goal is to make our functions pure.
parameter, and accesses it to find its length. Just to clarify remember that side effect is
This function reads external memory but not a necessary bad thing.Sometimes they
does not change it, and the value returned are useful (especially outside functional
derives from the external memory accessed. programming paradigm).
Modify variable outside a function
Note One of the most popular side effects is
Evaluation of pure modifying the variable outside of function.
functions does not cause any side
For example
effects to its output
y: = 0
1.4.1 Impure functions let inc (x: int): int:=
y: = y + x
The variables used inside the
return (y)
function may cause side effects though the
functions which are not passed with any
In the above example the value of y
arguments. In such cases the function is
get changed inside the function definition
called impure function. When a function
due to which the result will change each
depends on variables or functions outside
time. The side effect of the inc () function is
of its definition block, you can never be
it is changing the data of the external visible
sure that the function will behave the same
variable ‘y’. As you can see some side effects
every time it’s called. For example the
are quite easy to spot and some of them may
mathematical function random() will give
tricky.
different outputs for the same function call.
From all these examples and
let randomnumber :=
definitions what we can understand about
a := random() the main differences between pure and
if a > 10 then impure functions are
return: a
else
return: 10

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1.4.3 Chameleons of Chromeland

Pure Function Impure Function
problem using function
The return value of The return value Recall the In the Chameleons of
the pure functions of the impure Chromeland problem what you have studied
solely depends functions does in class XI. suppose two types of chameleons
on its arguments not solely depend
are equal in number. Construct an algorithm
passed. Hence, if on its arguments
you call the pure passed. Hence, that arranges meetings between these two
functions with if you call the types so that they change their color to the
the same set of impure functions third type. In the end, all should display the
arguments, you with the same same color.
will always get set of argu­ments,
the same return you might get Let us represent the number of
values. the different chameleons of each type by variables a, b
return values and c, and their initial values by A, B and C,
They do not have For example, respectively. Let a = b be the input property.
any side effects. random(), Date().
The input – output relation is a =
They do not They may modify
b = 0 and c = A + B + C. Let us name the
modify the the arguments
arguments which which are passed algorithm monochromatize. The algorithm
are passed to them to them can be specified as

monochromatize (a, b, c)
Now let’s see the example of a pure
function to determine the greatest common
-- inputs : a = A, b = B, c = C, a = b
divisor (gcd) of two positive integer numbers.
-- outputs : a = b = 0, c = A+B+C
let rec gcd a b :=
if b <> 0 then gcd b (a mod b) In each iterative step, two chameleons
else
of the two types (equal in number) meet and
return a
change their colors to the third one. For
output
example, if A, B, C = 4, 4, 6, then the series
gcd 13 27
1
of meeting will result in
gcd 20536 7826
2 iteration a b c

0 4 4 6
In the above example ‘gcd’ is the name
of the function which recursively called till 1 3 3 8
the variable ‘b’ becomes ‘0’. Remember b
and (a mod b) are two arguments passed to 2 2 2 10
‘a’ and ‘b’ of the gcd function. 3 1 1 12

4 0 0 14

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In each meeting, a and b each

a, b, c
decreases by 1, and c increases by 2. The
a = b, a = A, b = B, c = C
solution can be expressed as an iterative
algorithm.
True
a>0 a, b, c := a - 1, b - 1, c+2
monochromatize (a, b, c)
-- inputs : a = A, b=B, c=C, a=b False
a = b = 0, c = A + B + C
-- outputs : a = b = 0, c = A+B+C
a, b, c
while a>0
a, b, c := a-1, b-1, c+2
Now let us write this algorithm using
function
The algorithm is depicted in the flowchart
as below let rec monochromatize a b c :=
if a > 0 then
a, b, c := a-1, b-1, c+2
else
monochromatize a b c
return a, b, c

Points to remember:
• Algorithms are expressed using statements of a programming language
• Subroutines are small sections of code that are used to perform a particular task that
can be used repeatedly
• A function is a unit of code that is often defined within a greater code structure
• A function contains a set of code that works on many kinds of inputs and produces a
concrete output
• Definitions are distinct syntactic blocks
• Parameters are the variables in a function definition and arguments are the values
which are passed to a function definition through the function definition.
• When you write the type annotations the parentheses are mandatory in the function
definition
• An interface is a set of action that an object can do
• Interface just defines what an object can do, but won’t actually do it
• Implementation carries out the instructions defined in the interface
• Pure functions are functions which will give exact result when the same arguments
are passed
• The variables used inside the function may cause side effects though the functions
which are not passed with any arguments. In such cases the function is called impure
function

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Hands on Practice

1. Write algorithmic function definition to find the minimum among 3 numbers.

2. Write algorithmic recursive function definition to find the sum of n natural numbers.

Evaluation

Part - I
Choose the best answer (1 Mark)
1. The small sections of code that are used to perform a particular task is called
(A) Subroutines (B) Files (C) Pseudo code (D) Modules
2. Which of the following is a unit of code that is often defined within a greater code
structure?
(A) Subroutines (B) Function (C) Files (D) Modules
3. Which of the following is a distinct syntactic block?
(A) Subroutines (B) Function (C) Definition (D) Modules
4. The variables in a function definition are called as
(A) Subroutines (B) Function (C) Definition (D) Parameters
5. The values which are passed to a function definition are called
(A) Arguments (B) Subroutines (C) Function (D) Definition
6. Which of the following are mandatory to write the type annotations in the function
definition?
(A) { } (B) ( ) (C) [ ] (D) < >
7. Which of the following defines what an object can do?
(A) Operating System (B) Compiler (C) Interface (D) Interpreter
8. Which of the following carries out the instructions defined in the interface?
(A) Operating System (B) Compiler (C) Implementation (D) Interpreter
9. The functions which will give exact result when same arguments are passed are called
(A) Impure functions (B) Partial Functions
(C) Dynamic Functions (D) Pure functions

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10. The functions which cause side effects to the arguments passed are called
(A) impure function (B) Partial Functions
(C) Dynamic Functions (D) Pure functions
Part - II

Answer the following questions (2 Marks)

1. What is a subroutine?
2. Define Function with respect to Programming language.
3. Write the inference you get from X:=(78).
4. Differentiate interface and implementation.
5. Which of the following is a normal function definition and which is recursive function
definition
i) let sum x y:
return x + y
ii) let disp :
print ‘welcome’
iii) let rec sum num:
if (num!=0) then return num + sum (num-1)
else
return num

Part - III

Answer the following questions (3 Marks)

1. Mention the characteristics of Interface.
2. Why strlen is called pure function?
3. What is the side effect of impure function. Give example.
4. Differentiate pure and impure function.

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Part - IV

Answer the following questions (5Marks)

1. What are called Parameters and write a note on
(i) Parameter without Type (ii) Parameter with Type
2. Identify in the following program
let rec gcd a b :=
if b <> 0 then gcd b (a mod b) else return a

i) Name of the function

ii) Identify the statement which tells it is a recursive function
iii) Name of the argument variable
iv) Statement which invoke the function recursively
v) Statement which terminates the recursion
3. Explain with example Pure and impure functions.
4. Explain with an example interface and implementation.

REFERENCES

1. Data Structures and Algorithms in Python By Michael T.Goodrich, RobertoTamassia and

Michael H. Goldwasser.
2. Data Structure and Algorithmic Thinking in Python By Narasimha Karumanchi
3. https://www.python.org

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CHAPTER 2
Unit I
DATA ABSTRACTION

2.2 Abstract Data Types

Learning Objectives
Abstract Data type (ADT) is a type
After the completion of this chapter, the for objects whose behavior is defined by a
student will be able to Understand set of values and operations.
• what is Abstract Data structures. The definition of ADT only mentions
• Abstract data type. what operations are to be performed but not
how these operations will be implemented. It
• Difference between concrete and abstract
does not specify how data will be organized
implementation.
in memory and what algorithms will be
• Pairs. used for implementing the operations.
• Data Abstration in Structure. It is called “abstract” because it gives an
implementation independent view. The
2.1 Data Abstraction-
process of providing only the essentials and
Introduction
hiding the details is known as abstraction.
Data abstraction is a powerful You can see that these definitions
concept in computer science that allows do not specify how these ADTs will be
programmers to treat code as objects — for represented and how the operations will be
example, car objects, pencil objects, people carried out. There can be different ways to
objects, etc. Programmers need not to worry implement an ADT, for example, the List
about how code is implemented — they have ADT can be implemented using singly linked
to just know what it does. list or doubly linked list. Similarly, stack
This is especially important when ADT and Queue ADT can be implemented
several people are doing a project. Here using lists.
project refers to the programming .With Data abstraction replicate how we
data abstraction, your group members won’t think about the world. For example, when
have to read through every line of your code you want to drive a car, you don’t need to
to understand. They can just assume that it know how the engine was built or what
does work. kind of material the tires are made of. You
Abstraction provides modularity just have to know how to diver the car. To
(modularity means splitting a program in facilitate data abstraction, you will need to
to many modules). Classes (structures) are create two types of functions: constructors
the representation for “Abstract Data Types”, and selectors.
(ADT)
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2.3 constructors and selectors Notice that you don’t need to know
how these functions were implemented. You
Constructors are functions that are assuming that someone else has defined
build the abstract data type. Selectors are them for us.
functions that retrieve information from
It’s okay if the end user doesn’t know
the data type.
how functions were implemented. However,
For example, say you have an abstract the functions still have to be defined by
data type called city. This city object will someone.
hold the city’s name, and its latitude and
Let us identify the constructors and
longitude. To create a city object, you’d use a
selectors in the above code
function like
As you already know that
city:= makecity (name, lat, lon) Constructors are functions that build the
abstract data type. In the above pseudo code
To extract the information of a city
the function which creates the object of the
object, you would use functions like
city is the constructor.
• getname(city) city:= makecity (name, lat, lon)
• getlat(city)
Here makecity (name, lat, lon) is the
• getlon(city) constructor which creates the object city.
The following pseudo code will (name, lat, lon) value passed as parameter
compute the distance between two city
objects:
make city ( )
distance(city1, city2):
lt1, lg1 := getlat(city1), getlon(city1)
city
lt2, lg2 := getlat(city2), getlon(city2)
return ((lt1 - lt2)**2 + (lg1 - lg2)**2))1/2 lat lon

In the above code read distance(), Fig 1 constructor

getlat() and getlon() as functions and read
lt as latitude and lg longitude. Read := as Selectors are nothing but the
“assigned as” or “becomes” functions that retrieve information from the
data type. Therefore in the above code
lt1, lg1 := getlat(city1), getlon(city1)
• getname(city)
is read as lt1 becomes the value of • getlat(city)
getlat(city1) and lg1 becomes the value of
• getlon(city)
getlon (city1).
are the selectors because these functions
extract the information of the city object
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city value passed as parameter city value passed as parameter city value passed as parameter

getname ( ) getlat ( ) getlon ( )

Now let us consider one more example to representation is defined as an independent

identify the constructor and selector for a part of the program.
slope.Read - - as comments.
Note
- - constructor A concrete data type is a data type whose
makepoint(x, y): representation is known.
return x, y
- - selector
xcoord(point): Any program consist of two parts.
return point[0] The two parts of a program are, the part
- -selector that operates on abstract data and the part
ycoord(point): that defines a concrete representation, is
return point[1] connected by a small set of functions that
implement abstract data in terms of the
concrete representation. To illustrate this
Note technique, let us consider an example to
Data abstraction is used to define design a set of functions for manipulating
an Abstract Data Type (ADT), which is rational numbers.
a collection of constructors and selectors.
Constructors create an object, bundling Example
together different pieces of information, A rational number is a ratio of
while selectors extract individual pieces integers, and rational numbers constitute
of information from the object. an important sub-class of real numbers.
A rational number such as 8/3 or 19/23 is
typically written as:
2.4 Representation of Abstract
datatype using Rational <numerator>/<denominator>
numbers
where both the <numerator> and
The basic idea of data abstraction is <denominator> are placeholders for integer
to structure programs so that they operate values. Both parts are needed to exactly
on abstract data. That is, our programs characterize the value of the rational number.
should use data in such a way, as to make Actually dividing integers produces a float
as few assumptions about the data as approximation, losing the exact precision of
possible. At the same time, a concrete data integers.

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8/3 =2.6666666666666665 component. Let us further assume that the

However, you can create an exact constructor and selectors are also available.
representation for rational numbers by
We are using here a powerful strategy
combining together the numerator and
for designing programs: 'wishful thinking'.
denominator.
We haven't yet said how a rational number
As we know from using functional is represented, or how the constructor and
abstractions, we can start programming selectors should be implemented.
productively before you have an
implementation of some parts of our
Note
program. Let us begin by assuming that
you already have a way of constructing a Wishful Thinking is the formation
rational number from a numerator and a of beliefs and making decisions according
denominator. You also assume that, given to what might be pleasing to imagine
a rational number, you have a way of instead of by appealing to reality.
selecting its numerator and its denominator

Example: An ADT for rational numbers

- - constructor
- - constructs a rational number with numerator x, denominator y
rational(x, y)
- - selector
numer(x) → returns the numerator of rational number x
denom(y) → returns the denominator of rational number y

In the above example, rational () 2.5 Lists,Tuples

is the constructor numer () and denom ()
both are selectors. In this case, selectors To implement the data abstraction,
are declared inside the constructor but not Programming languages like Python
defined. provides a compound structure called Pair
The pseudo code for the which is made up of list or Tuple. The first
representation of the rational number using way to implement pairs is with the List
the above constructor and selector is construct.

x,y:=8,3 2.5.1 List

rational(x,y) List is constructed by placing
numer(x)/denom(y) expressions within square brackets
- - output : 2.6666666666666665 separated by commas. Such an expression
is called a list literal. List can store multiple
values. Each value can be of any type and
can even be another list.

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Example for List [10, 20]. rational(n, d):

The elements of a list can be accessed return [n, d]
in two ways. The first way is via our familiar numer(x):
method of multiple assignment, which return x[0]
unpacks a list into its elements and binds denom(x):
each element to a different name. return x[1]
lst := [10, 20]
x, y := lst 2.5.2 Tuple

In the above example x will become10 Remember, a pair is a compound

and y will become 20. data type that holds two other pieces of data.
So far,we have provided you with two ways
A second method for accessing the of representing the pair data type. The first
elements in a list is by the element selection way is using List construct and the second
operator. Unlike a list literal, a square- way with the tuple construct.
brackets expression directly following
another expression does not evaluate to a A tuple is a comma-separated
list value, but instead selects an element sequence of values surrounded with
from the value of the preceding expression. parentheses. Tuple is similar to a list. The
difference between the two is that you
lst[0] cannot change the elements of a tuple once
10 it is assigned whereas in a list, elements can
lst[1] be changed.
20
Example colour= ('red', 'blue', 'Green')
In both the example mentioned above
mathematically we can represent list similar Representation of Tuple as a Pair
to a set.
nums := (1, 2)
lst[(0, 10), (1, 20)] - where nums[0]
1
(0, 10) (1, 20)
nums[1]
2
Index position value Index position value

Any way of bundling two values Note the square bracket notation is
together into one can be considered as a used to access the data you stored in the pair.
pair. Lists are a common method to do so. To access the first element with nums[0] and
Therefore List can be called as Pairs. the second with nums[1].
Representing Rational Numbers Using
List
You can now represent a rational
number as a pair of two integers in pseudo
code : a numerator and a denominator.
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2.6 Data Abstraction in person:=['Padmashri', 'Baskar', '994-

Structure 222-1234', '[email protected]']

List allow data abstraction in that but such a representation doesn't explicitly
you can give a name to a set of memory specify what each part represents.
cells. For instance, in the game Mastermind,
you must keep track of a list of four colors For this problem instead of using a
that the player guesses. Instead of using four list, you can use the structure construct (In
separate variables (color1, color2, color3, OOP languages it's called class construct)
and color4) you can use a single variable to represent multi-part objects where each
‘Predict’, e.g., part is named (given a name). Consider the
following pseudo code:
Predict:=['red', 'blue', 'green', 'green']
class Person:
What lists do not allow us to do
creation( )
is name the various parts of a multi- item
object. In the case of a Predict, you don't firstName := " "
really need to name the parts: lastName := " "
id := " "
using an index to get to each color suffices.
email := " "
But in the case of something more
complex, like a person, we have a multi- item The new data type Person is pictorially
object where each 'item' is a named thing: represented as
the firstName, the lastName, the id, and the
email. One could use a list to represent a
person:

Person class name (multi part data representation)

creation ( )
function belonging to the new datatype

}
first Name

last Name variable (field) beloging to the new

datatype
id

email

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Let main() contains

p1:=Person() statement creates the object.

firstName := " Padmashri " setting a field called firstName with value Padmashri
lastName :="Baskar" setting a field called lastName with value Baskar
id :="994-222-1234" setting a field called id value 994-222-1234
email:="[email protected]" setting a field called email with value [email protected]
- - output of firstName : Padmashri

The class (structure) construct So far, you've seen how a class defines
defines the form for multi-part objects that a data abstraction by grouping related data
represent a person. Its definition adds a new items. A class is not just data, it has functions
data type, in this case a type named Person. defined within it. We say such functions are
Once defined, we can create new variables subordinate to the class because their job is
(instances) of the type. In this example to do things with the data of the class, e.g.,
Person is referred to as a class or a type, to modify or analyze the data of a Person
while p1 is referred to as an object or an object.
instance. You can think of class Person as a Therefore we can define a class as
cookie cutter, and p1 as a particular cookie. bundled data and the functions that work
Using the cookie cutter you can make many on that data. From All the above example
cookies. Same way using class you can create and explanation one can conclude the
many objects of that type. beauty of data abstraction is that we can
treat complex data in a very simple way.
Points to remember:
• Abstract Data type (ADT) is a type (or class) for objects whose behavior is defined by
a set of value and a set of operations.
• The definition of ADT only mentions what operations are to be performed but not
how these operations will be implemented.
• ADT does not specify how data will be organized in memory and what algorithms
will be used for implementing the operations
• Constructors are functions that build the abstract data type.
• Selectors are functions that retrieve information from the data type.
• Concrete data types or structures (CDT's) are direct implementations of a relatively
simple concept.
• Abstract Data Types (ADT's) offer a high level view (and use) of a concept independent
of its implementation.

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Points to remember:
• A concrete data type is a data type whose representation is known and in abstract data
type the representation of a data type is unknown
• Pair is a compound structure which is made up of list or Tuple
• List is constructed by placing expressions within square brackets separated by commas
• The elements of a list can be accessed in two ways. The first way is via multiple
assignment and the second method is by the element selection operator
• Bundling two values together into one can be considered as a pair
• List does not allow to name the various parts of a multi-item object.

Evaluation
Part - I

Choose the best answer (1 Mark)

1. Which of the following functions that build the abstract data type ?
(A) Constructors (B) Destructors (C) recursive (D)Nested
2. Which of the following functions that retrieve information from the data type?
(A) Constructors (B) Selectors (C) recursive (D)Nested
3. The data structure which is a mutable ordered sequence of elements is called
(A) Built in (B) List (C) Tuple (D) Derived data
4. A sequence of immutable objects is called
(A) Built in (B) List (C) Tuple (D) Derived data
5. The data type whose representation is known are called
(A) Built in datatype (B) Derived datatype
(C) Concrete datatype (D) Abstract datatype
6. The data type whose representation is unknown are called
(A) Built in datatype (B) Derived datatype
(C) Concrete datatype (D) Abstract datatype
7. Which of the following is a compound structure?
(A) Pair (B) Triplet (C) single (D) quadrat

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8. Bundling two values together into one can be considered as

(A) Pair (B) Triplet (C) single (D) quadrat
9. Which of the following allow to name the various parts of a multi-item object?
(A) Tuples (B) Lists (C) Classes (D) quadrats
10. Which of the following is constructed by placing expressions within square brackets?
(A) Tuples (B) Lists (C) Classes (D) quadrats

Part - II

Answer the following questions (2 Marks)

1. What is abstract data type?
2. Differentiate constructors and selectors.
3. What is a Pair? Give an example.
4. What is a List? Give an example.
5. What is a Tuple? Give an example.

Part - III

Answer the following questions (3 Marks)

1. Differentiate Concrete data type and abstract datatype.
2. Which strategy is used for program designing? Define that Strategy.
3. Identify Which of the following are constructors and selectors?
(a) N1:=number() (b) accetnum(n1) (c) displaynum(n1)
(d) eval(a/b) (e) x,y:= makeslope (m), makeslope(n)
(f) display()
4. What are the different ways to access the elements of a list. Give example.
5. Identify Which of the following are List, Tuple and class ?
(a) arr [1, 2, 34] (b) arr (1, 2, 34) (c) student [rno, name, mark]
(d) day:= (‘sun’, ‘mon’, ‘tue’, ‘wed’) (e) x:= [2, 5, 6.5, [5, 6], 8.2]
(f) employee [eno, ename, esal, eaddress]

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Part - IV

Answer the following questions (5Marks)

1. How will you facilitate data abstraction. Explain it with suitable example
2. What is a List? Why List can be called as Pairs. Explain with suitable example
3. How will you access the multi-item. Explain with example.

Reference Books
1. Data structure and algorithmic thinking with python by narasimha karumanchi
2. sign and analysis of algorithms by s sridhar
3. Data Structures and Algorithms in Python by Goodrich, Tamassia & Goldwasser
4. https://www.tutorialspoint.com

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CHAPTER 3
Unit I
SCOPING

Learning Objectives Note

The process of binding a
After the completion of this chapter, the variable name with an object is called
student will be able to mapping. = (equal to sign) is used in
• Understand what is Scoping programming languages to map the
variable and object.
• Able to implement the LEGB rule
• Understand what is module Programming languages keeps track
• Understand the implementation of of all these mappings with namespaces.
access control in programming language Namespaces are containers for mapping
names of variables to objects. You can think
of them as dictionaries, containing list
3.1 Introduction of words and its meanings. The words are
mapped with its meaning in dictionaries
Scope refers to the accessibity of a
whereas names are mapped with objects
variable with in one part of a program to
(name = object) in programming language.
another part of the same program.
This allows access to objects by names you
choose to assign to them.
3.2 Variable Scope In the following example, a is first
To understand the scope of variables mapped to the integer 5. In this case, a is the
in a programming language, it is important variable name, while the integer value 5 is
to learn about what variables really are. the object.
Essentially, they're addresses to an object Then, b is set equal to a. This actually
in memory. When you assign a variable means that b is now bound to the same
with := to an instance (object), you're integer value as a, which is 5.
binding (or mapping) the variable to that
instance. Multiple variables can be mapped 1. a:=5
to the same instance.
2. b:=a

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Mapping the error “name ‘a’ is not defined”. This is

because the lifetime of the variable is only till
the end of the procedure. Also, the duration
a for which a variable is alive is called its ‘life
5 time’.
3.3 LEGB rule
b
Scope also defines the order in which
variables have to be mapped to the object
Now consider the following extension in order to obtain the value. Let us take a
of the above statements simple example as shown below:

1. a:=5 1. x:= 'outer x variable'

2. b:=a 2. display():
3. a:=3 3. x:= 'inner x variable'
4. print x
If you then change a to be equal to 3,
a budding programmer might expect b also 5. print x
be equal to 3, but that is not the case. b is still 6. display()
mapped (or pointing) to the integer value of
When the above statements are executed the
5. The only thing that changed is a, which is
statement (4) and (5) display the result as
now mapped to the integer value 3.
Output
Mapping after changing the value of a
outer x variable
inner x variable
a 3 Above statements give different
outputs because the same variable name x
resides in different scopes, one inside the

b 5 function display() and the other in the upper

level. The value ‘outer xvariable’ is printed
when x is referenced outside the function
definition. Whereas when display() gets
The scope of a variable is that part of executed, ‘inner x variable’ is printed which
the code where it is visible. Actually, to refer is the x value inside the function definition.
to it, you don’t need to use any prefixes then. From the above example, we can guess that
Let’s take an example, there is a rule followed, in order to decide
1. Disp(): from which scope a variable has to be picked.

2. a:=7 The LEGB rule is used to decide the

order in which the scopes are to be searched
When you try to display the value of
for scope resolution. The scopes are listed
a outside the procedure the program flags

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below in terms of hierarchy (highest to lowest).

Local(L) Defined inside function/class

Enclosed(E) Defined inside enclosing functions (Nested function concept)

Global(G) Defined at the uppermost level

Built-in (B) Reserved names in built-in functions (modules)

BUILT-IN

GLOBAL

ENCLOSED

LOCAL

3.4 Types of Variable Scope

There are 4 types of Variable Scope, let’s discuss them one by one:
3.4.1 Local Scope
Local scope refers to variables defined in current function. Always, a function will first
look up for a variable name in its local scope. Only if it does not find it there, the outer scopes
are checked.
Look at this example

1. Disp(): Entire program Output of the Program

2. a:=7 7
Disp( ):
3. print a a:=7
print a

4. Disp() Disp ( )

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On execution of the above code the variable a displays the value 7, because it is defined
and available in the local scope.
3.4.2 Global Scope
A variable which is declared outside of all the functions in a program is known as global
variable. This means, global variable can be accessed inside or outside of all the functions in a
program. Consider the following example

1. a:=10 Entire program Output of the Program

2. Disp(): a:=10 7
Disp( ):
3. a:=7 a:=7 10
print a
4. print a Disp( ):
print a
5. Disp()

6. print a

On execution of the above code the variable a which is defined inside the function
displays the value 7 for the function call Disp() and then it displays 10, because a is defined in
global scope.
3.4.3 Enclosed Scope
All programming languages permit functions to be nested. A function (method) with
in another function is called nested function. A variable which is declared inside a function
which contains another function definition with in it, the inner function can also access the
variable of the outer function. This scope is called enclosed scope.
When a compiler or interpreter search for a variable in a program, it first search Local,
and then search Enclosing scopes. Consider the following example

1. Disp(): Entire program Output of the Program

2. a:=10 10
Disp( ):
3. Disp1(): a:=10 10
Disp 1( ):
print a
4. print a
Disp 1( )
5. Disp1() print a

Disp( )
6. print a

7. Disp()

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In the above example Disp1() is defined with in Disp(). The variable ‘a’ defined in Disp()
can be even used by Disp1() because it is also a member of Disp().
3.4.4 Built-in Scope
Finally, we discuss about the widest scope. The built-in scope has all the names that are
pre-loaded into the program scope when we start the compiler or interpreter. Any variable or
function which is defined in the modules of a programming language has Built-in or module
scope. They are loaded as soon as the library files are imported to the program.

Entire program Library files associated

Built in/module scope with the software

Disp( ):

Disp1( ):
print a
Disp1( )
print a
Disp( )

Normally only Functions or modules come along with the software, as packages.
Therefore they will come under Built in scope.

3.5 Module independently. The examples of modules are

procedures, subroutines, and functions.
A module is a part of a program.
Programs are composed of one or more 3.5.1 Characteristics of Modules
independently developed modules. A
The following are the desirable
single module can contain one or several
characteristics of a module.
statements closely related each other.
Modules work perfectly on individual level 1. Modules contain instructions, processing
and can be integrated with other modules. logic, and data.
A software program can be divided into
2. Modules can be separately compiled and
modules to ease the job of programming
stored in a library.
and debugging as well. A program can be
divided into small functional modules that 3. Modules can be included in a program.
work together to get the output. The process
4. Module segments can be used by
of subdividing a computer program into
invoking a name and some parameters.
separate sub-programs is called Modular
programming. Modular programming 5. Module segments can be used by other
enables programmers to divide up the modules.
work and debug pieces of the program

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3.5.2 The benefits of using modular oriented languages, such as C++ and Java,
programming include control the access to class members by
• Less code to be written. public, private and protected keywords.
Private members of a class are denied access
• A single procedure can be developed for from the outside the class. They can be
reuse, eliminating the need to retype the handled only from within the class.
code many times.
Public members (generally methods
• Programs can be designed more easily
declared in a class) are accessible from
because a small team deals with only a
outside the class. The object of the same class
small part of the entire code.
is required to invoke a public method. This
• Modular programming allows many arrangement of private instance variables
programmers to collaborate on the same and public methods ensures the principle of
application. data encapsulation.
• The code is stored across multiple files. Protected members of a class are
• Code is short, simple and easy to accessible from within the class and are also
understand. available to its sub-classes. No other process
• Errors can easily be identified, as they is permitted access to it. This enables specific
are localized to a subroutine or function. resources of the parent class to be inherited
by the child class.
• The same code can be used in many
applications. Python doesn't have any mechanism
• The scoping of variables can easily be that effectively restricts access to any instance
controlled. variable or method. Python prescribes a
convention of prefixing the name of the
3.5.3 Access Control variable or method with single or double
Access control is a security technique underscore to emulate the behaviour of
that regulates who or what can view or use protected and private access specifiers.
resources in a computing environment.
All members in a Python class are
It is a fundamental concept in security
public by default, whereas by default in C++
that minimizes risk to the object. In other
and java they are private. Any member can be
words access control is a selective restriction
accessed from outside the class environment
of access to data. IN Object oriented
in Python which is not possible in C++ and
programming languages it is implemented
java.
through access modifiers. Classical object-

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Points to remember:
• Scope refers to the visibility of variables, parameters and functions in one part of a
program to another part of the same program.
• The process of binding a variable name with an object is called mapping = (equal to
sign) is used in programming languages to map the variable and object.
• Namespaces are containers for mapping names of variables to objects.
• The scope of a variable is that part of the code where it is visible.
• The LEGB rule is used to decide the order in which the scopes are to be searched for
scope resolution.
• Local scope refers to variables defined in current function.
• A variable which is declared outside of all the functions in a program is known as
global variable.
• A function (method) with in another function is called nested function.
• A variable which is declared inside a function which contains another function
definition with in it, the inner function can also access the variable of the outer
function. This scope is called enclosed scope.
• Built-in scope has all the names that are pre-loaded into program scope when we start
the compiler or interpreter.
• A module is a part of a program. Programs are composed of one or more independently
developed modules.
• The process of subdividing a computer program into separate sub-programs is called
Modular programming.
• Access control is a security technique that regulates who or what can view or use
resources in a computing environment. It is a fundamental concept in security that
minimizes risk to the object.
• Public members (generally methods declared in a class) are accessible from outside
the class.
• Protected members of a class are accessible from within the class and are also available
to its sub-classes
• Private members of a class are denied access from the outside the class. They can be
handled only from within the class.
• Python prescribes a convention of prefixing the name of the variable/method with
single or double underscore to emulate the behaviour of protected and private access
specifiers.
• C++ and Java, control the access to class members by public, private and protected
keywords
• All members in a Python class are public by default whereas by default in C++ and java
all members are private.

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Hands on Practice

1. Observe the following diagram and Write the pseudo code for the following

sum( )
num1:=20
sum1( )
num1:=num1 + 10
sum2( )
num1: = num1 + 10

sum2( )

sum1( )

num1:=10
sum( )
print num1

Evaluation

Part - I

Choose the best answer (1 Mark)

1. Which of the following refers to the visibility of variablesin one part of a program to
another part of the same program.
(A) Scope (B) Memory (C) Address (D) Accessibility
2. The process of binding a variable name with an object is called
(A) Scope (B) Mapping (C) late binding (D) early binding
3. Which of the following is used in programming languages to map the variable and object?
(A) :: (B) := (C) = (D) ==
4. Containers for mapping names of variables to objects is called
(A) Scope (B) Mapping (C) Binding (D) Namespaces
5. Which scope refers to variables defined in current function?
(A) Local Scope (B) Global scope
(C) Module scope (D) Function Scope
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6. The process of subdividing a computer program into separate sub-programs is called

(A) Procedural Programming (B) Modular programming
(C)Event Driven Programming (D) Object oriented Programming
7. Which of the following security technique that regulates who canuse resources in a
computing environment?
(A) Password (B)Authentication
(C) Access control (D) Certification
8. Which of the following members of a class can be handled only from within the class?
(A) Public members (B)Protected members
(C) Secured members (D) Private members
9. Which members are accessible from outside the class?
(A) Public members (B)Protected members
(C) Secured members (D) Private members
10. The members that are accessible from within the class and are also available to its sub-
classes is called
(A) Public members (B)Protected members
(C) Secured members (D) Private members

Part - II

Answer the following questions (2 Marks)

1. What is a scope?
2. Why scope should be used for variable. State the reason.
3. What is Mapping?
4. What do you mean by Namespaces?
5. How Python represents the private and protected Access specifiers?

Part - III

Answer the following questions (3 Marks)

1. Define Local scope with an example.
2. Define Global scope with an example.
3. Define Enclosed scope with an example.

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4. Why access control is required?

5. Identify the scope of the variables in the following pseudo code and write its
output
color:= 'Red'
mycolor():
b:='Blue'
myfavcolor():
g:='Green'
print color, b, g
myfavcolor()
print color, b
mycolor()
print color

Part - IV

Answer the following questions (5Marks)

1 Explain the types of scopes for variable or LEGB rule with example.
2. Write any Five Characteristics of Modules.
3. Write any five benefits in using modular programming.

REFERENCES

1. Data Structures and Algorithms in Python By Michael T.Goodrich, RobertoTamassia and

Michael H. Goldwasser.
2. Data Structure and Algorithmic Thinking in Python By Narasimha Karumanchi
3. https://www.python.org

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CHAPTER 4
Unit I
ALGORITHMIC STRATEGIES

To search an item in a data

Learning Objectives Search structure using linear and
binary search.
At the end of this chapter the students will
be able to: To sort items in a certain
Sort order using the methods such
• Know the basics and technical
as bubble sort, insertion sort,
perspective of algorithms. selection sort, etc.
• Understand the efficiency, time and
Insert To insert an item (s) in a data
space complexity of an algorithm. structure.
• Develop and analyze algorithms for
Update To update an existing item (s)
searching and sorting.
in a data structure.
• Learn about dynamic programming
Delete To delete an existing item (s) in
through algorithmic approach.
a data structure.
4.1 Introduction to Algorithmic
The way of defining an algorithm is
strategies
called algorithmic strategy. For example to
An algorithm is a finite set of calculate factorial for the given value n then
instructions to accomplish a particular task. it can be done by defining the function to
It is a step-by-step procedure for solving calculate factorial once for the iteration-1
a given problem. An algorithm can be then it can be called recursively until the
implemented in any suitable programming number of required iteration is reached.
language.
The word Algorithm comes
Algorithms must have input, from the name of a Persian author,
output and should satisfy the following Abu Jafar Mohammed ibn Musa al
characteristics such as definiteness, Khowarizmi(c. 825 AD(CE)), who
correctness and effectiveness. Data are wrote a textbook on mathematics. The
maintained and manipulated effectively word Algorithm has come to refer to a
through data structures. Algorithms can be method to solve a problem.
developed to store, manipulate and retrieve
data from such data structures. Examples 4.1.1Characteristics of an Algorithm
for data structures are arrays, structures, list,
An algorithm should have the
tuples, dictionary etc.
following characteristics:

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Input Zero or more quantities Independent An algorithm should

to be supplied. have step-by-step
directions, which should
Output At least one quantity is
be independent of any
produced.
programming code.
Finiteness Algorithms must
4.1.2 Writing an Algorithm
terminate after finite
number of steps. Algorithms are generic and not
limited to computer alone. It can be used in
Definiteness All operations should be various real time activities also. Knowingly or
well defined. For example unknowingly we perform many algorithms
operations involving in our daily life such as packing books in
division by zero or school bag, finding shortest path to search
taking square root for a place, scheduling day-to-day activities,
negative number are preparation for examination, etc. As we
unacceptable. know that all programming languages share
Effectiveness Every instruction must basic code constructs like conditions and
be carried out effectively. iterations can be used to write an algorithm.
A typical algorithm is shown in the following
Correctness The algorithms should be Figure 4.1.
error free.
Simplicity Easy to implement.
Unambiguous Algorithm should be
Input Process Output
clear and unambiguous.
Each of its steps and their A Typical Algorithm
inputs/outputs should Example
be clear and must lead to Consider the example of Coffee
only one meaning. preparation. To make coffee, we need to
Feasibility Should be feasible with have the following ingredients: Water, milk,
the available resources. coffee powder and sugar. These ingredients
are the inputs of an algorithm. Preparing a
Portable An algorithm should be cup of coffee is called process. The output of
generic, independent of this process is coffee.
any programming
language or an operating The procedure for preparing coffee is as
system able to handle all follows:
range of inputs.
1. Take a bowl with coffee powder
2. Boil the water and pour it into the
bowl

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3. Filter it Algorithm Program

4. Boil milk • Algorithm • Program is an
helps to solve a expression of
5. Mix sugar and filtered coffee along
given problem algorithm in a
with boiled milk
logically and programming
6. Pour the coffee into the cup to serve it can be language
contrasted with
This kind of procedure can be
the program
represented using an algorithm. Thus,
the algorithm consists of step-step-by • Algorithm can • Algorithm
instructions that are required to accomplish be categorized can be
a task and helps the programmer to develop based on their implemented
the program. implementation by structured
methods, design or object
Problem: Design an algorithm to find
techniques etc oriented
square of the given number and display the
programming
result.
approach
The algorithm can be written as:
• There is no • Program
Step 1 – start the process
specific rules should be
Step 2 – get the input x for algorithm written for
writing but the selected
Step 3 –calculate the square by
some guidelines language with
multiplying the input value ie.,
should be specific syntax
square ← x* x
followed.
Step 4 − display the result square
• Algorithm • Program
Step 5 − stop resembles a is more
Algorithm could be designed to get pseudo code specific to a
a solution of a given problem. A problem which can be programming
can be solved in many ways. Among many implemented in language
algorithms the optimistic one can be taken any language
for implementation. Table 4.1 Algorithm Vs Program

An algorithm that yields 4.1.3. Analysis of Algorithm

expected output for a valid input Computer resources are limited.
is called an algorithmic solution. Efficiency of an algorithm is defined by the
utilization of time and space complexity.

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Analysis of an algorithm usually deals with gives the running time and/or the storage
the running and execution time of various space required by the algorithm in terms of
operations involved. The running time of n as the size of input data.
an operation is calculated as how many
programming instructions executed per 4.2.1 Time Complexity
operation. The Time complexity of an algorithm
Analysis of algorithms and is given by the number of steps taken by the
performance evaluation can be divided into algorithm to complete the process.
two different phases:
4.2.2. Space Complexity
1. A Priori estimates: This is a theoretical Space complexity of an algorithm
performance analysis of an algorithm. is the amount of memory required to run
Efficiency of an algorithm is measured to its completion. The space required by
by assuming the external factors. an algorithm is equal to the sum of the
following two components:
2. A Posteriori testing: This is called
performance measurement. In this A fixed part is defined as the total
analysis, actual statistics like running space required to store certain data and
time and required for the algorithm variables for an algorithm. For example,
executions are collected. simple variables and constants used in an
algorithm.
An estimation of the time and
space complexities of an algorithm A variable part is defined as the
for varying input sizes is called total space required by variables, which sizes
algorithm analysis. depends on the problem and its iteration.
For example: recursion used to calculate
factorial of a given value n.
4.2 Complexity of an
Algorithm 4.3 Efficiency of an algorithm

Suppose A is an algorithm and n is Computer resources are limited that

the size of input data, the time and space should be utilized efficiently. The efficiency
used by the algorithm A are the two main of an algorithm is defined as the number
factors, which decide the efficiency of A. of computational resources used by the
algorithm. An algorithm must be analyzed to
Time Factor -Time is measured by
determine its resource usage. The efficiency
counting the number of key
of an algorithm can be measured based on
operations like comparisons
the usage of different resources.
in the sorting algorithm.
Space Factor - Space is measured by the For maximum efficiency of algorithm
maximum memory space required by the we wish to minimize resource usage. The
algorithm. important resources such as time and space
The complexity of an algorithm f (n) complexity cannot be compared directly,

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so time and space complexity could be tradeoff is a way of solving in less time by
considered for an algorithmic efficiency. using more storage space or by solving
a given algorithm in very little space by
4.3.1 Method for determining Efficiency spending more time.

The efficiency of an algorithm depends To solve a given programming

on how efficiently it uses time and memory problem, many different algorithms may
space. be used. Some of these algorithms may
be extremely time-efficient and others
The time efficiency of an algorithm is
extremely space-efficient.
measured by different factors. For example,
write a program for a defined algorithm, Time/space trade off refers to a
execute it by using any programming situation where you can reduce the use
language, and measure the total time it takes of memory at the cost of slower program
to run. The execution time that you measure execution, or reduce the running time at the
in this case would depend on a number of cost of increased memory usage.
factors such as:
The best algorithm to solve
• Speed of the machine
a given problem is one that
• C
 ompiler and other system Software requires less space in memory
tools and takes less time to execute its
instructions to generate output.
• Operating System

• Programming language used 4.3.3 Asymptotic Notations

Asymptotic Notations are languages
• Volume of data required
that uses meaningful statements about time
However, to determine how and space complexity. The following three
efficiently an algorithm solves a given asymptotic notations are mostly used to
problem, you would like to determine how represent time complexity of algorithms:
the execution time is affected by the nature
(i) Big O
of the algorithm. Therefore, we need to
develop fundamental laws that determine Big O is often used to describe the
the efficiency of a program in terms of the worst-case of an algorithm.
nature of the underlying algorithm.
(ii) Big Ω
Big Omega is the reverse Big O, if
A way of designing algorithm Bi O is used to describe the upper bound
is called algorithmic strategy (worst - case) of a asymptotic function, Big
Omega is used to describe the lower bound
(best-case).
4.3.2 Space-Time tradeoff
A space-time or time-memory

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(iii) Big Θ If the element not found then maximum

When an algorithm has a complexity number of comparison =n
with lower bound = upper bound, say that an Therefore, average number of
algorithm has a complexity O (n log n) and comparisons = (n + 1)/2
Ω (n log n), it’s actually has the complexity
Θ (n log n), which means the running time Hence the average case efficiency will
of that algorithm always falls in n log n in be expressed as O (n).
the best-case and worst-case.
4.4 Algorithm for Searching
Techniques
4.3.4 
Best, Worst, and Average ease
E f f i ci enc y 4.4.1 Linear Search
Let us assume a list of n number of Linear search also called sequential
values stored in an array. Suppose if we want search is a sequential method for finding a
to search a particular element in this list, particular value in a list. This method checks
the algorithm that search the key element the search element with each element in
in the list among n elements, by comparing sequence until the desired element is found
the key element with each element in the list or the list is exhausted. In this searching
sequentially. algorithm, list need not be ordered.

The best case would be if the first Procedure

element in the list matches with the key 1. Traverse the array using for loop
element to be searched in a list of elements. 2. In every iteration, compare the target
The efficiency in that case would be expressed search key value with the current value
as O(1) because only one comparison is of the list.
enough.
• If the values match, display the current
Similarly, the worst case in this index and value of the array
scenario would be if the complete list is
• If the values do not match, move on to
searched and the element is found only
the next array element.
at the end of the list or is not found in the
list. The efficiency of an algorithm in that 3. If no match is found, display the search
case would be expressed as O(n) because element not found.
n comparisons required to complete the To search the number 25 in the array
search. given below, linear search will go step by
The average case efficiency of an step in a sequential order starting from the
algorithm can be obtained by finding the first element in the given array if the search
average number of comparisons as given element is found that index is returned
below: otherwise the search is continued till the last
index of the array. In this example number
Minimum number of comparisons = 1 25 is found at index number 3.
Maximum number of comparisons = n

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index 0 1 2 3 4
values 10 12 20 25 30

Example 1:
Input: values[] = {5, 34, 65, 12, 77, 35}
target = 77
Output: 4
Example 2:
Input: values[] = {101, 392, 1, 54, 32, 22, 90, 93}
target = 200
Output: -1 (not found)

4.4.2. Binary Search 3. If no match is found for all comparisons,

Binary search also called half-interval then display unsuccessful message.
search algorithm. It finds the position of a
Binary Search Working principles
search element within a sorted array. The
binary search algorithm can be done as List of elements in an array must be
divide-and-conquer search algorithm and sorted first for Binary search. The following
executes in logarithmic time. example describes the step by step operation
of binary search. Consider the following
Procedure for Binary search
array of elemnts, the array is being sorted so
1. Start with the middle element: it enables to do the binary search algorithm.
• If the search element is equal to the Let us assume that the search element is 60
middle element of the array i.e., the and we need to search the location or index
middle value = number of elements in of search element 60 using binary search.
array/2, then return the index of the
middle element. 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 99
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
• If not, then compare the middle element
with the search value, First, we find index of middle element of the
• If the search element is greater than the array by using this formula :
number in the middle index, then select
the elements to the right side of the mid = low + (high - low) / 2
middle index, and go to Step-1.
Here it is, 0 + (9 - 0 ) / 2 = 4 (fractional
• If the search element is less than the part ignored). So, 4 is the mid value of the
number in the middle index, then select array.
the elements to the left side of the middle
index, and start with Step-1.
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 99
2. When a match is found, display success
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
message with the index of the element
matched.

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Now compare the search element 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 99

with the value stored at mid value location 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
4. The value stored at location or index 4 is
50, which is not match with search element. We can conclude that the search
As the search value 60 is greater than 50. element 60 is found at lcoation or index 5.
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 99 For example if we take the search element
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 as 95, For this value this binary search
algorithm return unsuccessful result.
Now we change our low to mid + 1 and find
the new mid value again using the formula. 4.5 Sorting Techniques

low = mid + 1 4.5.1 Bubble sort algorithm

mid = low + (high - low) / 2 Bubble sort is a simple sorting

algorithm. The algorithm starts at the
Our new mid is 7 now. We compare the value beginning of the list of values stored in an
stored at location 7 with our target value 60. array. It compares each pair of adjacent
elements and swaps them if they are in the
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 99 unsorted order. This comparison and passed
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 to be continued until no swaps are needed,
which indicates that the list of values stored
The value stored at location or index in an array is sorted. The algorithm is a
7 is not a match with search element, rather comparison sort, is named for the way
it is more than what we are looking for. So, smaller elements "bubble" to the top of the
the search element must be in the lower part list. Although the algorithm is simple, it is
from the current mid value location too slow and less efficient when compared
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 99 to insertion sort and other sorting methods.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Assume list is an array of n elements.
The search element still not found. Hence, The swap function swaps the values of the
we calculated the mid again by using the given array elements.
formula.
Procedure
high = mid -1
1. Start with the first element i.e., index =
mid = low + (high - low)/2 0, compare the current element with the
Now the mid value is 5. next element of the array.

2. If the current element is greater than the

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 99 next element of the array, swap them.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
3. If the current element is less than the
Now we compare the value stored next or right side of the element, move
at location 5 with our search element. We to the next element. Go to Step 1 and
found that it is a match. repeat until end of the index is reached.

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Let's consider an array with values {15, 11, 16, 12, 14, 13} Below, we have a pictorial
representation of how bubble sort will sort the given array.

15>11
So interchange 15 11 16 12 14 13

15>16
11 15 16 12 14 13
No swapping

16>12
11 15 16 12 14 13
So interchange

16>14 11 15 12 16 14 13
So interchange

16>13
11 15 12 14 16 13
So interchange

11 15 12 14 13 16

The above pictorial example is for iteration-1. Similarly, remaining iteration can be
done. The final iteration will give the sorted array.

At the end of all the iterations we will get the sorted values in an array as given below:

11 12 13 14 15 16

4.5.2 Selection sort

The selection sort is a simple sorting algorithm that improves on the performance of
bubble sort by making only one exchange for every pass through the list. This algorithm will
first find the smallest elements in array and swap it with the element in the first position of an
array, then it will find the second smallest element and swap that element with the element in
the second position, and it will continue until the entire array is sorted in respective order.

This algorithm repeatedly selects the next-smallest element and swaps in into the right
place for every pass. Hence it is called selection sort.

Procedure
1. Start from the first element i.e., index-0, we search the smallest element in the array, and
replace it with the element in the first position.
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2. Now we move on to the second element 4. This is repeated, until the array is
position, and look for smallest element completely sorted.
present in the sub-array, from starting
Let's consider an array with values {13, 16,
index to till the last index of sub - array.
11, 18, 14, 15}
3. Now replace the second smallest
identified in step-2 at the second position Below, we have a pictorial representation of
in the or original array, or also called first how selection sort will sort the given array.
position in the sub array.

Initial At the At the end At the At the end At the

array end First Second end Third Fourth end Fifth
pass pass pass pass pass
13 11 11 11 11
11
16 16 13 13 13 13

11 13 16 14 14 14

18 18 18 18 15 15

14 14 14 16 16 16

15 15 15 15 18 18

In the first pass, the smallest element will be Finally we will get the sorted array
11, so it will be placed at the first position. end of the pass as shown above diagram.

After that, next smallest element will 4.5.3 Insertion sort

be searched from an array. Now we will get Insertion sort is a simple sorting
13 as the smallest, so it will be then placed at algorithm. It works by taking elements from
the second position. the list one by one and inserting then in
their correct position in to a new sorted list.
Then leaving the first element, next
This algorithm builds the final sorted array
smallest element will be searched, from
at the end. This algorithm uses n-1 number
the remaining elements. We will get 13 as
of passes to get the final sorted list as per the
the smallest, so it will be then placed at the
pervious algorithm as we have discussed.
second position.
Then leaving 11 and 13 because they Procedure for Insertion sort
are at the correct position, we will search for Step 1 − If it is the first element, it is already
the next smallest element from the rest of sorted.
the elements and put it at third position and
keep doing this until array is sorted. Step 2 − Pick next element

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Step 3 − Compare with all elements in the Step 5 − Insert the value
sorted sub-list
Step 6 − Repeat until list is sorted
Step 4 − Shift all the elements in the sorted
sub-list that is greater than the value to be
sorted

Assume 44 is a sorted
44 16 83 07 67 21 34 45 10
list of 1 item
16 44 83 07 67 21 34 45 10 inserted 16
16 44 83 07 67 21 34 45 10 inserted 83
07 16 44 83 67 21 34 45 10 inserted 07
07 16 44 67 83 21 34 45 10 inserted 67
07 16 21 44 67 83 34 45 10 inserted 21
07 16 21 34 44 67 83 45 10 inserted 34
07 16 21 34 44 45 67 83 10 inserted 45
07 10 16 21 34 44 45 67 83 inserted 10

At the end of the pass the insertion algorithm will try to check the results of
sort algorithm gives the sorted output in the previously solved sub-problems. The
ascending order as shown below: solutions of overlapped sub-problems are
combined in order to get the better solution.
07 10 16 21 34 44 45 67 83
Steps to do Dynamic programming
4.6. Dynamic programming
• The given problem will be divided into
smaller overlapping sub-problems.
Dynamic programming is an
algorithmic design method that can be • An optimum solution for the given
used when the solution to a problem can problem can be achieved by using result
be viewed as the result of a sequence of of smaller sub-problem.
decisions. Dynamic programming approach
• Dynamic algorithms uses Memoization.
is similar to divide and conquer. The given
problem is divided into smaller and yet
smaller possible sub-problems. Note
Memoization or memoisation
Dynamic programming is used
is an optimization technique used
whenever problems can be divided into
primarily to speed up computer
similar sub-problems. so that their results
programs by storing the results of
can be re-used to complete the process.
previous function calls and returning
Dynamic programming approaches are
the cached result when the same inputs
used to find the solution in optimized way.
occur again.
For every inner sub problem, dynamic

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4.6.1 Fibonacci Series – An example Initialize f0=0, f1 =1

Fibonacci series generates the
step-1: Print the initial values of Fibonacci
subsequent number by adding two previous
f0 and f1
numbers. Fibonacci series starts from two
numbers − Fib 0 & Fib 1. The initial values step-2: Calculate fibanocci fib ← f0 + f1
of Fib 0 & Fib 1 can be taken as 0 and 1.
step-3: Assign f0← f1, f1← fib
Fibonacci series satisfies the following
conditions : step-4: Print the next consecutive value of
fibanocci fib
Fibn = Fibn-1 + Fibn-2
step-5: Goto step-2 and repeat until the
Hence, a Fibonacci series for the n value 8 specified number of terms generated
can look like this
For example if we generate fibobnacci series
Fib8 = 0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 upto 10 digits, the algorithm will generate
the series as shown below:
4.6.2 Fibonacci Iterative Algorithm with
Dynamic programming approach The Fibonacci series is : 0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21
The following example shows a 34 55
simple Dynamic programming approach
for the generation of Fibonacci series.

Points to remember:
• An algorithm is a finite set of instructions to accomplish a particular task.
• Algorithm consists of step-step-by instructions that are required to accomplish a task
and helps the programmer to develop the program.
• Program is an expression of algorithm in a programming language.
• Algorithm analysis deals with the execution or running time of various operations
involved.
• Space complexity of an algorithm is the amount of memory required to run to its
completion.
• Big Oh is often used to describe the worst-case of an algorithm.
• Big Omega is used to describe the lower bound which is best way to solve the space
complexity.
• The Time complexity of an algorithm is given by the number of steps taken by the
algorithm to complete the process.
• The efficiency of an algorithm is defined as the number of computational resources
used by the algorithm.

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Points to remember:
• A way of designing algorithm is called algorithmic strategy.
• A space-time or time-memory tradeoff is a way of solving a problem or calculation in
less time by using more storage space.
• Asymptotic Notations are languages that uses meaningful statements about time and
space complexity.
• Bubble sort is a simple sorting algorithm. It compares each pair of adjacent items and
swaps them if they are in the unsorted order.
• The selection sort improves on the bubble sort by making only one exchange for every
pass through the list.
• Insertion sort is a simple sorting algorithm that builds the final sorted array or list one
item at a time. It always maintains a sorted sublist in the lower positions of the list.
• Dynamic programming is used when the solutions to a problem can be viewed as the
result of a sequence of decisions.

Evaluation

Part - I

Choose the best answer: (1 Marks)

1. The word comes from the name of a Persian mathematician Abu Ja’far Mohammed ibn-i
Musa al Khowarizmi is called?
(A) Flowchart (B) Flow (C) Algorithm (D) Syntax
2. From the following sorting algorithms which algorithm needs the minimum number of
swaps?
(A) Bubble sort (B) Insertion sort (C) Selection sort (D) All the above
3. Two main measures for the efficiency of an algorithm are
(A) Processor and memory (B) Complexity and capacity
(C) Time and space (D) Data and space
4. The algorithm that yields expected output for a valid input in called as
(A) Algorithmic solution (B) Algorithmic outcomes
(C) Algorithmic problem (D) Algorithmic coding

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5. Which of the following is used to describe the worst case of an algorithm?

(A) Big A (B) Big S (C) Big W (D) Big O
6. Big Ω is the reverse of
(A) Big O (B) Big θ (C) Big A (D) Big S
7. Binary search is also called as
(A) Linear search (B) Sequential search
(C) Random search (D) Half-interval search
8. The Θ notation in asymptotic evaluation represents
(A) Base case (B) Average case (C) Worst case (D) NULL case
9. If a problem can be broken into subproblems which are reused several times, the problem
possesses which property?
(A) Overlapping subproblems (B) Optimal substructure
(C) Memoization (D) Greedy
10. In dynamic programming, the technique of storing the previously calculated values is
called ?
(A) Saving value property (B) Storing value property
(C) Memoization (D) Mapping

Part - II

Answer the following questions (2 Marks)

1. What is an Algorithm?
2. Write the phases of performance evaluation of an algorithm.
3. What is Insertion sort?
4. What is Sorting?
5. What is searching? Write its types.

Part - III

Answer the following questions (3 Marks)

1. List the characteristics of an algorithm.
2. Discuss about Algorithmic complexity and its types.

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3. What are the factors that influence time and space complexity.
4. Write a note on Asymptotic notation.
5. What do you understand by Dynamic programming?

Part - IV

Answer the following questions (5 Marks)

1. Explain the characteristics of an algorithm.
2. Discuss about Linear search algorithm.
3. What is Binary search? Discuss with example.
4. Explain the Bubble sort algorithm with example.
5. Explain the concept of Dynamic programming with suitable example.

Reference Books

1. Fundamentals Computer Algorithms, Ellis Horowitz, Sartaj Sahni, Sanguthevar,

Rajasekaran, Second Edition, University press (India) Limited, 2013.
2. Design and Analysis of Algorithms, S. Sridhar, Oxford University Press, 2015

Web References

www.wickipedia.org

CASE STUDY/ STUDENT’S ACTIVITY

1. Create an algorithm for grading systems of your class student’s Quarterly examination
marks by satisfying all necessary conditions.

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Why Python in standard XII curriculum?

This is the question that is fretting The above statistical data has
the minds of teachers and students. maintained its grip with Python scoring
The present book is organized in 100 and C++ language stands second
such a way that even a novice reader can nipping at its heels with a 99.7 score.
grasp and work on python programming. Python being popular is used by a number
Testimonies of tech giants like Google, Instagram,
Pinterest, Yahoo, Disney, IBM, Nokia etc.
• "Python has been an important part
1. Python 100.0
of Google since the beginning and
2. C++ 99.7
remains so as the system grows and 3. Java 97.5
evolves. Today dozens of Google 4. C 96.7
engineers use Python, and we're 5. C# 89.4
looking for more people with skills 6. PHP 84.9
in this language." -- Peter Norvig, 7. R 82.8
director of search quality at Google, 8. JavaScript 82.6
Inc. 9. Go 76.4
10. Assembly 74.1
• "Python is fast enough for our
site and allows us to produce Many businesses are advised to choose
maintainable features in record times, Python for the following reasons:-
with a minimum of developers," • Easy syntax and readability
-- Cuong Do, Software Architect, • High level scripting language with
YouTube.com oops
• famous for enormous functions, add-
Python’s popularity has seen on modules, libraries, frameworks and
a steady and unflagging growth over tool-kits.
the recent years. Today, familiarity • Built-in functions supports scientific
with Python is an advantage for every computing.
programmer, as Python has infiltrated With the advent of computers,
every niche and has useful roles to play in there have been significant changes in the
any software solution. way we work in almost all the fields. The
Python has experienced an computerization has helped to improve
productivity and accelerate decision
impressive growth as compared to the
making in every organization. Even for
other languages. The IEEE Spectrum individuals, be it engineers, doctors,
magazine published by the Institute chartered accountants or homemakers, the
of Electrical & Electronics Engineers, style of working has changed drastically.
New York, ranks Python as the top language So as we go, let us accept the change and
for 2018, for the second consecutive year. move towards a brighter day ahead.

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CHAPTER 5
Unit II
PYTHON – VARIABLES AND OPERATORS

Learning Objectives

After studying this lesson, students will be able to:

• Appreciate the use of Graphical User Interface (GUI) and Integrated Development
Environment (IDE) for creating Python programs.
• Work in Interactive & Script mode for programming.
• Create and assign values to variables.
• Understand the concept and usage of different data types in Python.
• Appreciate the importance and usage of different types of operators (Arithmetic, Relational
and Logical)
• Creating Python expression (s) and statement (s).

5.1 Introduction

Python is a general purpose

programming language created by Guido
Van Rossum from CWI (Centrum Wiskunde
& Informatica) which is a National Research
Institute for Mathematics and Computer
Science in Netherlands. The language was
released in I991. Python got its name from a
BBC comedy series from seventies- “Monty
Python’s Flying Circus”. Python supports both
Procedural and Object Oriented programming
approaches.

5.2 Key features of Python

99 It is a general purpose programming language which can be used for both scientific
and non-scientific programming.
99 It is a platform independent programming language.
99 The programs written in Python are easily readable and understandable.

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The version 3.x of Python IDLE (Integrated Development Learning Environment)

is used to develop and run Python code. It can be downloaded from the web resource
www.python.org.

5.3 Programming in Python

In Python, programs can be written in two ways namely Interactive mode and Script
mode. The Interactive mode allows us to write codes in Python command prompt (>>>)
whereas in script mode programs can be written and stored as separate file with the extension
.py and executed. Script mode is used to create and edit python source file.

5.3.1 Interactive mode Programming

In interactive mode Python code can be directly typed and the interpreter displays the
result(s) immediately. The interactive mode can also be used as a simple calculator.

(i) Invoking Python IDLE

The following command can be used to invoke Python IDLE from Window OS.

Start → All Programs → Python 3.x → IDLE (Python 3.x)

(Or)

Click python Icon on the Desktop if available.

Now Python IDLE window appears as shown in the Figure 5.1

Menu Bar Tilte Bar

Python prompt (>>>)

Python IDLE Window

The prompt (>>>) indicates that Interpreter is ready to accept instructions. Therefore,
the prompt on screen means IDLE is working in interactive mode. Now let us try as a simple
calculator by using a simple mathematical expressions.

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Example 1: Example 2:
>>> 5 + 10 >>>print (“Python Programming Language”)
15 Python Programming Language
>>>x=10
>>> 5 + 50 *10
>>>y=20
505 >>>z=x + y
>>> 5 ** 2 >>>print (“The Sum”, z)
25 The Sum = 30

Python Interactive Window

5.3.2 Script mode Programming

Basically, a script is a text file containing the Python statements. Python Scripts are
reusable code. Once the script is created, it can be executed again and again without retyping.
The Scripts are editable.

(i) Creating Scripts in Python

1. Choose File → New File or press Ctrl + N in Python shell window.

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Figure 5.3 – To create new File

2. An untitled blank script text editor will be displayed on screen as shown in Figure 5.3(a)

Figure 5.3(a) Untitled, blank Python script editor

3. Type the following code in Script editor
a =100

b = 350 a = 100
b = 350
c = a+b
c = a+b
print ("The Sum=", c) print ("The Sum=", c)

Figure 5.4 – Python Sample code

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(ii) Saving Python Script

(1) Choose File → Save or Press Ctrl + S

Figure 5.5 – To Save the file First time

(2) Now, Save As dialog box appears on the screen as shown in the Figure 5.6
File Location

File Name (demo1)

File Type (Python file (.py))

Figure 5.6 – Save As Dialog Box

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(3) In the Save As dialog box, select the location where you want to save your Python code,
and type the file name in File Name box. Python files are by default saved with extension
.py. Thus, while creating Python scripts using Python Script editor, no need to specify
the file extension.
(4) Finally, click Save button to save your Python script.
(iii) Executing Python Script
(1) Choose Run → Run Module or Press F5

a=100
b=350
c=a+b
print ("The Sum=", c)

Figure 5.7 – To Execute Python Script

(2) If your code has any error, it will be shown in red color in the IDLE window, and Python
describes the type of error occurred. To correct the errors, go back to Script editor, make
corrections, save the file using Ctrl + S or File → Save and execute it again.
(3) For all error free code, the output will appear in the IDLE window of Python as shown in
Figure 5.8

Output

Figure 5.8 –Python Script Output Window

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5.4 Input and Output Functions

A program needs to interact with the user to accomplish the desired task; this can be
achieved using Input-Output functions. The input() function helps to enter data at run time
by the user and the output function print() is used to display the result of the program on the
screen after execution.
5.4.1 The print() function
In Python, the print() function is used to display result on the screen. The syntax for
print() is as follows:
Example
print (“string to be displayed as output ” )
print (variable )
print (“String to be displayed as output ”, variable)
print (“String1 ”, variable, “String 2”, variable, “String 3” ……)

Example
>>> print (“Welcome to Python Programming”)
Welcome to Python Programming
>>> x = 5
>>> y = 6
>>> z = x + y
>>> print (z)
11
>>> print (“The sum = ”, z)
The sum = 11
>>> print (“The sum of ”, x, “ and ”, y, “ is ”, z)
The sum of 5 and 6 is 11

The print ( ) evaluates the expression before printing it on the monitor. The print
() displays an entire statement which is specified within print ( ). Comma ( , ) is used as a
separator in print ( ) to print more than one item.

5.4.2 input() function

In Python, input( ) function is used to accept data as input at run time. The syntax for
input() function is,

Variable = input (“prompt string”)

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Where, prompt string in the syntax is a statement or message to the user, to know what
input can be given.
If a prompt string is used, it is displayed on the monitor; the user can provide expected
data from the input device. The input( ) takes whatever is typed from the keyboard and stores
the entered data in the given variable. If prompt string is not given in input( ) no message is
displayed on the screen, thus, the user will not know what is to be typed as input.

Example 1:input( ) with prompt string

>>> city=input (“Enter Your City: ”)

Enter Your City: Madurai
>>> print (“I am from “, city)
I am from Madurai

Example 2:input( ) without prompt string

>>> city=input()
Rajarajan
>>> print (“I am from”, city)
I am from Rajarajan

Note that in example-2, the input( ) is not having any prompt string, thus the user will
not know what is to be typed as input. If the user inputs irrelevant data as given in the above
example, then the output will be unexpected. So, to make your program more interactive,
provide prompt string with input( ).

The input ( ) accepts all data as string but not as numbers. If a numerical value is
entered, the input values should be explicitly converted into numeric data type. The int( )
function is used to convert string data as integer data explicitly. We will learn about more such
functions in later chapters.
Example 3:
x = int (input(“Enter Number 1: ”))
y = int (input(“Enter Number 2: ”))
print (“The sum = ”, x+y)
Output:
Enter Number 1: 34
Enter Number 2: 56
The sum = 90

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Example 4: Alternate method for the above program

x,y=int (input("Enter Number 1 :")),int(input("Enter Number 2:"))
print ("X = ",x," Y = ",y)
Output:
Enter Number 1 :30
Enter Number 2:50
X = 30 Y = 50

5.5 Comments in Python

In Python, comments begin with hash symbol (#). The lines that begins with # are
considered as comments and ignored by the Python interpreter. Comments may be single
line or no multi-lines. The multiline comments should be enclosed within a set of ''' '''(triple
quotes) as given below.
# It is Single line Comment
''' It is multiline comment
which contains more than one line '''

5.6 Indentation
Python uses whitespace such as spaces and tabs to define program blocks whereas
other languages like C, C++, java use curly braces { } to indicate blocks of codes for class,
functions or body of the loops and block of selection command. The number of whitespaces
(spaces and tabs) in the indentation is not fixed, but all statements within the block must be
indented with same amount spaces.

5.7 Tokens
Python breaks each logical line into a sequence of elementary lexical components
known as Tokens. The normal token types are
1) Identifiers,
2) Keywords,
3) Operators,
4) Delimiters and
5) Literals.
Whitespace separation is necessary between tokens.

5.7.1. Identifiers
An Identifier is a name used to identify a variable, function, class, module or object.

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• An identifier must start with an alphabet (A..Z and a..z) or underscore ( _ ).

• Identifiers may contain digits (0 .. 9)
• Python identifiers are case sensitive i.e. uppercase and lowercase letters are distinct.
• Identifiers must not be a python keyword.
• Python does not allow punctuation character such as %,$, @ etc., within identifiers.

Example of valid identifiers

Sum, total_marks, regno, num1
Example of invalid identifiers
12Name, name$, total-mark, continue

5.7.2. Keywords
Keywords are special words used by Python interpreter to recognize the structure of
program. As these words have specific meaning for interpreter, they cannot be used for any
other purpose.
Table 5.1 Python’s Keywords

False class finally is return

None continue for lambda try

True def from nonlocal while

and del global not with

as elif if or yield

assert else import pass

break except in raise

5.7.3 Operators
In computer programming languages operators are special symbols which represent
computations, conditional matching etc. The value of an operator used is called operands.
Operators are categorized as Arithmetic, Relational, Logical, Assignment etc. Value and
variables when used with operator are known as operands.
(i) Arithmetic operators
An arithmetic operator is a mathematical operator that takes two operands and performs
a calculation on them. They are used for simple arithmetic. Most computer languages contain a
set of such operators that can be used within equations to perform different types of sequential
calculations.
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Python supports the following Arithmetic operators.

Operator - Operation Examples Result

Assume a=100 and b=10. Evaluate the following expressions

+ (Addition) >>> a + b 110
- (Subtraction) >>>a – b 90
* (Multiplication) >>> a*b 1000
/ (Divisioin) >>> a / b 10.0
% (Modulus) >>> a % 30 10
** (Exponent) >>> a ** 2 10000
// (Floor Division) >>> a//30 (Integer Division) 3

Program 5.1 To test Arithmetic Operators:

#Demo Program to test Arithmetic Operators
a=100
b=10
print ("The Sum = ",a+b)
print ("The Difference = ",a-b)
print ("The Product = ",a*b)
print ("The Quotient = ",a/b)
print ("The Remainder = ",a%30)
print ("The Exponent = ",a**2)
print ("The Floor Division =",a//30)
#Program End
Output:
The Sum = 110
The Difference = 90
The Product = 1000
The Quotient = 10.0
The Remainder = 10
The Exponent = 10000
The Floor Division = 3

(ii) Relational or Comparative operators

A Relational operator is also called as Comparative operator which checks the
relationship between two operands. If the relation is true, it returns True; otherwise it returns
False.

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Python supports following relational operators

Operator - Operation Examples Result

Assume the value of a=100 and b=35. Evaluate the following expressions.
== (is Equal) >>> a==b False
> (Greater than) >>> a > b True
< (Less than) >>> a < b False
>= (Greater than or Equal to) >>> a >= b True
<= (Less than or Equal to) >>> a <= b False
!= (Not equal to) >>> a != b True

Coding 5.2 To test Relational Operators:

#Demo Program to test Relational Operators
a=int (input("Enter a Value for A:"))
b=int (input("Enter a Value for B:"))
print ("A = ",a," and B = ",b)
print ("The a==b = ",a==b)
print ("The a > b = ",a>b)
print ("The a < b = ",a<b)
print ("The a >= b = ",a>=b)
print ("The a <= b = ",a<=b)
print ("The a != b = ",a!=b)
#Program End
Output:
Enter a Value for A:35
Enter a Value for B:56
A = 35 and B = 56
The a==b = False
The a > b = False
The a < b = True
The a >= b = False
The a <= b = False
The a != b = True

(iii) Logical operators

In python, Logical operators are used to perform logical operations on the given
relational expressions. There are three logical operators they are and, or and not.

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Operator Example Result

Assume a = 97 and b = 35, Evaluate the following Logical expressions
or >>> a>b or a==b True
and >>> a>b and a==b False
not >>> not a>b False i.e. Not True

Program 5.3 To test Logical Operators:

Example – Code Example - Result

#Demo Program to test Logical Operators Enter a Value for A:50

a=int (input("Enter a Value for A:")) Enter a Value for B:40
b=int (input("Enter a Value for B:")) A = 50 and b = 40
print ("A = ",a, " and b = ",b) The a > b or a == b = True
print ("The a > b or a == b = ",a>b or a==b) The a > b and a == b = False
print ("The a > b and a == b = ",a>b and a==b) The not a > b = False
print ("The not a > b = ",not a>b)
#Program End

(iv) Assignment operators

In Python, = is a simple assignment operator to assign values to variable. Let a = 5 and
b = 10 assigns the value 5 to a and 10 to b these two assignment statement can also be given
as a,b=5,10 that assigns the value 5 and 10 on the right to the variables a and b respectively.
There are various compound operators in Python like +=, -=, *=, /=, %=, **= and //= are also
available.

Operator Description Example

Assume x=10
>>> x=10
= Assigns right side operands to left variable
>>> b=”Computer”
Added and assign back the result
+= >>> x+=20 # x=x+20
to left operand
Subtracted and assign back the
-= >>> x-=5 # x=x-5
result to left operand
Multiplied and assign back the
*= >>> x*=5 # x=x*5
result to left operand
Divided and assign back the
/= >>> x/=2 # x=x/2
result to left operand

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Taken modulus(Remainder) using two

%= operands and assign the result >>> x%=3 # x=x%3
to left operand

Performed exponential (power) calculation on

**= >>> x**=2 # x=x**2
operators and assign value to the left operand

Performed floor division on operators and

//= >>> x//=3
assign value to the left operand

Program 5.4 To test Assignment Operators:

Program Coding Output

#Demo Program to test Assignment Operators Type a Value for X : 10

x=int (input("Type a Value for X : ")) X = 10
print ("X = ",x) The x is = 10
print ("The x is =",x) The x += 20 is = 30
x+=20 The x -= 5 is = 25
print ("The x += 20 is =",x) The x *= 5 is = 125
x-=5 The x /= 2 is = 62.5
print ("The x -= 5 is = ",x) The x %= 3 is = 2.5
x*=5 The x **= 2 is = 6.25
print ("The x *= 5 is = ",x) The x //= 3 is = 2.0
x/=2
print ("The x /= 2 is = ",x)
x%=3
print ("The x %= 3 is = ",x)
x**=2
print ("The x **= 2 is = ",x)
x//=3
print ("The x //= 3 is = ",x)
#Program End

(v) Conditional operator

Ternary operator is also known as conditional operator that evaluate something based
on a condition being true or false. It simply allows testing a condition in a single line replacing
the multiline if-else making the code compact.

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The Syntax conditional operator is,

Variable Name = [on_true] if [Test expression] else [on_false]

Example :

min= 49 if 49<50 else 50 # min = 49

min= 50 if 49>50 else 49 # min = 49

Program 5.5 To test Conditional (Ternary) Operator:

# Program to demonstrate conditional operator
a, b = 30, 20
# Copy value of a in min if a < b else copy b
min = a if a < b else b
print ("The Minimum of A and B is ",min)
# End of the Program

Output:
The Minimum of A and B is 20

5.7.4 Delimiters
Delimiters are sequence of one or more characters used to specify the boundary between
seperate, independent regions in plain text or other data streams. Python uses the symbols and
symbol combinations as delimiters in expressions, lists, dictionaries and strings. Following
are the delimiters.

( ) [ ] { }
, : . ‘ = ;

5.7.5 Literals
Literal is a raw data given to a variable or constant. In Python, there are various types
of literals.

1) Numeric
2) String
3) Boolean

(i) Numeric Literals

Numeric Literals consists of digits and are immutable (unchangeable). Numeric literals
can belong to 3 different numerical types Integer, Float and Complex.

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Program 5.6 : To demonstrate Numeric literals

# Program to demonstrate Numeric Literals
a = 0b1010 #Binary Literals
b = 100 #Decimal Literal
c = 0o310 #Octal Literal
d = 0x12c #Hexadecimal Literal
print ("Integer Literals :",a,b,c,d)
#Float Literal
float_1 = 10.5
float_2 = 1.5e2
print ("Float Literals :",float_1,float_2)
#Complex Literal
x = 1 + 3.14 j
print ("Complex Literals :")
Print ("x = ", x , "Imaginary part of x = ", x.imag, "Real part of x = ", x.real)
#End of the Program
Output:
Integer Literals : 10 100 200 300
Float Literals : 10.5 150.0
Complex Literals :
x = (1+3.14j) Imaginary part of x = 3.14 Real part of x = 1.0

(ii) String Literals

In Python a string literal is a sequence of characters surrounded by quotes. Python
supports single, double and triple quotes for a string. A character literal is a single character
surrounded by single or double quotes. The value with triple-quote "' '" is used to give multi-
line string literal. A Character literal is also considered as string literal in Python.

Program 5.7 To test String Literals

# Demo Program to test String Literals
strings = "This is Python"
char = "C"
multiline_str = "'This is a multiline string with more than one line code."'
print (strings)
print (char)
print (multiline_str)
# End of the Program

Output:
This is Python
C
This is a multiline string with more than one line code.

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(iii) Boolean Literals

A Boolean literal can have any of the two values: True or False.
Program 5.8 To test Boolean Literals:
# Demo Program to test String Literals
boolean_1 = True
boolean_2 = False
print ("Demo Program for Boolean Literals")
print ("Boolean Value1 :",boolean_1)
print ("Boolean Value2 :",boolean_2)
# End of the Program
Output:
Demo Program for Boolean Literals
Boolean Value1 : True
Boolean Value2 : False

(iv) Escape Sequences

In Python strings, the backslash "\" is a special character, also called the "escape"
character. It is used in representing certain whitespace characters: "\t" is a tab, "\n" is a
newline, and "\r" is a carriage return. For example to print the message "It's raining", the
Python command is
>>> print ("It\'s rainning")
It's rainning
Python supports the following escape sequence characters.

Escape sequence Description Example Output

character

\\ Backslash >>> print("\\test") \test

\’ Single-quote >>> print("Doesn\'t") Doesn't

\” Double-quote >>> print("\"Python\"") "Python"
\n New line print("Python","\n","Lang..") Python
Lang..
\t Tab print("Python","\t","Lang..") Python Lang..

5.8 Python Data types

All data values in Python are objects and each object or value has type. Python has
Built-in or Fundamental data types such as Number, String, Boolean, tuples, lists, sets and
dictionaries etc.
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5.8.1 Number Data type

The built-in number objects in Python supports integers, floating point numbers and
complex numbers.
Integer Data can be decimal, octal or hexadecimal. Octal integer use digit 0 (Zero)
followed by letter 'o' to denote octal digits and hexadecimal integer use 0X (Zero and either
uppercase or lowercase X) and L (only upper case) to denote long integer.
Example :
102, 4567, 567 # Decimal integers
0o102, 0o876, 0o432 # Octal integers
0X102, 0X876, 0X432 # Hexadecimal integers
34L, 523L # Long decimal integers

A floating point data is represented by a sequence of decimal digits that includes a

decimal point. An Exponent data contains decimal digit part, decimal point, exponent part
followed by one or more digits.

Example :
123.34, 456.23, 156.23 # Floating point data
12.E04, 24.e04 # Exponent data

Complex number is made up of two floating point values, one each for the real and
imaginary parts.
5.8.2 Boolean Data type
A Boolean data can have any of the two values: True or False.
Example :
Bool_var1=True
Bool_var2=False

5.8.3 String Data type

String data can be enclosed in single quotes or double quotes or triple quotes.

Example :
Char_data = ‘A’
String_data= "Computer Science"
Multiline_data= ”””String data can be enclosed in single quotes or
double quotes or triple quotes.”””

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Points to remember:
• Python is a general purpose programming language created by Guido Van Rossum.
• Python shell can be used in two ways, viz., Interactive mode and Script mode.
• Python uses whitespace (spaces and tabs) to define program blocks
• Whitespace separation is necessary between tokens, identifiers or keywords.
• A Program needs to interact with end user to accomplish the desired task, this is done
using Input-Output facility.
• Python breaks each logical line into a sequence of elementary lexical components
known as Tokens.
• Keywords are special words that are used by Python interpreter to recognize the
structure of program.

Evaluation
Part - I
Choose the best answer (1 Marks)
1. Who developed Python ?
A) Ritche B) Guido Van Rossum
C) Bill Gates D) Sunder Pitchai
2. The Python prompt indicates that Interpreter is ready to accept instruction.
A) >>> B) <<<
C) # D) <<
3. Which of the following shortcut is used to create new Python Program ?
A) Ctrl + C B) Ctrl + F
C) Ctrl + B D) Ctrl + N
4. Which of the following character is used to give comments in Python Program ?
A) # B) & C) @ D) $
5. This symbol is used to print more than one item on a single line.
A) Semicolon(;) B) Dollor($)
C) comma(,) D) Colon(:)
6. Which of the following is not a token ?
A) Interpreter B) Identifiers
C) Keyword D) Operators

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7. Which of the following is not a Keyword in Python ?

A) break B) while
C) continue D) operators
8. Which operator is also called as Comparative operator?
A) Arithmetic B) Relational
C) Logical D) Assignment
9. Which of the following is not Logical operator?
A) and B) or
C) not D) Assignment
10. Which operator is also called as Conditional operator?
A) Ternary B) Relational
C) Logical D) Assignment

Part - II
Answer the following questions : (2 Marks)
1. What are the different modes that can be used to test Python Program ?
2. Write short notes on Tokens.
3. What are the different operators that can be used in Python ?
4. What is a literal? Explain the types of literals ?
5. Write short notes on Exponent data?

Part - III
Answer the following questions : (3 Marks)
1. Write short notes on Arithmetic operator with examples.
2. What are the assignment operators that can be used in Python?
3. Explain Ternary operator with examples.
4. Write short notes on Escape sequences with examples.
5. What are string literals? Explain.

Part - IV
Answer the following questions : (5 Marks)
1. Describe in detail the procedure Script mode programming.
2. Explain input() and print() functions with examples.
3. Discuss in detail about Tokens in Python

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CHAPTER 6
Unit II
CONTROL STRUCTURES

Learning Objectives

After studying this lesson, students will be able to:

• To gain knowledge on the various flow of control in Python language.

• To learn through the syntax how to use conditional construct to improve the efficiency of
the program flow.

• To apply iteration structures to develop code to repeat the program segment for specific
number of times or till the condition is satisfied.

6.1 Introduction

Programs may contain set of statements. These statements are the executable segments
that yield the result. In general, statements are executed sequentially, that is the statements
are executed one after another. There may be situations in our real life programming where
we need to skip a segment or set of statements and execute another segment based on the test
of a condition. This is called alternative or branching. Also, we may need to execute a set of
statements multiple times, called iteration or looping. In this chapter we are to focus on the
various control structures in Python, their syntax and learn how to develop the programs
using them.

6.2 Control Structures

A program statement that causes a jump of control from one part of the program to
another is called control structure or control statement. As you have already learnt in C++,
these control statements are compound statements used to alter the control flow of the process
or program depending on the state of the process.

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There are three important control structures

Sequential

Alternative or
Branching

Iterative or Looping

6.2.1 Sequential Statement

A sequential statement is composed of a sequence of statements which are executed
one after another. A code to print your name, address and phone number is an example of
sequential statement.

Example 6.1
# Program to print your name and address - example for sequential statement
print ("Hello! This is Shyam")
print ("43, Second Lane, North Car Street, TN")
Output
Hello! This is Shyam
43, Second Lane, North Car Street, TN

6.2.2 Alternative or Branching Statement

In our day-to-day life we need to take various decisions and choose an alternate path
to achieve our goal. May be we would have taken an alternate route to reach our destination
when we find the usual road by which we travel is blocked. This type of decision making is
what we are to learn through alternative or branching statement. Checking whether the given
number is positive or negative, even or odd can all be done using alternative or branching
statement.

Python provides the following types of alternative or branching statements:

• Simple if statement • if..else statement • if..elif statement

(i) Simple if statement

Simple if is the simplest of all decision making statements. Condition should be in the
form of relational or logical expression.

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Syntax:
if <condition>:
statements-block1

In the above syntax if the condition is true statements - block 1 will be executed.

Example 6.2
# Program to check the age and print whether eligible for voting
x=int (input("Enter your age :"))
if x>=18:
print ("You are eligible for voting")
Output 1:
Enter your age :34
You are eligible for voting
Output 2:
Enter your age :16
>>>

As you can see in the second execution no output will be printed, only the Python
prompt will be displayed because the program does not check the alternative process when the
condition is failed.

(ii) if..else statement

The if .. else statement provides control to check the true block as well as the false
block. Following is the syntax of ‘if..else’ statement.

Syntax:
if <condition>:
statements-block 1
else:
statements-block 2

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Entry

if condition is if condition is
true condition false

Statement Statement
block -1 block -2

Exit
Fig. 6.1 if..else statement execution

if..else statement thus provides two possibilities and the condition determines which
BLOCK is to be executed.

Example 6.3: #Program to check if the accepted number odd or even

a = int(input("Enter any number :"))
if a%2==0:
print (a, " is an even number")
else:
print (a, " is an odd number")
Output 1:
Enter any number :56
56 is an even number
Output 2:
Enter any number :67
67 is an odd number

An alternate method to rewrite the above program is also available in Python. The
complete if..else can also written as:

Syntax:
variable = variable1 if condition else variable 2

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Note
The condition specified in the if statement is checked, if it is true, the value of
variable1 is stored in variable on the left side of the assignment, otherwise variable2 is
taken as the value.

Example 6.4: #Program to check if the accepted number is odd or even

(using alternate method of if...else)
a = int (input("Enter any number :"))
x="even" if a%2==0 else "odd"
print (a, " is ",x)
Output 1:
Enter any number :3
3 is odd
Output 2:
Enter any number :22
22 is even

(iii) Nested if..elif...else statement:

When we need to construct a chain of if statement(s) then ‘elif ’ clause can be used
instead of ‘if else’.
Syntax:
if <condition-1>:
statements-block 1
elif <condition-2>:
statements-block 2
else:
statements-block n

In the syntax of if..elif..else mentioned above, condition-1 is tested if it is true then

statements-block1 is executed, otherwise the control checks condition-2, if it is true statements-
block2 is executed and even if it fails statements-block n mentioned in else part is executed.

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Test false
Expression
of if

True Test false

Expression
Body of if of elif

True

Body of else
Body of elif

Fig 6.2 if..elif..else statement execution

‘Multiple if..else statements can be combined to one if..elif…else. ‘elif ’ can be

considered to be abbreviation of ‘else if ’. In an ‘if ’ statement there is no limit of ‘elif ’ clause
that can be used, but an ‘else’ clause if used should be placed at the end.

Note
if..elif..else statement is similar to nested if statement which you have learnt in C++.

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Example 6.5: #Program to illustrate the use of nested if statement

Average Grade
>=80 and above A
>=70 and <80 B
>=60 and <70 C
>=50 and <60 D
Otherwise E

m1=int (input(“Enter mark in first subject : ”))

m2=int (input(“Enter mark in second subject : ”))
avg= (m1+m2)/2
if avg>=80:
print (“Grade : A”)
elif avg>=70 and avg<80:
print (“Grade : B”)
elif avg>=60 and avg<70:
print (“Grade : C”)
elif avg>=50 and avg<60:
print (“Grade : D”)
else:
print (“Grade : E”)

Output 1:
Enter mark in first subject : 34
Enter mark in second subject : 78
Grade : D

Output 2 :
Enter mark in first subject : 67
Enter mark in second subject : 73
Grade : B

Note
In the above example of if and elif statement are both indented four spaces, which
is a typical amount of indentation for Python. In most other programming languages,
indentation is used only to help make the code look pretty. But in Python, it is required
to indicate to which block of code the statement belongs to.

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Example 6.5a: #Program to illustrate the use of ‘in’ and ‘not in’ in if statement
ch=input (“Enter a character :”)
# to check if the letter is vowel
if ch in (‘a’, ‘A’, ‘e’, ‘E’, ‘i’, ‘I’, ‘o’, ‘O’, ‘u’, ‘U’):
print (ch,’ is a vowel’)
# to check if the letter typed is not ‘a’ or ‘b’ or ‘c’
if ch not in (‘a’, ’b’, ’c’):
print (ch,’ the letter is not a/b/c’)
Output 1:
Enter a character :e
e is a vowel
Output 2:
Enter a character :x
x the letter is not a/b/c

6.2.3. Iteration or Looping constructs

Iteration or loop are used in situation when the user need to execute a block of code
several of times or till the condition is satisfied. A loop statement allows to execute a statement
or group of statements multiple times.

False
Condition

True else
Statement 1
Statement 1 Statement 2
Statement 2 ...
... Statementn
Statementn
Further
Statements
of Program
Fig 6.3 Diagram to illustrate how looping construct gets executed
Python provides two types of looping constructs:
• while loop
• for loop
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(i) while loop

The syntax of while loop in Python has the following syntax:

Syntax:
while <condition>:
statements block 1
[else:
statements block2]

while Expression:
Statement (s)
Condition

if conditions is true
if condition is
Conditional Code
false

Fig 6.4 while loop execution

In the while loop, the condition is any valid Boolean expression returning True or
False. The else part of while is optional part of while. The statements block1 is kept executed
till the condition is True. If the else part is written, it is executed when the condition is tested
False. Recall while loop belongs to entry check loop type, that is it is not executed even once if
the condition is tested False in the beginning.

Example 6.6: program to illustrate the use of while loop - to print all numbers
from 10 to 15

i=10 # intializing part of the control variable

while (i<=15): # test condition
print (i,end='\t') # statements - block 1
i=i+1 # Updation of the control variable

Output:
10 11 12 13 14 15

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Note
In the above example, the control variable is i, which is initialized to 10. Next the
condition i<=15 is tested, if the value is true i gets printed, then the control variable i gets
updated as i=i+1 (this can also be written as i +=1 using shorthand assignment operator).
When i becomes 16, the condition is returned as False and this will terminate the loop.

Note
print can have end, sep as parameters. end parameter can be used when we need to give
any escape sequences like ‘\t’ for tab, ‘\n’ for new line and so on. sep as parameter can be
used to specify any special characters like, (comma) ; (semicolon) as separator between
values (Recall the concept which you have learnt in previous chapter about the formatting
options in print()).

Following is an example for using else part within while loop.

Example 6.7: program to illustrate the use of while loop - with else part

i=10 # intializing part of the control variable

while (i<=15): # test condition
print (i,end='\t') # statements - block 1
i=i+1 # Updation of the control variable
else:
print ("\nValue of i when the loop exit ",i)
Output: 1
10 11 12 13 14 15
Value of i when the loop exit 16

(ii) for loop

The for loop is usually known as a definite loop, because the programmer knows exactly
how many times the loop will be executed.

Syntax:
for counter_variable in sequence:
statements-block 1
[else: # optional block
statements-block 2]

The for .... in statement is a looping statement used in Python to iterate over a sequence
of objects, i.e., it goes through each item in a sequence. Here the sequence is the collection of
ordered or unordered values or even a string.
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The control variable accesses each item of the sequence on each iteration until it reaches the
last item in the sequence.

Example 6.8 (a) Example 6.8 (b)

for x in "Hello World": for x in (1,2,3,4,5):
print(x, end=' ') print("Hello World")
Output:
Output: Hello World
Hello World Hello World
Hello World
Hello World
Hello World

In the above example 6.8(a), we have created a string “Hello World”, as the sequence.
Initially, the value of x is set to the first element of the string, (i.e. ‘H’), so the print statement
inside the loop is executed. Then, the control variable x is updated with the next element of
the string and the print statement is executed again. In this way the loop runs until the last
element of the string is accessed.
In the same way, example 6.8(b) prints the string “Hello World”, five times, until the control
variable x reaches last element of the given sequence.
Instead of creating sequence of values manually, we can use range().
The range() is a built-in function, to generate series of values between two numeric intervals.
The syntax of range() is as follows:
range (start,stop,[step])

Where,
start – refers to the initial value
stop – refers to the final value
step – refers to increment value, this is optional part.

Example 6.8(c): Examples for range()

range (1,30,1) will start the range of values from 1 and end at 29
range (2,30,2) will start the range of values from 2 and end at 28
range (30,3,-3) - will start the range of values from 30 and end at 6
range (20) will consider this value 20 as the end value(or upper limit) and starts the
range count from 0 to 19 (remember always range() will work till stop -1
value only)

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for each item

in sequence

Yes
Last item
reached?

No
Body of for

Exit loop
Fig 6.5 for loop execution

Example 6.9: #program to illustrate the use of for loop - to print single
digit even number
for i in range (2,10,2):
print (i, end=' ')

Output:
2468

Following is an illustration using else part in for loop

Example 6.10 : #program to illustrate the use of for loop - to print single
digit even number with else part
for i in range(2,10,2):
print (i,end=' ')
else:
print ("\nEnd of the loop")
Output:
2468
End of the loop

Note
In Python, indentation is important in loop and other control statements. Indentation
only creates blocks and sub-blocks like how we create blocks within a set of { } in languages
like C, C++ etc.

Here is another program which illustrates the use of range() to find the sum of numbers
1 to 100

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Example 6.11: # program to calculate the sum of numbers 1 to 100

n = 100
sum = 0
for counter in range(1,n+1):
sum = sum + counter
print("Sum of 1 until %d: %d" % (n,sum))
Output:
Sum of 1 until 100: 5050
In the above code, n is initialized to 100, sum is initialized to 0, the for loop
starts executing from 1, for every iteration the value of sum is added with the value
of counter variable and stored in sum. Note that the for loop will iterate from 1 till
the upper limit -1 (ie. Value of n is set as 100, so this loop will iterate for values from
1 to 99 only, that is the reason why we have set the upper limit as n+1)

Note
for loop can also take values from string, list, dictionary etc. which will be dealt
in the later chapters.

Following is an example to illustrate the use of string in range()

Example 6.12: program to illustrate the use of string in range() of for loop
for word in 'Computer':
print (word,end=' ')
else:
print ("\nEnd of the loop")
Output
Computer
End of the loop

(iii) Nested loop structure

A loop placed within another loop is called as nested loop structure. One can place a
while within another while; for within another for; for within while and while within for to
construct such nested loops.
Following is an example to illustrate the use of for loop to print the following pattern
1
1 2
1 2 3
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4 5

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Example 6.13: program to illustrate the use nested loop -for within while loop
i=1
while (i<=6):
for j in range (1,i):
print (j,end='\t')
print (end='\n')
i +=1

Output:
1
1 2
1 2 3
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4 5

6.2.4 Jump Statements in Python

The jump statement in Python, is used to unconditionally transfer the control from one
part of the program to another. There are three keywords to achieve jump statements in Python
: break, continue, pass. The following flowchart illustrates the use of break and continue.

False
Condition

True else
Statement 1
Statement 1 Statement 2
... ...
break Statementn
...
continue Further
... Statements
Statementn of Program

Fig 6.6 Use of break, continue statement in loop structure

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(i) break statement

The break statement terminates the loop containing it. Control of the program flows to
the statement immediately after the body of the loop.
A while or for loop will iterate till the condition is tested false, but one can even transfer
the control out of the loop (terminate) with help of break statement. When the break statement
is executed, the control flow of the program comes out of the loop and starts executing the
segment of code after the loop structure.
If break statement is inside a nested loop (loop inside another loop), break will
terminate the innermost loop.
Syntax:
break

Enter loop

false
Condition

true

break?
yes
Exit loop
no
Remaining body of loop

Fig 6.7 Working of break statement

The working of break statement in for loop and while loop is shown below.
for var in sequence:
if condition:
break
#code inside for loop
#code outside for loop
while test expression:
#code inside while loop
if condition:
break
#code inside while loop
#code outside while loop

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Example 6.14: Program to illustrate the use of break statement inside

for loop
for word in “Jump Statement”:
if word = = “e”:
break
print (word, end= ' ')
Output:
Jump Stat

The above program will repeat the iteration with the given “Jump Statement” as string.
Each letter of the given string sequence is tested till the letter ‘e’ is encountered, when it is
encountered the control is transferred outside the loop block or it terminates. As shown in the
output, it is displayed till the letter ‘e’ is checked after which the loop gets terminated.
One has to note an important point here is that ‘if a loop is left by break, the else part
is not executed’. To explain this lets us enhance the previous program with an ‘else’ part and
see what output will be:

Example 6.15: Program to illustrate the use of break statement inside

for loop
for word in “Jump Statement”:
if word = = “e”:
break
print (word, end=' ')
else:
print (“End of the loop”)
print (“\n End of the program”)
Output:
Jump Stat
End of the program

Note that the break statement has even skipped the ‘else’ part of the loop and has
transferred the control to the next line following the loop block.
(ii) continue statement
Continue statement unlike the break statement is used to skip the remaining part of a
loop and start with next iteration.

Syntax:
continue

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Enter loop

Test false
Expression
of loop

true

yes
continue?

Exit loop
no
Remaining body of loop

Fig 6.8 Working of continue statement

The working of continue statement in for and while loop is shown below.
for var in sequence:
# code inside for loop
if condition:
continue
#code inside for loop
#code outside for loop
while test expression:
#code inside while loop
if condition:
continue
#code inside while loop
#code outside while loop

Example 6.16: Program to illustrate the use of continue statement inside

for loop
for word in “Jump Statement”:
if word = = “e”:
continue
print (word, end = ' ')
print (“\n End of the program”)
Output:
Jump Statmnt
End of the program

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The above program is same as the program we had written for ‘break’ statement except
that we have replaced it with ‘continue’. As you can see in the output except the letter ‘e’ all the
other letters get printed.

(iii) pass statement

pass statement in Python programming is a null statement. pass statement when
executed by the interpreter it is completely ignored. Nothing happens when pass is executed,
it results in no operation.

pass statement can be used in ‘if ’ clause as well as within loop construct, when you do
not want any statements or commands within that block to be executed.

Syntax:
pass

Example 6.17: Program to illustrate the use of pass statement

a=int (input(“Enter any number :”))
if (a==0):
pass
else:
print (“non zero value is accepted”)

Output:
Enter any number :3
non zero value is accepted
When the above code is executed if the input value is 0 (zero)
then no action will be performed, for all the other input values the
output will be as follows:

Note
pass statement is generally used as a placeholder. When we have a loop or function
that is to be implemented in the future and not now, we cannot develop such functions
or loops with empty body segment because the interpreter would raise an error. So, to
avoid this we can use pass statement to construct a body that does nothing.

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Example 6.18: Program to illustrate the use of pass statement in for loop
for val in “Computer”:
pass
print (“End of the loop, loop structure will be built in future”)

Output:
End of the loop, loop structure will be built in future.

Points to remember:

• Programs consists of statements which are executed in sequence, to alter the

flow we use control statements.
• A program statement that causes a jump of control from one part of the
program to another is called control structure or control statement.
• Three types of flow of control are
o Sequencing
o Branching or Alternative
o Iteration
• In Python, branching is done using various forms of ‘if ’ structures.
• Indentation plays a vital role in Python programming, it is the indentation
that group statements no need to use {}.
• Python Interpreter will throw error for all indentation errors.
• To accept input at runtime, earlier versions of Python supported raw_input(),
latest versions support input().
• print() supports the use of escape sequence to format the output to the user’s
choice.
• range() is used to supply a range of values in for loop.
• break, continue, pass act as jump statements in Python.
• pass statement is a null statement, it is generally used as a place holder.

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Hands on Experience

1. Write a program to check whether the given character is a vowel or not.

2. Using if..else..elif statement check smallest of three numbers.

3. Write a program to check if a number is Positive, Negative or zero.

4. Write a program to display Fibonacci series 0 1 1 2 3 4 5…… (upto n terms)

5. Write a program to display sum of natural numbers, upto n.
6. Write a program to check if the given number is a palindrome or not.
7. Write a program to print the following pattern
* * * * *
* * * *
* * *
* *
*
8. Write a program to check if the year is leap year or not.

Evaluation

Part - I

Choose the best answer 1 Marks

1. How many important control structures are there in Python?
A) 3 B) 4
C) 5 D) 6
2. elif can be considered to be abbreviation of
A) nested if B) if..else
C) else if D) if..elif
3. What plays a vital role in Python programming?
A) Statements B) Control
C) Structure D) Indentation
4. Which statement is generally used as a placeholder?
A) continue B) break
C) pass D) goto

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5. The condition in the if statement should be in the form of

A) Arithmetic or Relational expression
B) Arithmetic or Logical expression
C) Relational or Logical expression
D) Arithmetic
6. Which of the following is known as definite loop?
A) do..while B) while
C) for D) if..elif
7. What is the output of the following snippet?
i=1
while True:
if i%3 ==0:
break
print(i,end=' ')
i +=1
A) 12 B) 123
C) 1234 D) 124
8. What is the output of the following snippet?
T=1
while T:
print(True)
break
A) False B) True
C) 0 D) 1
9. Which amongst this is not a jump statement ?
A) for B) pass
C) continue D) break
10. Which punctuation should be used in the blank?
if <condition>_
statements-block 1
else:
statements-block 2
A) ; B) :
C) :: D) !
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Part -II

Answer the following questions 2 Marks

1. List the control structures in Python.
2. Write note on break statement.
3. Write is the syntax of if..else statement
4. Define control structure.
5. Write note on range () in loop

Part -III

Answer the following questions 3 Marks

1. Write a program to display
A
A B
A B C
A B C D
A B C D E
2. Write note on if..else structure.
3. Using if..else..elif statement write a suitable program to display largest of 3 numbers.
4. Write the syntax of while loop.
5. List the differences between break and continue statements.

Part -IV

Answer the following questions 5 Marks

1. Write a detail note on for loop
2. Write a detail note on if..else..elif statement with suitable example.
3. Write a program to display all 3 digit odd numbers.
4. Write a program to display multiplication table for a given number.

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CHAPTER 7
Unit II
PYTHON FUNCTIONS

Main advantages of functions are

Learning Objectives
• It avoids repetition and makes high degree
of code reusing.
After studying this chapter, students will be
able to: • It provides better modularity for your
application.
• Understand the concept of function and
their types.
Note
• Know the difference between User Functions are nothing but a group
defined and Built in functions. of related statements that perform a
• Know how to call a function. specific task.

• Understand the function arguments. 7.1.1 Types of Functions

• Know Anonymous functions. Basically, we can divide functions

into the following types:
• Know Mathematical and some String
functions. 1 User-defined Functions
2 Built-in Functions
7.1 Introduction Lambda Functions
3
Recursion Functions
Functions are named blocks of code 4

that are designed to do specific job. When

Figure – 7.1 – Types of Python Functions
you want to perform a particular task that
you have defined in a function, you call
Functions Description
the name of the function responsible for it.
If you need to perform that task multiple User-defined Functions defined by
times throughout your program, you don’t functions the users themselves.
need to type all the code for the same task Built-in Functions that are
again and again; you just call the function functions inbuilt with in Python.
dedicated to handling that task, and the Lambda Functions that are
call tells Python to run the code inside the functions anonymous un-named
function. You’ll find that using functions function.
makes your programs easier to write, read,
test, and fix errors.
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• If any input parameters are present should

Recursion Functions that calls
functions itself is known as be placed within these parentheses when
recursive. you define a function.

Table – 7.1 – Python Functions and it's • The code block always comes after a
Description colon (:) and is indented.

Defining Functions • The statement “return [expression]”

7.2
exits a function, optionally passing back
Functions must be defined, to create an expression to the caller. A “return”
and use certain functionality. There are with no arguments is the same as return
many built-in functions that comes with the None.
language python (for instance, the print()
function), but you can also define your own Note
function. When defining functions there are Python keywords should not be used
multiple things that need to be noted; as function name.
• Function blocks begin with the keyword
“def ” followed by function name and
parenthesis ().

7.2.1 Syntax for User defined function

def <function_name ([parameter1, parameter2…] )> : Note

<Block of Statements> In the above Syntax, the Text
return <expression / None> which is given in square
bracket [] is optional.

Block: Nested Block:

A block is one or more lines of A block within a block is called
code, grouped together so that they nested block. When the first block
are treated as one big sequence of statement is indented by a single tab
statements while execution. In Python, space, the second block of statement is
statements in a block are written with indented by double tab spaces.
indentation. Usually, a block begins
when a line is indented (by four Here is an example of defining a function;
spaces) and all the statements of the
def Do_Something( ):
block should be at same indent level.
value =1 #Assignment Statement
return value #Return Statement

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Now let’s check out functions in action so you can visually see how they work within a
program. Here is an example for a simple function to display the given string.
Example: 7.2.1
def hello():
print (“hello - Python”)
return

7.2.2 Advantages of User-defined Functions

1. Functions help us to divide a program into modules. This makes the code easier to
manage.
2. It implements code reuse. Every time you need to execute a sequence of statements, all
you need to do is to call the function.
3. Functions, allows us to change functionality easily, and different programmers can work
on different functions.
7.3 Calling a Function
To call the hello() function from example 7.2-1, use the following code:
Example: 7.3.1
def hello():
print (“hello - Python”)
return
(hello()

When you call the “hello()” function, the program displays the following string as
output:
Output
hello – Python

Alternatively we can call the “hello()” function within the print() function as in the
example given below.
Example: 7.3.2
def hello():
print (“hello - Python”)
return
print (hello())

If the return has no argument, “None” will be displayed as the last statement of the
output.

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The above function will output the following.

Output:
hello – Python
None

7.4 Passing Parameters in Functions

Parameters can be declared to functions

Syntax:
def function_name (parameter(s) separated by comma):

Let us see the use of parameters while defining functions. The parameters that you
place in the parenthesis will be used by the function itself. You can pass all sorts of data to the
functions. Here is an example program that defines a function that helps to pass parameters
into the function.
Example: 7.4
# assume w = 3 and h = 5
def area(w,h):
return w * h
print (area (3,5))

The above code assigns the width and height values to the parameters w and h. These
parameters are used in the creation of the function “area”. When you call the above function,
it returns the product of width and height as output.
The value of 3 and 5 are passed to w and h respectively, the function will return 15 as
output.

We often use the terms parameters and arguments interchangeably. However, there
is a slight difference between them. Parameters are the variables used in the function
definition whereas arguments are the values we pass to the function parameters

7.5 Function Arguments

Arguments are used to call a function and there are primarily 4 types of functions that
one can use: Required arguments, Keyword arguments, Default arguments and Variable-length
arguments.

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Function Arguments

1 Required arguments

2 Keyword arguments

3 Default arguments

4 Variable-length arguments

7.5.1 Required Arguments

“Required Arguments” are the arguments passed to a function in correct positional
order. Here, the number of arguments in the function call should match exactly with the
function definition. You need atleast one parameter to prevent syntax errors to get the required
output.
Example :7.5.1
def printstring(str):
print ("Example - Required arguments ")
print (str)
return
# Now you can call printstring() function
printstring()

When the above code is executed, it produces the following error.

Traceback (most recent call last):
File "Req-arg.py", line 10, in <module>
printstring()
TypeError: printstring() missing 1 required positional argument: 'str'

Instead of printstring() in the above code if we use printstring (“Welcome”) then the
output is

Output:
Example - Required arguments
Welcome

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7.5.2 Keyword Arguments

Keyword arguments will invoke the function after the parameters are recognized by
their parameter names. The value of the keyword argument is matched with the parameter
name and so, one can also put arguments in improper order (not in order).
Example: 7.5.2 (a)
def printdata (name):
print (“Example-1 Keyword arguments”)
print (“Name :”,name)
return
# Now you can call printdata() function
printdata(name = “Gshan”)

When the above code is executed, it produces the following output :

Output:
Example-1 Keyword arguments
Name :Gshan

Example: 7.5.2 (b)

def printdata (name):
print (“Example-2 Keyword arguments”)
print (“Name :”, name)
return
# Now you can call printdata() function
printdata (name1 = “Gshan”)

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result :

TypeError: printdata() got an unexpected keyword argument 'name1'

Example: 7.5.2 (c)

def printdata (name, age):
print ("Example-3 Keyword arguments")
print ("Name :",name)
print ("Age :",age)
return
# Now you can call printdata() function
printdata (age=25, name="Gshan")

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When the above code is executed, it produces the following result:

Output:
Example-3 Keyword arguments
Name : Gshan
Age : 25

Note
In the above program the parameters orders are changed

7.5.3 Default Arguments

In Python the default argument is an argument that takes a default value if no value
is provided in the function call. The following example uses default arguments, that prints
default salary when no argument is passed.

Example: 7.5.3
def printinfo( name, salary = 3500):
print (“Name: “, name)
print (“Salary: “, salary)
return
printinfo(“Mani”)

When the above code is executed, it produces the following output

Output:
Name: Mani
Salary: 3500

When the above code is changed as printinfo(“Ram”,2000) it produces the following

output:

Output:
Name: Ram
Salary: 2000

In the above code, the value 2000 is passed to the argument salary, the default value
already assigned for salary is simply ignored.

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7.5.4 Variable-Length Arguments

In some instances you might need to pass more arguments than have already been
specified. Going back to the function to redefine it can be a tedious process. Variable-Length
arguments can be used instead. These are not specified in the function’s definition and an
asterisk (*) is used to define such arguments.
Lets see what happens when we pass more than 3 arguments in the sum() function.

Example: 7.5.4
def sum(x,y,z):
print("sum of three nos :",x+y+z)
sum(5,10,15,20,25)

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result :

TypeError: sum() takes 3 positional arguments but 5 were given

7.5.4.1 Syntax - Variable-Length Arguments

def function_name(*args):
function_body
return_statement

Example: 7.5.4. 1
def printnos (*nos): Output:
for n in nos: Printing two values
print(n) 1
return 2
# now invoking the printnos() function Printing three values
print ('Printing two values') 10
printnos (1,2) 20
print ('Printing three values') 30
printnos (10,20,30)

Evaluate Yourself ?

In the above program change the function name printnos as printnames in all places
wherever it is used and give the appropriate data Ex. printnos (10, 20, 30) as printnames ('mala',
'kala', 'bala') and see output.

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In Variable Length arguments we can pass the arguments using two methods.
1. Non keyword variable arguments
2. Keyword variable arguments
Non-keyword variable arguments are called tuples. You will learn more about tuples in
the later chapters. The Program given is an illustration for non keyword variable argument.

Note
Keyword variable arguments are beyond the scope of this book.

The Python’s print() function is itself an example of such a function which

supports variable length arguments.

7.6 Anonymous Functions

What is anonymous function?

In Python, anonymous function is a function that is defined without a name. While
normal functions are defined using the def keyword, in Python anonymous functions are
defined using the lambda keyword. Hence, anonymous functions are also called as lambda
functions.

What is the use of lambda or anonymous function?

• Lambda function is mostly used for creating small and one-time anonymous function.
• Lambda functions are mainly used in combination with the functions like filter(), map()
and reduce().

Note
filter(), map() and reduce() functions are beyond the scope of this book.

Lambda function can take any number of arguments and must return one
value in the form of an expression. Lambda function can only access global variables
and variables in its parameter list.

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7.6.1 Syntax of Anonymous Functions

The syntax for anonymous functions is as follows:

lambda [argument(s)] :expression Example: 7.6.1

sum = lambda arg1, arg2: arg1 + arg2
print ('The Sum is :', sum(30,40))
print ('The Sum is :', sum(-30,40))
Output:
The Sum is : 70
The Sum is : 10

The above lambda function that adds argument arg1 with argument arg2 and stores the
result in the variable sum. The result is displayed using the print().

7.7 The return Statement

• The return statement causes your function to exit and returns a value to its caller. The
point of functions in general is to take inputs and return something.
• The return statement is used when a function is ready to return a value to its caller. So,
only one return statement is executed at run time even though the function contains
multiple return statements.
• Any number of 'return' statements are allowed in a function definition but only one of
them is executed at run time.
7.7.1 Syntax of return

return [expression list ]

This statement can contain expression which gets evaluated and the value is returned.
If there is no expression in the statement or the return statement itself is not present inside a
function, then the function will return the None object.

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Example : 7.7.1
# return statment
def usr_abs (n):
if n>=0:
return n
else:
return –n
# Now invoking the function
x=int (input(“Enter a number :”)
print (usr_abs (x))
Output 1:
Enter a number : 25
25
Output 2:
Enter a number : -25
25

7.8 Scope of Variables

Scope of variable refers to the part of the program, where it is accessible, i.e., area where
you can refer (use) it. We can say that scope holds the current set of variables and their values.
We will study two types of scopes - local scope and global scope.

7.8.1 Local Scope

A variable declared inside the function's body is known as local variable.
Rules of local variable
• A variable with local scope can be accessed only within the function that it is created in.
• When a variable is created inside the function the variable becomes local to it.
• A local variable only exists while the function is executing.
• The formal parameters are also local to function.

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Example : 7.8.1 (a) Create a Local Variable

def loc():
y=0 # local scope
print(y)
loc()
Output:
0

Example : 7.8.1 (b)Accessing local variable outside the scope

def loc():
y = "local"
loc()
print(y)

When we run the above code, the output shows the following error:
The above error occurs because we are trying to access a local variable ‘y’ in a global
scope.

NameError: name 'y' is not defined

7.8.2 Global Scope

A variable, with global scope can be used anywhere in the program. It can be created by
defining a variable outside the scope of any function.
Rules of global Keyword
The basic rules for global keyword in Python are:
• When we define a variable outside a function, it’s global by default. You don’t have to use
global keyword.
• We use global keyword to modify the value of the global variable inside a function.
• Use of global keyword outside a function has no effect
Use of global Keyword
Example : 7.8.2 (a) Accessing global Variable From Inside a Function
c = 1 # global variable
def add():
print(c)
add()
Output:
1

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Example : 7.8.2 (b) Modifying Global Variable From Inside the Function
c = 1 # global variable
def add():
c = c + 2 # increment c by 2
print(c)
add()
Output:
UnboundLocal Error: local variable 'c' referenced before assignment

Note
Without using the global keyword we cannot modify the global variable inside
the function but we can only access the global variable.

Example : 7.8.2(c) C
 hanging Global Variable From Inside a Function
using global keyword
x = 0 # global variable
def add():
global x
x = x + 5 # increment by 5
print ("Inside add() function x value is :", x)
add()
print ("In main x value is :", x)
Output:
Inside add() function x value is : 5
In main x value is : 5

In the above program, x is defined as a global variable. Inside the add() function, global
keyword is used for x and we increment the variable x by 5. Now We can see the change on the
global variable x outside the function i.e the value of x is 5.

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7.8.3 Global and local variables

Here, we will show how to use global variables and local variables in the same code.
Example : 7.8.3 (a) Using Global and Local variables in same code
x=8 # x is a global variable
def loc():
global x
y = "local"
x=x*2
print(x)
print(y)
loc()
Output:
16
local

In the above program, we declare x as global and y as local variable in the function
loc().
After calling the function loc(), the value of x becomes 16 because we used x=x * 2.
After that, we print the value of local variable y i.e. local.

Example : 7.8.3 (b) Global variable and Local variable with same name

x=5
def loc():
x = 10
print ("local x:", x)
loc()
print ("global x:", x)

Output:
local x: 10
global x: 5

In above code, we used same name ‘x’ for both global variable and local variable. We get
different result when we print same variable because the variable is declared in both scopes, i.e.
the local scope inside the function loc() and global scope outside the function loc().
The output :- local x: 10, is called local scope of variable.
The output:- global x: 5, is called global scope of variable.

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7.9 Functions using libraries

7.9.1 Built-in and Mathematical functions

Function Description Syntax Example

abs ( ) Returns an x=20
absolute value y=-23.2
of a number. print('x = ', abs(x))
The argument
print('y = ', abs(y))
may be an abs (x)
integer or a Output:
floating point
x = 20
n u m b e r.
y = 23.2
ord ( ) Returns the c= 'a'
ASCII value d= 'A'
for the given print ('c = ',ord (c))
Unicode ord (c) print ('A = ',ord (d))
character.
This function is Output:
inverse of chr() c = 97
function. A = 65
chr ( ) Returns the c=65
Unicode d=43
character for print (chr (c))
the given ASCII chr (i) prin t(chr (d))
value.
This function is Output:
inverse of ord() A
function. +
bin ( ) Returns a x=15
binary string y=101
prefixed with print ('15 in binary : ',bin (x))
“0b” for the print ('101 in binary : ',bin (y))
given integer bin (i)
number. Output:
Note: format 15 in binary : 0b1111
() can also be 101 in binary : 0b1100101
used instead of
this function.

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type ( ) Returns the x= 15.2

type of object y= 'a'
for the given s= True
single object. print (type (x))
Note: This type (object) print (type (y))
function print (type (s))
used with
single object Output:
parameter. <class 'float'>
<class 'str'>
<class 'bool'>
id ( ) id( ) Return x=15
the “identity” of y='a'
an object. i.e. print ('address of x is :',id (x))
the address of id (object) print ('address of y is :',id (y))
the object in
Output:
memory.
Note: the address of x is : 1357486752
address of x address of y is : 13480736
and y may
differ in your
system.
min ( ) Returns the MyList = [21,76,98,23]
minimum value print ('Minimum of MyList :', min(MyList))
in a list. min (list)
Output:
Minimum of MyList : 21
max ( ) Returns the MyList = [21,76,98,23]
maximum print ('Maximum of MyList :', max(MyList))
value in a list.
max (list) Output:
Maximum of MyList : 98
sum ( ) Returns the MyList = [21,76,98,23]
sum of values print ('Sum of MyList :', sum(MyList))
in a list. sum (list)
Output:
Sum of MyList : 218

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format ( ) Returns the x= 14

output based y= 25
on the given print ('x value in binary :',format(x,'b'))
format print ('y value in octal :',format(y,'o'))
1. Binary print('y value in Fixed-point no ',format(y,'f '))
format.
Outputs the format (value Output:
number in [, format_ x value in binary : 1110
base 2. spec]) y value in octal : 31
2. Octal y value in Fixed-point no : 25.000000
format.
Outputs the
number in
base 8.
3. Fixed-point
notation.
Displays the
number as a
fixed-point
number.
The default
precision
is 6.
round ( ) Returns the x= 17.9
nearest integer y= 22.2
to its input. z= -18.3
1. First print ('x value is rounded to', round (x))
argument round print ('y value is rounded to', round (y))
(number) (number print ('z value is rounded to', round (z))
is used to [,ndigits])
specify the
value to be
rounded.

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2. Second Output:1
argument x value is rounded to 18
(ndigits) y value is rounded to 22
is used to z value is rounded to -18
specify the n1=17.89
number print (round (n1,0))
of decimal print (round (n1,1))
digits print (round (n1,2))
desired after
rounding. Output:2
18.0
17.9
17.89
pow ( ) Returns the a= 5
computation of b= 2
ab i.e. (a**b ) c= 3.0
a raised to the print (pow (a,b))
power of b. print (pow (a,c))
pow (a,b) print (pow (a+b,3))

Output:
25
125.0
343

Mathematical Functions

Note
Specify import math module before using all mathematical
functions in a program

Function Description Syntax Example

floor ( ) Returns the largest integer math.floor (x) import math
less than or equal to x x=26.7
y=-26.7
z=-23.2
print (math.floor (x))
print (math.floor (y))
print (math.floor (z))
Output:
26
-27
-24

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ceil ( ) Returns the smallest math.ceil (x) import math

integer greater than or x= 26.7
equal to x y= -26.7
z= -23.2
print (math.ceil (x))
print (math.ceil (y))
print (math.ceil (z))
Output:
27
-26
-23
sqrt ( ) Returns the square root math.sqrt (x ) import math
of x a= 30
Note: x must be greater b= 49
than 0 (zero) c= 25.5
print (math.sqrt (a))
print (math.sqrt (b))
print (math.sqrt (c))
Output:
5.477225575051661
7.0
5.049752469181039
7.9.2 Composition in functions
What is Composition in functions?
The value returned by a function may be used as an argument for another function in
a nested manner. This is called composition. For example, if we wish to take a numeric value
or an expression as a input from the user, we take the input string from the user using the
function input() and apply eval() function to evaluate its value, for example:
Example : 7.9. 2
# This program explains composition
>>> n1 = eval (input ("Enter a number: "))
Enter a number: 234
>>> n1
234
>>> n2 = eval (input ("Enter an arithmetic expression: "))
Enter an arithmetic expression: 12.0+13.0 * 2
>>> n2
38.0

7.10 Python recursive functions

When a function calls itself is known as recursion. Recursion works like loop but
sometimes it makes more sense to use recursion than loop. You can convert any loop to

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recursion.
A recursive function calls itself. Imagine a process would iterate indefinitely if not
stopped by some condition! Such a process is known as infinite iteration. The condition that
is applied in any recursive function is known as base condition. A base condition is must in
every recursive function otherwise it will continue to execute like an infinite loop.

Overview of how recursive function works

1. Recursive function is called by some external code.
2. If the base condition is met then the program gives meaningful output and exits.
3. Otherwise, function does some required processing and then calls itself to continue
recursion.
Here is an example of recursive function used to calculate factorial.

Example : 7.10
def fact(n):
if n == 0:
return 1
else:
return n * fact (n-1)
print (fact (0))
print (fact (5))
Output:
1
120

print(fact (2000)) will give Recursion Error after maximum recursion depth exceeded
in comparison. This happens because python stops calling recursive function after
1000 calls by default. It also allows you to change the limit using sys.setrecursionlimit
(limit_value).

Example:
import sys
sys.setrecursionlimit(3000)
def fact(n):
if n == 0:
return 1
else:
return n * fact(n-1)
print(fact (2000))

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Points to remember:

• Functions are named blocks of code that are designed to do one specific job.
• Types of Functions are User defined, Built-in, lambda and recursion.
• Function blocks begin with the keyword “def ” followed by function name and
parenthesis ().
• A “return” with no arguments is the same as return None. Return statement
is optional in python.
• In Python, statements in a block should begin with indentation.
• A block within a block is called nested block.
• Arguments are used to call a function and there are primarily 4 types of
functions that one can use: Required arguments, Keyword arguments, Default
arguments and Variable-length arguments.
• Required arguments are the arguments passed to a function in correct
positional order.
• Keyword arguments will invoke the function after the parameters are
recognized by their parameter names.
• A Python function allows to give the default values for parameters in the
function definition. We call it as Default argument.
• Variable-Length arguments are not specified in the function’s definition and
an asterisk (*) is used to define such arguments.
• Anonymous Function is a function that is defined without a name.
• Scope of variable refers to the part of the program, where it is accessible, i.e.,
area where you can refer (use) it.
• The value returned by a function may be used as an argument for another
function in a nested manner. This is called composition.
• A function which calls itself is known as recursion. Recursion works like a
loop but sometimes it makes more sense to use recursion than loop.

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Hands on Experience
1. Try the following code in the above program

Slno code Result

1 printinfo(“3500”)
2 printinfo(“3500”,”Sri”)
3 printinfo(name=”balu”)
4 printinfo(“Jose”,1234)
5 printinfo(“ ”,salary=1234)

2. Evaluate the following functions and write the output

Slno Function Output

1 eval(‘25*2-5*4')

2 math.sqrt(abs(-81))

3 math.ceil(3.5+4.6)

4 math.floor(3.5+4.6)

3. Evaluate the following functions and write the output

Slno function Output
1 1) abs(-25+12.0))
2) abs(-3.2)
2 1) ord('2')
2) ord('$')
3 type('s')
4 bin(16)
5 1) chr(13)
2) print(chr(13))
6 1) round(18.2,1)
2) round(18.2,0)
3) round(0.5100,3)
4) round(0.5120,3)

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7 1) format(66, 'c')
2) format(10, 'x')
3) format(10, 'X')
4) format(0b110, 'd')
5) format(0xa, 'd')
8 1) pow(2,-3)
2) pow(2,3.0)
3) pow(2,0)
4) pow((1+2),2)
5) pow(-3,2)
6) pow(2*2,2)

Evaluation

Part - I
Choose the best answer: (1 Mark)
1. A named blocks of code that are designed to do one specific job is called as
(a) Loop (b) Branching
(c) Function (d) Block
2. A Function which calls itself is called as
(a) Built-in (b) Recursion
(c) Lambda (d) return
3. Which function is called anonymous un-named function
(a) Lambda (b) Recursion
(c) Function (d) define
4. Which of the following keyword is used to begin the function block?
(a) define (b) for
(c) finally (d) def
5. Which of the following keyword is used to exit a function block?
(a) define (b) return
(c) finally (d) def
6. While defining a function which of the following symbol is used.
(a) ; (semicolon) (b) . (dot)
(c) : (colon) (d) $ (dollar)

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7. In which arguments the correct positional order is passed to a function?

(a) Required (b) Keyword
(c) Default (d) Variable-length
8. Read the following statement and choose the correct statement(s).
(I) In Python, you don’t have to mention the specific data types while defining
function.
(II) Python keywords can be used as function name.
(a) I is correct and II is wrong
(b) Both are correct
(c) I is wrong and II is correct
(d) Both are wrong
9. Pick the correct one to execute the given statement successfully.
if ____ : print(x, " is a leap year")
(a) x%2=0 (b) x%4==0
(c) x/4=0 (d) x%4=0
10. Which of the following keyword is used to define the function testpython(): ?
(a) define (b) pass
(c) def (d) while

Part - II

Answer the following questions: (2 Marks)

1. What is function?
2. Write the different types of function.
3. What are the main advantages of function?
4. What is meant by scope of variable? Mention its types.
5. Define global scope.
6. What is base condition in recursive function
7. How to set the limit for recursive function? Give an example.

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Part - III

Answer the following questions: (3 Marks)

1. Write the rules of local variable.
2. Write the basic rules for global keyword in python.
3. What happens when we modify global variable inside the function?
4. Differentiate ceil() and floor() function?
5. Write a Python code to check whether a given year is leap year or not.
6. What is composition in functions?
7. How recursive function works?
8. What are the points to be noted while defining a function?

Part - IV
Answer the following questions: (5 Marks)
1. Explain the different types of function with an example.
2. Explain the scope of variables with an example.
3. Explain the following built-in functions.
(a) id()
(b) chr()
(c) round()
(d) type()
(e) pow()
4. Write a Python code to find the L.C.M. of two numbers.
5. Explain recursive function with an example.
Reference Books
1. Python Tutorial book from tutorialspoint.com
2. Python Programming: A modular approach by Pearson – Sheetal, Taneja
3. Fundamentals of Python –First Programs by Kenneth A. Lambert

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CHAPTER 8
Unit II
STRINGS AND STRING MANIPULATION

Learning Objectives

After completion of this chapter, the student will be able to

• Know how to process text.
• Understanding various string functions in Python.
• Know how to format Strings.
• Know about String Slicing.
• Know about Strings application in real world.

8.1 Introduction

String is a data type in python, which is used to handle array of characters. String is
a sequence of Unicode characters that may be a combination of letters, numbers, or special
symbols enclosed within single, double or even triple quotes.

Example

‘Welcome to learning Python’

“Welcome to learning Python”
‘‘‘ “Welcome to learning Python” ’’’

In python, strings are immutable, it means, once you define a string, it cannot be
changed during execution.
8.2 Creating Strings
As we learnt already, a string in Python can be created using single or double or even
triple quotes. String in single quotes cannot hold any other single quoted string in it, because
the interpreter will not recognize where to start and end the string. To overcome this problem,
you have to use double quotes. Strings which contains double quotes should be define within
triple quotes. Defining strings within triple quotes also allows creation of multiline strings.

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Example
#A string defined within single quotes
>>> print (‘Greater Chennai Corporation’)
Greater Chennai Corporation
#single quoted string defined within single quotes
>>> print ('Greater Chennai Corporation's student')
SyntaxError: invalid syntax

#A string defined within double quotes

>>>print (“Computer Science”)
Computer Science
#double quoted string defined within double quotes
>>> print (''' "Computer Science" ''')
"Computer Science"
#single and double quoted multiline string defined within triple quotes
>>> print (''' "Strings are immutable in 'Python',
which means you can't make any changes
once you declared" ''')
"Strings are immutable in 'Python',
which means you can't make any changes once you declared"

8.3 Accessing characters in a String

Once you define a string, python allocate an index value for its each character. These
index values are otherwise called as subscript which are used to access and manipulate the
strings. The subscript can be positive or negative integer numbers.

The positive subscript 0 is assigned to the first character and n-1 to the last character,
where n is the number of characters in the string. The negative index assigned from the last
character to the first character in reverse order begins with -1.

Example
String S C H O O L
Positive subscript 0 1 2 3 4 5
Negative subscript -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1

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Example 1 : Program to access each character with its positive subscript of

a giving string
str1 = input ("Enter a string: ")
index=0
for i in str1:
print ("Subscript[",index,"] : ", i)
index + = 1
Output
Enter a string: welcome
Subscript [ 0 ] : w
Subscript [ 1 ] : e
Subscript [ 2 ] : l
Subscript [ 3 ] : c
Subscript [ 4 ] : o
Subscript [ 5 ] : m
Subscript [ 6 ] : e

Example 2 : Program to access each character with its negative subscript of

a giving string
str1 = input ("Enter a string: ")
index=-1
while index >= -(len(str1)):
print ("Subscript[",index,"] : " + str1[index])
index += -1
Output
Enter a string: welcome
Subscript [ -1 ] : e
Subscript [ -2 ] : m
Subscript [ -3 ] : o
Subscript [ -4 ] : c
Subscript [ -5 ] : l
Subscript [ -6 ] : e
Subscript [ -7 ] : w

8.4 Modifying and Deleting Strings

As you already learnt, strings in python are immutable. That means, once you define
a string modifications or deletion is not allowed. However, we can replace the existing string
entirely with the new string.

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Example
>>> str1="How are you"
>>> str1[0]="A"
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "<pyshell#1>", line 1, in <module>
str1[0]="A"
TypeError: 'str' object does not support item assignment

In the above example, string variable str1 has been assigned with the string “How are
you” in statement 1. In the next statement, we try to update the first character of the string with
character ‘A’. But python will not allow the update and it shows a TypeError.
To overcome this problem, you can define a new string value to the existing string
variable. Python completely overwrite new string on the existing string.
Example
>>> str1="How are you"
>>> print (str1)
How are you
>>> str1="How about you"
>>> print (str1)
How about you

Usually python does not support any modification in its strings. But, it provides a
function replace() to temporarily change all occurrences of a particular character in a string.
The changes done through replace () does not affect the original string.
General formate of replace function:

replace(“char1”, “char2”)
The replace function replaces all occurrences of char1 with char2.

Example
>>> str1="How are you"
>>> print (str1)
How are you
>>> print (str1.replace("o", "e"))
Hew are yeu

Similar as modification, python will not allow deleting a particular character in a string.
Whereas you can remove entire string variable using del command.

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Example 3: Code lines to delete a particular character in a string:

>>> str1="How are you"

>>> del str1[2]
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "<pyshell#7>", line 1, in <module>
del str1[2]
TypeError: 'str' object doesn't support item deletion

Example 4: Code lines to delete a string variable

>>> str1="How about you"

>>> print (str1)
How about you
>>> del str1
>>> print (str1)
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "<pyshell#14>", line 1, in <module>
print (str1)
NameError: name 'str1' is not defined

8.5 String Operators

Python provides the following operators for string operations. These operators are
useful to manipulate string.
(i) Concatenation (+)
Joining of two or more strings is called as Concatenation. The plus (+) operator is used
to concatenate strings in python.
Example
>>> "welcome" + "Python"
'welcomePython'

(ii) Append (+ =)
Adding more strings at the end of an existing string is known as append. The operator
+= is used to append a new string with an existing string.

Example
>>> str1="Welcome to "

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>>> str1+="Learn Python"

>>> print (str1)
Welcome to Learn Python
(iii) Repeating (*)
The multiplication operator (*) is used to display a string in multiple number of times.
Example
>>> str1="Welcome "
>>> print (str1*4)
Welcome Welcome Welcome Welcome
(iv) String slicing
Slice is a substring of a main string. A substring can be taken from the original string
by using [ ] operator and index or subscript values. Thus, [ ] is also known as slicing operator.
Using slice operator, you have to slice one or more substrings from a main string.
General format of slice operation:
str[start:end]
Where start is the beginning index and end is the last index value of a character in the
string. Python takes the end value less than one from the actual index specified. For example,
if you want to slice first 4 characters from a string, you have to specify it as 0 to 5. Because,
python consider only the end value as n-1.
Example I : slice a single character from a string
>>> str1="THIRUKKURAL"

>>> print (str1[0])

T
Example II : slice a substring from index 0 to 4
>>> print (str1[0:5])
THIRU
Example III : slice a substring using index 0 to 4 but without specifying the beginning
index.
>>> print (str1[:5])
THIRU
Example IV : slice a substring using the start index alone without specifying the end index.
>>> print (str1[6:])
KURAL

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Example V : Program to slice substrings using for loop

str1="COMPUTER"
index=0
for i in str1:
print (str1[:index+1])
index+=1
Output
C
CO
COM
COMP
COMPU
COMPUT
COMPUTE
COMPUTER

(v) Stride when slicing string

When the slicing operation, you can specify a third argument as the stride, which refers
to the number of characters to move forward after the first character is retrieved from the
string. The default value of stride is 1.

Example
>>> str1 = "Welcome to learn Python"
>>> print (str1[10:16])
learn
>>> print (str1[10:16:4])
r
>>> print (str1[10:16:2])
er
>>> print (str1[::3])
Wceoenyo

Note: Remember that, python takes the last value as n-1

You can also use negative value as stride (third argument). If you specify a negative
value, it prints in reverse order.

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Example
>>> str1 = "Welcome to learn Python"
>>> print(str1[::-2])
nhy re teolW

8.6 String Formatting Operators

The string formatting operator is one of the most exciting feature of python. The
formatting operator % is used to construct strings, replacing parts of the strings with the data
stored in variables.

Syntax:
(“String to be display with %val1 and %val2” %(val1, val2))

Example

name = "Rajarajan"
mark = 98
print ("Name: %s and Marks: %d" %(name,mark))

Output
Name: Rajarajan and Marks: 98

8.7 Formatting characters

Format characters USAGE
%c Character
%d (or) %i Signed decimal integer
%s String
%u Unsigned decimal integer
%o Octal integer
%x or %X Hexadecimal integer (lower case x refers a-f; upper case X refers
A-F)
%e or %E Exponential notation
%f Floating point numbers
%g or %G Short numbers in floating point or exponential notation.

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Escape sequence in python

Escape sequences starts with a backslash and it can be interpreted differently. When
you have use single quote to represent a string, all the single quotes inside the string must be
escaped. Similar is the case with double quotes.

Example
# String within triple quotes to display a string with single quote
>>> print ('''They said, "What's there?"''')
They said, "What's there?"
# String within single quotes to display a string with single quote using escape sequence
>>> print ('They said, "What\'s there?"')
They said, "What's there?"
# String within double quotes to display a string with single quote using escape sequence
>>> print ("They said, \"What's there?\"")
He said, "What's there?"

Escape sequences supported by python

Escape Sequence DESCRIPTION
\newline Backslash and newline ignored
\\ Backslash
\' Single quote
\" Double quote
\a ASCII Bell
\b ASCII Backspace
\f ASCII Form feed
\n ASCII Linefeed
\r ASCII Carriage Return
\t ASCII Horizontal Tab
\v ASCII Vertical Tab
\ooo Character with octal value ooo
\xHH Character with hexadecimal value HH

8.8 The format( ) function

The format( ) function used with strings is very versatile and powerful function used
for formatting strings. The curly braces { } are used as placeholders or replacement fields which
get replaced along with format( ) function.

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Example
num1=int (input("Number 1: "))
num2=int (input("Number 2: "))
print ("The sum of { } and { } is { }".format(num1, num2,(num1+num2)))
Out Put
Number 1: 34
Number 2: 54
The sum of 34 and 54 is 88

8.9 Built-in String functions

Python supports the following built-in functions to manipulate string.

Syntax Description Example

len(str) Returns the length (no of >>> A="Corporation"
characters) of the string. >>> print(len(A))
11
capitalize( ) Used to capitalize the first >>> city="chennai"
character of the string >>> print(city.capitalize())
Chennai
center(width, fillchar) Returns a string with the >>> str1="Welcome"
original string centered to >>> print(str1.center(15,'*') )
a total of width columns ****Welcome****
and filled with fillchar in
columns that do not have
characters
find(sub[, start[, end]]) The function is used to >>>str1=’mammals’
search the first occurrence >>>str1.find(‘ma’)
of the sub string in the 0
given string. It returns On omitting the start parameters,
the index at which the the function starts the search
substring starts. It returns from the beginning.
-1 if the substring does >>>str1.find(‘ma’,2)
not occur in the string. 3
>>>str1.find(‘ma’,2,4)
-1
Displays -1 because the substring
could not be found between the
index 2 and 4-1.
>>>str1.find(‘ma’,2,5)
3

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Syntax Description Example

isalnum( ) Returns True if the string >>>str1=’Save Earth’
contains only letters and >>>str1.isalnum()
digit. It returns False. If False
the string contains any The function returns False as space
special character like _, @, is an alphanumeric character.
#, *, etc. >>>’Save1Earth’.isalnum()
True
isalpha( ) Returns True if the string >>>’Click123’.isalpha()
contains only letters. False
Otherwise return False. >>>’python’.isalpha( )
True
isdigit( ) Returns True if the string >>> str1=’Save Earth’
contains only numbers. >>>print(str1.isdigit( ))
Otherwise it returns False. False
lower( ) Returns the exact copy >>>str1=’SAVE EARTH’
of the string with all the >>>print(str1.lower())
letters in lowercase. save earth
islower( ) Returns True if the string >>> str1=’welcome’
is in lowercase. >>>print (str1.islower( ))
True
isupper( ) Returns True if the string >>> str1=’welcome’
is in uppercase. >>>print (str1.isupper( ))
False
upper( ) Returns the exact copy of >>> str1=’welcome’
the string with all letters >>>print (str.upper( ))
in uppercase. WELCOME
title( ) Returns a string in title >>> str1='education department'
case >>> print(str1.title())
Education Department
swapcase( ) It will change case of >>> str1="tAmiL NaDu"
every character to its >>> print(str1.swapcase())
opposite case vice-versa. TaMIl nAdU

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Syntax Description Example

count(str, beg, end) Returns the number >>> str1="Raja Raja Chozhan"
of substrings occurs >>> print(str1.count('Raja'))
within the given range. 2
Remember that substring >>> print(str1.count('r'))
may be a single character. 0
Range (beg and end) >>> print(str1.count('R'))
arguments are optional. 2
If it is not given, python >>> print(str1.count('a'))
searched in whole string. 5
Search is case sensitive. >>> print(str1.count('a',0,5))
2
>>> print(str1.count('a',11))
1
ord(char ) Returns the ASCII code >>> ch = 'A'
of the character. >>> print(ord(ch))
65
>>> print(ord('B'))
66
chr(ASII) Returns the character >>> ch=97
represented by a ASCII. >>> print(chr(ch))
a
>>> print(chr(87))
W
8.10 Membership Operators
The ‘in’ and ‘not in’ operators can be used with strings to determine whether a string is
present in another string. Therefore, these operators are called as Membership Operators.

Example
str1=input ("Enter a string: ")
str2="chennai"
if str2 in str1:
print ("Found")
else:
print ("Not Found")
Output : 1
Enter a string: Chennai G HSS, Saidapet
Found
Output : 2
Enter a string: Govt G HSS, Ashok Nagar
Not Found

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Example 8.11 Programs using Strings :

Example 8.11.1 : Program to check whether the given string is palindrome
or not
str1 = input ("Enter a string: ")
str2 = ' '
index=-1
for i in str1:
str2 += str1[index]
index -= 1
print ("The given string = { } \n The Reversed string = { }".format(str1, str2))
if (str1==str2):
print ("Hence, the given string is Palindrome")
else:
print ("Hence, the given is not a palindrome")
Output : 1
Enter a string: malayalam
The given string = malayalam
The Reversed string = malayalam
Hence, the given string is Palindrome
Output : 2
Enter a string: welcome
The given string = welcome
The Reversed string = emoclew
Hence, the given string is not a palindrome

Example 8.11.2 : Program to display the following pattern

*
* *
* * *
* * * *
* * * * *
str1=' * '
i=1
while i<=5:
print (str1*i)
i+=1
Output
*
* *
* * *
* * * *
* * * * *

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Example 8.11.3 : Program to display the number of vowels and consonants

in the given string
str1=input ("Enter a string: ")
str2="aAeEiIoOuU"
v,c=0,0
for i in str1:
if i in str2:
v+=1
elif i.isalpha():
c+=1
print ("The given string contains { } vowels and { } consonants".format(v,c))

Output
Enter a string: Tamilnadu School Education
The given string contains 11 vowels and 13 consonants

Example 8.11.4 : Program to create an Abecedarian series. (Abecedarian

refers list of elements appear in alphabetical order)
str1="ABCDEFGH"
str2="ate"
for i in str1:
print ((i+str2),end='\t')
Output
Aate Bate Cate Date Eate Fate Gate Hate

Example 8.11.5 : Program that accept a string from the user and display
the same after removing vowels from it
def rem_vowels(s):
temp_str=''
for i in s:
if i in "aAeEiIoOuU":
pass
else:
temp_str+=i
print ("The string without vowels: ", temp_str)
str1= input ("Enter a String: ")
rem_vowels (str1)
Output
Enter a String: Mathematical fundations of Computer Science
The string without vowels: Mthmtcl fndtns f Cmptr Scnc

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Example 8.11.6 : Program that count the occurrences of a character in a

string
def count(s, c):
c1=0
for i in s:
if i == c:
c1+=1
return c1
str1=input ("Enter a String: ")
ch=input ("Enter a character to be searched: ")
cnt=count (str1, ch)
print ("The given character {} is occurs {} times in the given string".format(ch,cnt))
Out Put
Enter a String: Software Engineering
Enter a character to be searched: e
The given character e is occurs 3 times in the given string

Points to remember:
• String is a data type in python.
• Strings are immutable, that means once you define string, it cannot be changed during
execution.
• Defining strings within triple quotes also allows creation of multiline strings.
• In a String, python allocate an index value for its each character which is known as
subscript.
• The subscript can be positive or negative integer numbers.
• Slice is a substring of a main string.
• Stride is a third argument in slicing operation.
• Escape sequences starts with a backslash and it can be interpreted differently.
• The format( ) function used with strings is very versatile and powerful function used
for formatting strings.
• The ‘in’ and ‘not in’ operators can be used with strings to determine whether a string
is present in another string.

Hands on Experience

1. Write a python program to find the length of a string.

2. Write a program to count the occurrences of each word in a given string.

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3. Write a program to add a prefix text to all the lines in a string.

4. Write a program to print integers with ‘*’ on the right of specified width.

5. Write a program to create a mirror image of the given string. For example, “wel” = “lew“.

6. Write a program to removes all the occurrences of a give character in a string.

7. Write a program to append a string to another string without using += operator.

8. Write a program to swap two strings.

9. Write a program to replace a string with another string without using replace().

10. Write a program to count the number of characters, words and lines in a given string.

Evaluation
Part - I

Choose the best answer (1 Mark)

1. Which of the following is the output of the following python code?
str1="TamilNadu"
print(str1[::-1])
(a) Tamilnadu (b) Tmlau
(c) udanlimaT d) udaNlimaT
2. What will be the output of the following code?
str1 = "Chennai Schools"
str1[7] = "-"
(a) Chennai-Schools (b) Chenna-School
(c) Type error (D) Chennai
3. Which of the following operator is used for concatenation?
(a) + (b) & (c) * d) =
4. Defining strings within triple quotes allows creating:
(a) Single line Strings (b) Multiline Strings
(c) Double line Strings (d) Multiple Strings
5. Strings in python:
(a) Changeable (b) Mutable
(c) Immutable (d) flexible

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6. Which of the following is the slicing operator?

(a) { } (b) [ ] (c) < > (d) ( )
7. What is stride?
(a) index value of slide operation (b) first argument of slice operation
(c) second argument of slice operation (d) third argument of slice operation
8. Which of the following formatting character is used to print exponential notation in
upper case?
(a) %f (b) %E (c) %g (d) %n
9. Which of the following is used as placeholders or replacement fields which get replaced
along with format( ) function?
(a) { } (b) < > (c) ++ (d) ^^
10. The subscript of a string may be:
(a) Positive (b) Negative
(c) Both (a) and (b) (d) Either (a) or (b)

Part -II

Answer the following questions (2 Marks)

1. What is String?
2. Do you modify a string in Python?
3. How will you delete a string in Python?
4. What will be the output of the following python code?
str1 = “School”
print(str1*3)
5. What is slicing?
Part -III

Answer the following questions (3 Marks)

1. Write a Python program to display the given pattern
COMPUTER
COMPUTE
COMPUT
COMPU
COMP
COM
CO
C

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2. Write a short about the followings with suitable example:

(a) capitalize( ) (b) swapcase( )
3. What will be the output of the given python program?
str1 = "welcome"
str2 = "to school"
str3=str1[:2]+str2[len(str2)-2:]
print(str3)
4. What is the use of format( )? Give an example.
5. Write a note about count( ) function in python.

Part -IV

Answer the following questions (5 Marks)

1. Explain about string operators in python with suitable example.

Reference Books
1. https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/index.html
2. https://www.techbeamers.com/python-tutorial-step-by-step/#tutorial-list
3. Python programming using problem solving approach – Reema Thareja – Oxford University
press.
4. Python Crash Course – Eric Matthes – No starch press, San Francisco.

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CHAPTER 9
Unit III
LISTS, TUPLES, SETS AND DICTIONARY

Learning Objectives

After studying this chapter, students will be able to:

• Understand the basic concepts of various collection data types in python such as List,
Tuples, sets and Dictionary.
• Work with List, Tuples, sets and Dictionaries using variety of functions.
• Writting Python programs using List, Tuples, sets and Dictionaries.
• Understand the relationship between List, Tuples and Dictionaries.

9.1 Introduction to List

Python programming language has four collections of data types such as List, Tuples,
Set and Dictionary. A list in Python is known as a “sequence data type” like strings. It is an
ordered collection of values enclosed within square brackets [ ]. Each value of a list is called
as element. It can be of any type such as numbers, characters, strings and even the nested lists
as well. The elements can be modified or mutable which means the elements can be replaced,
added or removed. Every element rests at some position in the list. The position of an element
is indexed with numbers beginning with zero which is used to locate and access a particular
element. Thus, lists are similar to arrays, what you learnt in XI std.
9.1.1 Create a List in Python
In python, a list is simply created by using square bracket. The elements of list should
be specified within square brackets. The following syntax explains the creation of list.

Syntax:
Variable = [element-1, element-2, element-3 …… element-n]

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Example
Marks = [10, 23, 41, 75]
Fruits = [“Apple”, “Orange”, “Mango”, “Banana”]
MyList = [ ]

In the above example, the list Marks has four integer elements; second list Fruits has
four string elements; third is an empty list. The elements of a list need not be homogenous type
of data. The following list contains multiple type elements.

Mylist = [ “Welcome”, 3.14, 10, [2, 4, 6] ]

In the above example, Mylist contains another list as an element. This type of list is
known as “Nested List”.

Nested list is a list containing another list as an element.

9.1.2 Accessing List elements

Python assigns an automatic index value for each element of a list begins with zero.
Index value can be used to access an element in a list. In python, index value is an integer
number which can be positive or negative.

Example
Marks = [10, 23, 41, 75]
Marks 10 23 41 75
Index (Positive) 0 1 2 3
IndexNegative) -4 -3 -2 -1

Positive value of index counts from the beginning of the list and negative value means
counting backward from end of the list (i.e. in reverse order).

To access an element from a list, write the name of the list, followed by the index of the
element enclosed within square brackets.

Syntax:
List_Variable = [E1, E2, E3 …… En]
print (List_Variable[index of a element])

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Example (Accessing single element):

>>> Marks = [10, 23, 41, 75]
>>> print (Marks[0])
10

In the above example, print command prints 10 as output, as the index of 10 is zero.

Example: Accessing elements in revevrse order

>>> Marks = [10, 23, 41, 75]
>>> print (Marks[-1])
75

Note
A negative index can be used to access an element in reverse order.

(i) Accessing all elements of a list

Loops are used to access all elements from a list. The initial value of the loop must be
zero. Zero is the beginning index value of a list.

Example
Marks = [10, 23, 41, 75]
i=0
while i < 4:
print (Marks[i])
i=i+1
Output
10
23
41
75

In the above example, Marks list contains four integer elements i.e., 10, 23, 41, 75. Each
element has an index value from 0. The index value of the elements are 0, 1, 2, 3 respectively.
Here, the while loop is used to read all the elements. The initial value of the loop is zero, and
the test condition is i < 4, as long as the test condition is true, the loop executes and prints the
corresponding output.

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During the first iteration, the value of i is 0, where the condition is true. Now, the
following statement print (Marks [i]) gets executed and prints the value of Marks [0] element
ie. 10.

The next statement i = i + 1 increments the value of i from 0 to 1. Now, the flow of
control shifts to the while statement for checking the test condition. The process repeats to
print the remaining elements of Marks list until the test condition of while loop becomes false.

The following table shows that the execution of loop and the value to be print.

print
Iteration i while i < 4 i=i+1
(Marks[i])

1 0 0 < 4 True Marks [0] = 10 0+1=1

2 1 1 < 4 True Marks [1] = 23 1+1=2

3 2 2 < 4 True Marks [2] = 41 2+1=3

4 3 3 < 4 True Marks [3] = 75 3+1=4

5 4 4 < 4 False -- --

(ii) Reverse Indexing

Python enables reverse or negative indexing for the list elements. Thus, python lists
index in opposite order. The python sets -1 as the index value for the last element in list and -2
for the preceding element and so on. This is called as Reverse Indexing.

Example
Marks = [10, 23, 41, 75]
i = -1
while i >= -4:
print (Marks[i])
i = i + -1
Output
75
41
23
10

The following table shows the working process of the above python coding

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Iteration i while i >= -4 print ( Marks[i] ) i = i + -1

1 -1 -1 >= -4 True Marks[-1] = 75 -1 + (-1) = -2
2 -2 -2 >= -4 True Marks[-2] = 41 -2 + (-1) = -3
3 -3 -3 >= -4 True Marks[-3] = 23 -3 + (-1) = -4
4 -4 -4 >= -4 True Marks[-4] = 10 -4 + (-1) = -5
5 -5 -5 >= -4 False -- --

9.1.3 List Length

The len() function in Python is used to find the length of a list. (i.e., the number of
elements in a list). Usually, the len() function is used to set the upper limit in a loop to read all
the elements of a list. If a list contains another list as an element, len() returns that inner list as
a single element.

Example :Accessing single element

>>> MySubject = [“Tamil”, “English”, “Comp. Science”, “Maths”]
>>> len(MySubject)
4

Example : Program to display elements in a list using loop

MySubject = ["Tamil", "English", "Comp. Science", "Maths"]
i=0
while i < len(MySubject):
print (MySubject[i])
i=i+1
Output
Tamil
English
Comp. Science
Maths

9.1.4 Accessing elements using for loop

In Python, the for loop is used to access all the elements in a list one by one. This is just
like the for keyword in other programming language such as C++.

Syntax:
for index_var in list:
print (index_var)

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Here, index_var represents the index value of each element in the list. Python reads
this “for” statement like English: “For (every) element in (the list of) list and print (the name of
the) list items”

Example

Marks=[23, 45, 67, 78, 98]

for x in Marks:
print( x )
Output
23
45
67
78
98

In the above example, Marks list has 5 elements; each element is indexed from 0 to 4. The
Python reads the for loop and print statements like English: “For (every) element (represented
as x) in (the list of) Marks and print (the values of the) elements”.

9.1.5 Changing list elements

In Python, the lists are mutable, which means they can be changed. A list element or
range of elements can be changed or altered by using simple assignment operator =.

Syntax:
List_Variable [index of an element] = Value to be changed
List_Variable [index from : index to] = Values to changed

Where, index from is the beginning index of the range; index to is the upper limit of
the range which is excluded in the range. For example, if you set the range [0:5] means, Python
takes only 0 to 4 as element index. Thus, if you want to update the range of elements from 1 to
4, it should be specified as [1:5].

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Example 9.1: Python program to update/change single value

MyList = [2, 4, 5, 8, 10]
print ("MyList elements before update... ")
for x in MyList:
print (x)
MyList[2] = 6
print ("MyList elements after updation... ")
for y in MyList:
print (y)
Output:
MyList elements before update...
2
4
5
8
10
MyList elements after updation...
2
4
6
8
10
Example 9.2: Python program to update/change range of values
MyList = [1, 3, 5, 7, 9]
print ("List Odd numbers... ")
for x in MyList:
print (x)
MyList[0:5] = 2,4,6,8,10
print ("List Even numbers... ")
for y in MyList:
print (y)
Output
List Odd numbers...
1
3
5
7
9
List Even numbers...
2
4
6
8
10

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9.1.6 Adding more elements in a list Example

In Python, append() function is >>> Mylist.extend([71, 32, 29])
used to add a single element and extend()
>>> print(Mylist)
function is used to add more than one
element to an existing list. [34, 45, 48, 90, 71, 32, 29]

Syntax: In the above code, extend() function

List.append (element to be added) is used to include multiple elements, the
List.extend ( [elements to be added]) print statement shows all the elements of
the list after the inclusion of additional
In extend() function, multiple elements.
elements should be specified within square 9.1.7 Inserting elements in a list
bracket as arguments of the function.
As you learnt already, append()
Example function in Python is used to add more
>>> Mylist=[34, 45, 48] elements in a list. But, it includes elements
>>> Mylist.append(90) at the end of a list. If you want to include
>>> print(Mylist) an element at your desired position, you can
[34, 45, 48, 90] use insert () function. The insert() function
is used to insert an element at any position
In the above example, Mylist is of a list.
created with three elements. Through >>>
Syntax:
Mylist.append(90) statement, an additional
value 90 is included with the existing list List.insert (position index, element)
as last element, following print statement
shows all the elements within the list MyList.

Example
>>> MyList=[34,98,47,'Kannan', 'Gowrisankar', 'Lenin', 'Sreenivasan' ]
>>> print(MyList)
[34, 98, 47, 'Kannan', 'Gowrisankar', 'Lenin', 'Sreenivasan']
>>> MyList.insert(3, 'Ramakrishnan')
>>> print(MyList)
[34, 98, 47, 'Ramakrishnan', 'Kannan', 'Gowrisankar', 'Lenin', 'Sreenivasan']

In the above example, insert() function inserts a new element ‘Ramakrishnan’ at the
index value 3, ie. at the 4th position. While inserting a new element in between the existing
elements, at a particular location, the existing elements shifts one position to the right.

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9.1.8 Deleting elements from a list

There are two ways to delete an element from a list viz. del statement and remove()
function. del statement is used to delete elements whose index is known whereas remove()
function is used to delete elements of a list if its index is unknown. The del statement can also
be used to delete entire list.

Syntax:
del List [index of an element]
# to delete a particular element
del List [index from : index to]
# to delete multiple elements
del List
# to delete entire list

Example
>>> MySubjects = ['Tamil', 'Hindi', 'Telugu', 'Maths']
>>> print (MySubjects)
['Tamil', 'Hindi', 'Telugu', 'Maths']
>>> del MySubjects[1]
>>> print (MySubjects)
['Tamil', 'Telugu', 'Maths']

In the above example, the list MySubjects has been created with four elements. print
statement shows all the elements of the list. In >>> del MySubjects[1] statement, deletes an
element whose index value is 1 and the following print shows the remaining elements of the
list.
Example
>>> del MySubjects[1:3]
>>> print(MySubjects)
['Tamil']

In the above codes, >>> del MySubjects[1:3] deletes the second and third elements
from the list. The upper limit of index is specified within square brackets, will be taken as -1 by
the python.

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Example
>>> del MySubjects
>>> print(MySubjects)
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "<pyshell#9>", line 1, in <module>
print(MySubjects)
NameError: name 'MySubjects' is not defined

Here, >>> del MySubjects, deletes the list MySubjects entirely. When you try to print the
elements, Python shows an error as the list is not defined. Which means, the list MySubjects
has been completely deleted.

As already stated, the remove() function can also be used to delete one or more elements
if the index value is not known. Apart from remove() function, pop() function can also be
used to delete an element using the given index value. pop() function deletes and returns the
last element of a list if the index is not given.

The function clear() is used to delete all the elements in list, it deletes only the elements
and retains the list. Remember that, the del statement deletes entire list.

Syntax:
List.remove(element) # to delete a particular element
List.pop(index of an element)
List.clear( )

Example
>>> MyList=[12,89,34,'Kannan', 'Gowrisankar', 'Lenin']
>>> print(MyList)
[12, 89, 34, 'Kannan', 'Gowrisankar', 'Lenin']
>>> MyList.remove(89)
>>> print(MyList)
[12, 34, 'Kannan', 'Gowrisankar', 'Lenin']

In the above example, MyList has been created with three integer and three string
elements, the following print statement shows all the elements available in the list. In the
statement >>> MyList.remove(89), deletes the element 89 from the list and the print statement
shows the remaining elements.

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Example
>>> MyList.pop(1)
34
>>> print(MyList)
[12, 'Kannan', 'Gowrisankar', 'Lenin']

In the above code, pop() function is used to delete a particular element using its index
value, as soon as the element is deleted, the pop() function shows the element which is deleted.
pop() function is used to delete only one element from a list. Remember that, del statement
deletes multiple elements.

Example
>>> MyList.clear( )
>>> print(MyList)
[ ]

In the above code, clear() function removes only the elements and retains the list. When
you try to print the list which is already cleared, an empty square bracket is displayed without
any elements, which means the list is empty.

9.1.9 List and range ( ) function

The range() is a function used to generate a series of values in Python. Using range()
function, you can create list with series of values. The range() function has three arguments.

Syntax of range ( ) function:

range (start value, end value, step value)

where,

• start value – beginning value of series. Zero is the default beginning value.
• end value – upper limit of series. Python takes the ending value as upper limit – 1.
• step value – It is an optional argument, which is used to generate different interval of
values.

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Example : Generating whole numbers upto 10

for x in range (1, 11):
print(x)
Output
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

Example : Generating first 10 even numbers

for x in range (2, 11, 2):
print(x)
Output
2
4
6
8
10

(i) Creating a list with series of values

Using the range() function, you can create a list with series of values. To convert the
result of range() function into list, we need one more function called list(). The list()

function makes the result of range() as a list.

Syntax:
List_Varibale = list ( range ( ) )

Note

The list ( ) function is also used to create list in python.

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Example
>>> Even_List = list(range(2,11,2))
>>> print(Even_List)
[2, 4, 6, 8, 10]

In the above code, list() function takes the result of range() as Even_List elements. Thus,
Even_List list has the elements of first five even numbers.

Similarly, we can create any series of values using range() function. The following example
explains how to create a list with squares of first 10 natural numbers.

Example : Generating squares of first 10 natural numbers

squares = [ ]
for x in range(1,11):
s = x ** 2
squares.append(s)
print (squares)

In the above program, an empty list is created named “squares”. Then, the for loop
generates natural numbers from 1 to 10 using range() function. Inside the loop, the current
value of x is raised to the power 2 and stored in the variables. Each new value of square is
appended to the list “squares”. Finally, the program shows the following values as output.
Output
[1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81, 100]

9.1.10 List comprehensions

List comprehension is a simplest way of creating sequence of elements that satisfy a
certain condition.

Syntax:
List = [ expression for variable in range ]

Example : Generating squares of first 10 natural numbers using the

concept of List comprehension

>>> squares = [ x ** 2 for x in range(1,11) ]

>>> print (squares)
Output:
[1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81, 100]

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In the above example, x ** 2 in the expression is evaluated each time it is iterated. This
is the shortcut method of generating series of values.

9.1.11 Other important list funcion

Function Description Syntax Example

MyList=[12, 12, 36]

x = MyList.copy()
Returns a copy of the print(x)
copy ( ) List.copy( )
list
Output:
[12, 12, 36]
MyList=[36 ,12 ,12]
Returns the number x = MyList.count(12)
count ( ) of similar elements List.count(value) print(x)
present in the last. Output:
2
MyList=[36 ,12 ,12]
Returns the index value x = MyList.index(12)
index ( ) of the first recurring List.index(element) print(x)
element Output:
1
MyList=[36 ,23 ,12]
MyList.reverse()
Reverses the order of print(MyList)
reverse ( ) List.reverse( )
the element in the list.
Output:
[12 ,23 ,36]

sort ( ) Sorts the element in list List.sort(reverse=True|False, key=myFunc)

MyList=['Thilothamma', 'Tharani', 'Anitha',

Both arguments are optional 'SaiSree', 'Lavanya']
• If reverse is set as True, list sorting MyList.sort( )
is in descending order. print(MyList)
• Ascending is default. MyList.sort(reverse=True)
• Key=myFunc; “myFunc” - the name print(MyList)
of the user defined function that
specifies the sorting criteria. Output:
['Anitha', 'Lavanya', 'SaiSree', 'Tharani',
Note: sort( ) will affect the original list. 'Thilothamma']
['Thilothamma', 'Tharani', 'SaiSree', 'Lavanya',
'Anitha']

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MyList=[21,76,98,23]
Returns the maximum print(max(MyList))
max( ) max(list)
value in a list. Output:
98
MyList=[21,76,98,23]
Returns the minimum print(min(MyList))
min( ) min(list)
value in a list. Output:
21
MyList=[21,76,98,23]
Returns the sum of print(sum(MyList))
sum( ) sum(list)
values in a list. Output:
218
9.1.12 Programs using List

Program 1: write a program that creates a list of numbers from 1 to 20

that are divisible by 4
divBy4=[ ]
for i in range(21):
if (i%4==0):
divBy4.append(i)
print(divBy4)
Output
[0, 4, 8, 12, 16, 20]

Program 2: Write a program to define a list of countries that are a member of

BRICS. Check whether a county is member of BRICS or not
country=["India", "Russia", "Srilanka", "China", "Brazil"]
is_member = input("Enter the name of the country: ")
if is_member in country:
print(is_member, " is the member of BRICS")
else:
print(is_member, " is not a member of BRICS")
Output
Enter the name of the country: India
India is the member of BRICS
Output
Enter the name of the country: Japan
Japan is not a member of BRICS

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Program 3: Python program to read marks of six subjects and to print the
marks scored in each subject and show the total marks
marks=[]
subjects=['Tamil', 'English', 'Physics', 'Chemistry', 'Comp. Science', 'Maths']
for i in range(6):
m=int(input("Enter Mark = "))
marks.append(m)
for j in range(len(marks)):
print("{ }. { } Mark = { } ".format(j+1,subjects[j],marks[j]))
print("Total Marks = ", sum(marks))
Output
Enter Mark = 45
Enter Mark = 98
Enter Mark = 76
Enter Mark = 28
Enter Mark = 46
Enter Mark = 15
1. Tamil Mark = 45
2. English Mark = 98
3. Physics Mark = 76
4. Chemistry Mark = 28
5. Comp. Science Mark = 46
6. Maths Mark = 15
Total Marks = 308

Program 4: Python program to read prices of 5 items in a list and then

display sum of all the prices, product of all the prices and find the average

items=[]
prod=1
for i in range(5):
print ("Enter price for item { } : ".format(i+1))
p=int(input())
items.append(p)
for j in range(len(items)):
print("Price for item { } = Rs. { }".format(j+1,items[j]))
prod = prod * items[j]
print("Sum of all prices = Rs.", sum(items))
print("Product of all prices = Rs.", prod)
print("Average of all prices = Rs.",sum(items)/len(items))

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Output:
Enter price for item 1 :
5
Enter price for item 2 :
10
Enter price for item 3 :
15
Enter price for item 4 :
20
Enter price for item 5 :
25
Price for item 1 = Rs. 5
Price for item 2 = Rs. 10
Price for item 3 = Rs. 15
Price for item 4 = Rs. 20
Price for item 5 = Rs. 25
Sum of all prices = Rs. 75
Product of all prices = Rs. 375000
Average of all prices = Rs. 15.0

Program 5: Python program to count the number of employees earning

more than 1 lakh per annum. The monthly salaries of n number of
employees are given

count=0
n=int(input("Enter no. of employees: "))
print("No. of Employees",n)
salary=[]
for i in range(n):
print("Enter Monthly Salary of Employee { } Rs.: ".format(i+1))
s=int(input())
salary.append(s)
for j in range(len(salary)):
annual_salary = salary[j] * 12
print ("Annual Salary of Employee { } is:Rs. { }".format(j+1,annual_salary))
if annual_salary >= 100000:
count = count + 1
print("{ } Employees out of { } employees are earning more than Rs. 1 Lakh per annum".
format(count, n))

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Output:
Enter no. of employees: 5
No. of Employees 5
Enter Monthly Salary of Employee 1 Rs.:
3000
Enter Monthly Salary of Employee 2 Rs.:
9500
Enter Monthly Salary of Employee 3 Rs.:
12500
Enter Monthly Salary of Employee 4 Rs.:
5750
Enter Monthly Salary of Employee 5 Rs.:
8000
Annual Salary of Employee 1 is:Rs. 36000
Annual Salary of Employee 2 is:Rs. 114000
Annual Salary of Employee 3 is:Rs. 150000
Annual Salary of Employee 4 is:Rs. 69000
Annual Salary of Employee 5 is:Rs. 96000
2 Employees out of 5 employees are earning more than Rs. 1 Lakh per annum

Program 6: Write a program to create a list of numbers in the range 1 to 10.

Then delete all the even numbers from the list and print the final list.
Num = []
for x in range(1,11):
Num.append(x)
print("The list of numbers from 1 to 10 = ", Num)

for index, i in enumerate(Num):

if(i%2==0):
del Num[index]
print("The list after deleting even numbers = ", Num)

Output
The list of numbers from 1 to 10 = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10]
The list after deleting even numbers = [1, 3, 5, 7, 9]

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Program 7: Write a program to generate in the Fibonacci series and store it

in a list. Then find the sum of all values.
a=-1
b=1
n=int(input("Enter no. of terms: "))
i=0
sum=0
Fibo=[]
while i<n:
s=a+b
Fibo.append(s)
sum+=s
a=b
b=s
i+=1
print("Fibonacci series upto "+ str(n) +" terms is : " + str(Fibo))
print("The sum of Fibonacci series: ",sum)
Output
Enter no. of terms: 10
Fibonacci series upto 10 terms is : [0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34]
The sum of Fibonacci series: 88

9.2 Tuples

Introduction to Tuples
Tuples consists of a number of values separated by comma and enclosed within
parentheses. Tuple is similar to list, values in a list can be changed but not in a tuple.

The term Tuple is originated from the Latin word represents an abstraction of the
sequence of numbers:
single(1), double(2), triple(3), quadruple(4), quintuple(5), sextuple(6), septuple(7),
octuple(8), ..., n‑tuple, ...,

9.2.1 Comparison of Tuples and list

1. The elements of a list are changeable (mutable) whereas the elements of a tuple are
unchangeable (immutable), this is the key difference between tuples and list.

2. The elements of a list are enclosed within square brackets. But, the elements of a tuple are
enclosed by paranthesis.

3. Iterating tuples is faster than list.

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9.2.2 Creating Tuples

Creating tuples is similar to list. In a list, elements are defined within square brackets,
whereas in tuples, they may be enclosed by parenthesis. The elements of a tuple can be even
defined without parenthesis. Whether the elements defined within parenthesis or without
parenthesis, there is no differente in it's function.

Syntax:
# Empty tuple
Tuple_Name = ( )

# Tuple with n number elements

Tuple_Name = (E1, E2, E2 ……. En)

# Elements of a tuple without parenthesis

Tuple_Name = E1, E2, E3 ….. En

Example
>>> MyTup1 = (23, 56, 89, 'A', 'E', 'I', "Tamil")
>>> print(MyTup1)
(23, 56, 89, 'A', 'E', 'I', 'Tamil')

>>> MyTup2 = 23, 56, 89, 'A', 'E', 'I', "Tamil"

>>> print (MyTup2)
(23, 56, 89, 'A', 'E', 'I', 'Tamil')

(i) Creating tuples using tuple( ) function

The tuple() function is used to create Tuples from a list. When you create a tuple, from a
list, the elements should be enclosed within square brackets.

Syntax:
Tuple_Name = tuple( [list elements] )

Example
>>> MyTup3 = tuple( [23, 45, 90] )
>>> print(MyTup3)
(23, 45, 90)
>>> type (MyTup3)
<class ‘tuple’>

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Note
Type ( ) function is used to know the data type of a python object.

(ii) Creating Single element tuple

While creating a tuple with a single element, add a comma at the end of the element.
In the absence of a comma, Python will consider the element as an ordinary data type; not a
tuple. Creating a Tuple with one element is called “Singleton” tuple.

Example
>>> MyTup4 = (10)
>>> type(MyTup4)
<class 'int'>
>>> MyTup5 = (10,)
>>> type(MyTup5)
<class 'tuple'>

9.2.3 Accessing values in a Tuple

Like list, each element of tuple has an index number starting from zero. The elements of
a tuple can be easily accessed by using index number.

Example
>>> Tup1 = (12, 78, 91, “Tamil”, “Telugu”, 3.14, 69.48)
# to access all the elements of a tuple
>>> print(Tup1)
(12, 78, 91, 'Tamil', 'Telugu', 3.14, 69.48)
#accessing selected elements using indices
>>> print(Tup1[2:5])
(91, 'Tamil', 'Telugu')
#accessing from the first element up to the specified index value
>>> print(Tup1[:5])
(12, 78, 91, 'Tamil', 'Telugu')
# accessing from the specified element up to the last element.
>>> print(Tup1[4:])
('Telugu', 3.14, 69.48)
# accessing from the first element to the last element
>>> print(Tup1[:])
(12, 78, 91, 'Tamil', 'Telugu', 3.14, 69.48)

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9.2.4 Update and Delete Tuple

As you know a tuple is immutable, the elements in a tuple cannot be changed. Instead of
altering values in a tuple, joining two tuples or deleting the entire tuple is possible.

Example
# Program to join two tuples
Tup1 = (2,4,6,8,10)
Tup2 = (1,3,5,7,9)
Tup3 = Tup1 + Tup2
print(Tup3)

Output
(2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 1, 3, 5, 7, 9)

To delete an entire tuple, the del command can be used.

Syntax:
del tuple_name

Example
Tup1 = (2,4,6,8,10)
print("The elements of Tup1 is ", Tup1)
del Tup1
print (Tup1)

Output:
The elements of Tup1 is (2, 4, 6, 8, 10)
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "D:/Python/Tuple Examp 1.py", line 4, in <module>
print (Tup1)
NameError: name 'Tup1' is not defined

Note that, the print statement in the above code prints the elements. Then, the del statement
deletes the entire tuple. When you try to print the deleted tuple, Python shows the error.

9.2.5 Tuple Assignment

Tuple assignment is a powerful feature in Python. It allows a tuple variable on the left
of the assignment operator to be assigned to the values on the right side of the assignment

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operator. Each value is assigned to its respective variable.

a b c
= 34 90 76

Example
>>> (a, b, c) = (34, 90, 76)
>>> print(a,b,c)
34 90 76
# expression are evaluated before assignment
>>> (x, y, z, p) = (2**2, 5/3+4, 15%2, 34>65)
>>> print(x,y,z,p)
4 5.666666666666667 1 False

Note that, when you assign values to a tuple, ensure that the number of values on both sides of
the assignment operator are same; otherwise, an error is generated by Python.

9.2.6 Returning multiple values in Tuples

A function can return only one value at a time, but Python returns more than one value
from a function. Python groups multiple values and returns them together.

Example : Program to return the maximum as well as minimum values in

a list
def Min_Max(n):
a = max(n)
b = min(n)
return(a, b)
Num = (12, 65, 84, 1, 18, 85, 99)
(Max_Num, Min_Num) = Min_Max(Num)
print("Maximum value = ", Max_Num)
print("Minimum value = ", Min_Num)

Output:
Maximum value = 99
Minimum value = 1

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9.2.7 Nested Tuples

In Python, a tuple can be defined inside another tuple; called Nested tuple. In a nested
tuple, each tuple is considered as an element. The for loop will be useful to access all the
elements in a nested tuple.

Example

Toppers = (("Vinodini", "XII-F", 98.7), ("Soundarya", "XII-H", 97.5),

("Tharani", "XII-F", 95.3), ("Saisri", "XII-G", 93.8))
for i in Toppers:
print(i)

Output:
('Vinodini', 'XII-F', 98.7)
('Soundarya', 'XII-H', 97.5)
('Tharani', 'XII-F', 95.3)
('Saisri', 'XII-G', 93.8)

Note
Some of the functions used in List can be applicable even for tuples.

9.2.8 Programs using Tuples

Program 1: Write a program to swap two values using tuple assignment

a = int(input("Enter value of A: "))

b = int(input("Enter value of B: "))
print("Value of A = ", a, "\n Value of B = ", b)
(a, b) = (b, a)
print("Value of A = ", a, "\n Value of B = ", b)

Output:
Enter value of A: 54
Enter value of B: 38
Value of A = 54
Value of B = 38
Value of A = 38
Value of B = 54

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Program 2: Write a program using a function that returns the area and
circumference of a circle whose radius is passed as an argument.two values
using tuple assignment
pi = 3.14
def Circle(r):
return (pi*r*r, 2*pi*r)
radius = float(input("Enter the Radius: "))
(area, circum) = Circle(radius)
print ("Area of the circle = ", area)
print ("Circumference of the circle = ", circum)

Output:
Enter the Radius: 5
Area of the circle = 78.5
Circumference of the circle = 31.400000000000002

Program 3: Write a program that has a list of positive and negative numbers.
Create a new tuple that has only positive numbers from the list

Numbers = (5, -8, 6, 8, -4, 3, 1)

Positive = ( )
for i in Numbers:
if i > 0:
Positive += (i, )
print("Positive Numbers: ", Positive)

Output:
Positive Numbers: (5, 6, 8, 3, 1)

9.3 Sets

Introduction
In python, a set is another type of collection data type. A Set is a mutable and an unordered
collection of elements without duplicates. That means the elements within a set cannot be
repeated. This feature used to include membership testing and eliminating duplicate elements.

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9.3.1 Creating a Set

A set is created by placing all the elements separated by comma within a pair of curly
brackets. The set() function can also used to create sets in Python.

Syntax:
Set_Variable = {E1, E2, E3 …….. En}

Example
>>> S1={1,2,3,'A',3.14}
>>> print(S1)
{1, 2, 3, 3.14, 'A'}

>>> S2={1,2,2,'A',3.14}
>>> print(S2)
{1, 2, 'A', 3.14}

In the above examples, the set S1 is created with different types of elements without
duplicate values. Whereas in the set S2 is created with duplicate values, but python accepts
only one element among the duplications. Which means python removed the duplicate value,
because a set in python cannot have duplicate elements.

Note
When you print the elements from a set, python shows the values in different order.

9.3.2 Creating Set using List or Tuple

A list or Tuple can be converted as set by using set() function. This is very simple
procedure. First you have to create a list or Tuple then, substitute its variable within set()
function as argument.

Example

MyList=[2,4,6,8,10]
MySet=set(MyList)
print(MySet)

Output:
{2, 4, 6, 8, 10}

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9.3.3 Set Operations

As you learnt in mathematics, the python is also supports the set operations such as
Union, Intersection, difference and Symmetric difference.

(i) Union: It includes all elements from two or more sets

Set A Set B

In python, the operator | is used to union of two sets. The function union() is also used
to join two sets in python.

Example: Program to Join (Union) two sets using union operator

set_A={2,4,6,8}
set_B={'A', 'B', 'C', 'D'}
U_set=set_A|set_B
print(U_set)
Output:
{2, 4, 6, 8, 'A', 'D', 'C', 'B'}

Example: Program to Join (Union) two sets using union function

set_A={2,4,6,8}
set_B={'A', 'B', 'C', 'D'}
set_U=set_A.union(set_B)
print(set_U)
Output:
{'D', 2, 4, 6, 8, 'B', 'C', 'A'}

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(ii) Intersection: It includes the common elements in two sets

Set A Set B

The operator & is used to intersect two sets in python. The function intersection() is also
used to intersect two sets in python.

Example: Program to insect two sets using intersection operator

set_A={'A', 2, 4, 'D'}
set_B={'A', 'B', 'C', 'D'}
print(set_A & set_B)

Output:
{'A', 'D'}

Example: Program to insect two sets using intersection function

set_A={'A', 2, 4, 'D'}
set_B={'A', 'B', 'C', 'D'}
print(set_A.intersection(set_B))

Output:
{'A', 'D'}

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(iii) Difference
It includes all elements that are in first set (say set A) but not in the second set (say set B)

Set A Set B

The minus (-) operator is used to difference set operation in python. The function
difference() is also used to difference operation.

Example: Program to difference of two sets using minus operator

set_A={'A', 2, 4, 'D'}
set_B={'A', 'B', 'C', 'D'}
print(set_A - set_B)

Output:
{2, 4}

Example: Program to difference of two sets using difference function

set_A={'A', 2, 4, 'D'}
set_B={'A', 'B', 'C', 'D'}
print(set_A.difference(set_B))

Output:
{2, 4}

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(iv) Symmetric difference

It includes all the elements that are in two sets (say sets A and B) but not the one that are
common to two sets.

Set A Set B

The caret (^) operator is used to symmetric difference set operation in python. The
function symmetric_difference() is also used to do the same operation.

Example: Program to symmetric difference of two sets using caret operator

set_A={'A', 2, 4, 'D'}
set_B={'A', 'B', 'C', 'D'}
print(set_A ^ set_B)

Output:
{2, 4, 'B', 'C'}

Example: Program to difference of two sets using symmetric difference

function

set_A={'A', 2, 4, 'D'}
set_B={'A', 'B', 'C', 'D'}
print(set_A.symmetric_difference(set_B))

Output:
{2, 4, 'B', 'C'}

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9.3.4 Programs using Sets

Program 1: Program that generate a set of prime numbers and another set of even
numbers. Demonstrate the result of union, intersection, difference and symmetirc
difference operations.

Example

even=set([x*2 for x in range(1,11)])

primes=set()
for i in range(2,20):
j=2
f=0
while j<=i/2:
if i%j==0:
f=1
j+=1
if f==0:
primes.add(i)
print("Even Numbers: ", even)
print("Prime Numbers: ", primes)
print("Union: ", even.union(primes))
print("Intersection: ", even.intersection(primes))
print("Difference: ", even.difference(primes))
print("Symmetric Difference: ", even.symmetric_difference(primes))
Output:
Even Numbers: {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20}
Prime Numbers: {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19}
Union: {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20}
Intersection: {2}
Difference: {4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20}
Symmetric Difference: {3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20}

9.4 Dictionaries

Introduction
In python, a dictionary is a mixed collection of elements. Unlike other collection data
types such as a list or tuple, the dictionary type stores a key along with its element. The keys in
a Python dictionary is separated by a colon ( : ) while the commas work as a separator for the
elements. The key value pairs are enclosed with curly braces { }.

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Syntax of defining a dictionary:

Dictionary_Name = { Key_1: Value_1,
Key_2:Value_2,
……..
Key_n:Value_n
}

Key in the dictionary must be unique case sensitive and can be of any valid Python type.

9.4.1 Creating a Dictionary

# Empty dictionary
Dict1 = { }

# Dictionary with Key

Dict_Stud = { 'RollNo': '1234', 'Name':'Murali', 'Class':'XII', 'Marks':'451'}

9.4.2 Dictionary Comprehensions

In Python, comprehension is another way of creating dictionary. The following is the
syntax of creating such dictionary.

Syntax
Dict = { expression for variable in sequence [if condition] }

The if condition is optional and if specified, only those values in the sequence are evaluated
using the expression which satisfy the condition.

Example

Dict = { x : 2 * x for x in range(1,10)}

Output of the above code is
{1: 2, 2: 4, 3: 6, 4: 8, 5: 10, 6: 12, 7: 14, 8: 16, 9: 18}

9.4.3 Accessing, Adding, Modifying and Deleting elements from a Dictionary

Accessing all elements from a dictionary is very similar as Lists and Tuples. Simple print
function is used to access all the elements. If you want to access a particular element, square
brackets can be used along with key.

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Example : Program to access all the values stored in a dictionary

MyDict = { 'Reg_No': '1221',
'Name' : 'Tamilselvi',
'School' : 'CGHSS',
'Address' : 'Rotler St., Chennai 112' }
print(MyDict)
print("Register Number: ", MyDict['Reg_No'])
print("Name of the Student: ", MyDict['Name'])
print("School: ", MyDict['School'])
print("Address: ", MyDict['Address'])
Output:
{'Reg_No': '1221', 'Name': 'Tamilselvi', 'School': 'CGHSS', 'Address': 'Rotler St., Chennai 112'}
Register Number: 1221
Name of the Student: Tamilselvi
School: CGHSS
Address: Rotler St., Chennai 112

Note that, the first print statement prints all the values of the dictionary. Other statements
are printing only the specified values which is given within square brackets.
In an existing dictionary, you can add more values by simply assigning the value along
with key. The following syntax is used to understand adding more elements in a dictionary.
dictionary_name [key] = value/element

Example : Program to add a new value in the dictionary

MyDict = { 'Reg_No': '1221',
'Name' : 'Tamilselvi',
'School' : 'CGHSS', 'Address' : '
Rotler St., Chennai 112'}
print(MyDict)
print("Register Number: ", MyDict['Reg_No'])
print("Name of the Student: ", MyDict['Name'])
MyDict['Class'] = 'XII - A' # Adding new value
print("Class: ", MyDict['Class']) # Printing newly added value
print("School: ", MyDict['School'])
print("Address: ", MyDict['Address'])

Modification of a value in dictionary is very similar as adding elements. When you assign
a value to a key, it will simply overwrite the old value.
In Python dictionary, del keyword is used to delete a particular element. The clear()
function is used to delete all the elements in a dictionary. To remove the dictionary, you can
use del keyword with dictionary name.
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Syntax:
# To delete a particular element.
del dictionary_name[key]
# To delete all the elements
dictionary_name.clear( )
# To delete an entire dictionary
del dictionary_name

Example : Program to delete elements from a dictionary and finally deletes

the dictionary.

Dict = {'Roll No' : 12001, 'SName' : 'Meena', 'Mark1' : 98, 'Marl2' : 86}
print("Dictionary elements before deletion: \n", Dict)
del Dict['Mark1'] # Deleting a particular element
print("Dictionary elements after deletion of a element: \n", Dict)
Dict.clear() # Deleting all elements
print("Dictionary after deletion of all elements: \n", Dict)
del Dict
print(Dict) # Deleting entire dictionary

Output:
Dictionary elements before deletion:
{'Roll No': 12001, 'SName': 'Meena', 'Mark1': 98, 'Marl2': 86}
Dictionary elements after deletion of a element:
{'Roll No': 12001, 'SName': 'Meena', 'Marl2': 86}
Dictionary after deletion of all elements:
{ }
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "E:/Python/Dict_Test_02.py", line 8, in <module>
print(Dict)
NameError: name 'Dict' is not defined

9.4.4 Difference between List and Dictionary

(1) List is an ordered set of elements. But, a dictionary is a data structure that is used for
matching one element (Key) with another (Value).

(2) The index values can be used to access a particular element. But, in dictionary key
represents index. Remember that, key may be a number of a string.

(3) Lists are used to look up a value whereas a dictionary is used to take one value and look
up another value.

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Points to remember:
• Python programming language has four collections of data types such as List, Tuple,
Set and Dictionary.
• A list is known as a “sequence data type”. Each value of a list is called as element.
• The elements of list should be specified within square brackets.
• Each element has a unique value called index number begins with zero.
• Python allows positive and negative values as index.
• Loops are used access all elements from a list.
• The “for” loop is a suitable loop to access all the elements one by one.
• The append ( ), extend ( ) and insert ( ) functions are used to include more elements
in a List.
• The del, remove ( ) and pop ( ) are used to delete elements from a list.
• The range ( ) function is used to generate a series of values.
• Tuples consists of a number of values separated by comma and enclosed within
parentheses.
• Iterating tuples is faster than list.
• The tuple ( ) function is also used to create Tuples from a list.
• Creating a Tuple with one element is called “Singleton” tuple.
• A Set is a mutable and an unordered collection of elements without duplicates.
• A set is created by placing all the elements separated by comma within a pair of curly
brackets.
• A dictionary is a mixed collection of elements.

Hands on Experience

1. Write a program to remove duplicates from a list.

2. Write a program that prints the maximum value in a Tuple.

3. Write a program that finds the sum of all the numbers in a Tuples using while loop.

4. Write a program that finds sum of all even numbers in a list.

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5. Write a program that reverse a list using a loop.

6. Write a program to insert a value in a list at the specified location.

7. Write a program that creates a list of numbers from 1 to 50 that are either divisible by 3 or
divisible by 6.

8. Write a program to create a list of numbers in the range 1 to 20. Then delete all the numbers
from the list that are divisible by 3.

9. Write a program that counts the number of times a value appears in the list. Use a loop to
do the same.

10. Write a program that prints the maximum and minimum value in a dictionary.

Evaluation

Part - I

Choose the best answer (1 Marks)

1. Pick odd one in connection with collection data type
(a) List (b) Tuple (c) Dictionary (d) Loop
2. Let list1=[2,4,6,8,10], then print(List1[-2]) will result in
(a) 10 (b) 8 (c) 4 (d) 6
3. Which of the following function is used to count the number of elements in a list?
(a) count() (b) find() (c) len() (d) index()
4. If List=[10,20,30,40,50] then List[2]=35 will result
(a) [35,10,20,30,40,50] (b) [10,20,30,40,50,35]
(c) [10,20,35,40,50] (d) [10,35,30,40,50]
5. If List=[17,23,41,10] then List.append(32) will result
(a) [32,17,23,41,10] (b) [17,23,41,10,32]
(c) [10,17,23,32,41] (d) [41,32,23,17,10]
6. Which of the following Python function can be used to add more than one element
within an existing list?
(a) append()  (b) append_more()  (c) extend()  (d) more()

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7. What will be the result of the following Python code?

S=[x**2 for x in range(5)]
print(S)
(a) [0,1,2,4,5]   (b) [0,1,4,9,16] (c) [0,1,4,9,16,25] (d) [1,4,9,16,25]
8. What is the use of type() function in python?
(a) To create a Tuple
(b) To know the type of an element in tuple.
(c) To know the data type of python object.
(d) To create a list.
9. Which of the following statement is not correct?
(a) A list is mutable
(b) A tuple is immutable.
(c) The append() function is used to add an element.
(d) The extend() function is used in tuple to add elements in a list.
10. Let setA = {3,6,9}, setB = {1,3,9}. What will be the result of the following snippet?
print(setA|setB)
(a) {3,6,9,1,3,9} (b) {3,9} (c) {1} (d) {1,3,6,9}
11. Which of the following set operation includes all the elements that are in two sets but not
the one that are common to two sets?
(a) Symmetric difference (b) Difference
(c) Intersection (d) Union
12. The keys in Python, dictionary is specified by
(a) = (b) ; (c) + (d) :

Part - II

Answer the following questions (2 Marks)

1. What is List in Python?
2. How will you access the list elements in reverse order?
3. What will be the value of x in following python code?
List1=[2,4,6[1,3,5]]
x=len(List1)
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4. Differentiate del with remove() function of List.

5. Write the syntax of creating a Tuple with n number of elements.
6. What is set in Python?

Part - III

Answer the following questions (3 Marks)

1. What are the difference between list and Tuples?
2. Write a shot note about sort().
3. What will be the output of the following code?
list = [2**x for x in range(5)]
print(list)
4. Explain the difference between del and clear() in dictionary with an example.
5. List out the set operations supported by python.
6. What are the difference between List and Dictionary?

Part - IV

Answer the following questions (5 Marks)

1. What the different ways to insert an element in a list. Explain with suitable example.
2. What is the purpose of range()? Explain with an example.
3. What is nested tuple? Explain with an example.
4. Explain the different set operations supported by python with suitable example.

References
1. https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/index.html
2. https://www.techbeamers.com/python-tutorial-step-by-step/#tutorial-list
3. Python programming using problem solving approach – Reema Thareja – Oxford
University press.
4. Python Crash Course – Eric Matthes – No starch press, San Francisco.

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CHAPTER 10
Unit III
PYTHON CLASSES AND OBJECTS

Learning Objectives

After the completion of this chapter, the student is able to

• Understand the fundamental concepts of Object Oriented Programming like: Classes,

Objects, Constructor and Destructor.

• Gain the knowledge of creating classes and objects in Python.

• Create classes with Constructors.

• Write complex programs in Python using classes.

10.1 Introduction

Python is an Object Oriented Programming language. Classes and Objects are the key
features of Object Oriented Programming. Theoretical concepts of classes and objects are very
similar to that of C++. But, creation and implementation of classes and objects is very simple
in Python compared to C++.
Class is the main building block in Python. Object is a collection of data and function
that act on those data. Class is a template for the object. According to the concept of Object
Oriented Programming, objects are also called as instances of a class. In Python, everything is
an object. For example, all integer variables that we use in our program is an object of class int.
Similarly all string variables are also object of class string.
10.2 Defining classes
In Python, a class is defined by using the keyword class. Every class has a unique name
followed by a colon ( : ).
Syntax:
class class_name:
statement_1
statement_2
…………..
…………..
statement_n

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Where, statement in a class definition may be a variable declaration, decision control,

loop or even a function definition. Variables defined inside a class are called as “Class Variable”
and functions are called as “Methods”. Class variable and methods are together known as
members of the class. The class members should be accessed through objects or instance of
class. A class can be defined anywhere in a Python program.
Example: Program to define a class
class Sample:
x, y = 10, 20 # class variables
In the above code, name of the class is Sample and it has two variables x and y having
the initial value 10 and 20 respectively. To access the values defined inside the class, you need
an object or instance of the class.

10.3 Creating Objects

Once a class is created, next you should create an object or instance
of that class. The process of creating object is called as “Class Instantiation”.

Syntax:
Object_name = class_name( )

Note that the class instantiation uses function notation ie. class_name with ()

10.4 Accessing Class Members

Any class member ie. class variable or method (function) can be accessed by using
object with a dot ( . ) operator.
Syntax:
Object_name . class_member

Example : Program to define a class and access its member variables

class Sample:
x, y = 10, 20 #class variables
S=Sample( ) # class instantiation
print("Value of x = ", S.x)
print("Value of y = ", S.y)
print("Value of x and y = ", S.x+S.y)
Output :
Value of x = 10
Value of y = 20
Value of x and y = 30

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In the above code, the name of the class is Sample. Inside the class, we have assigned
the variables x and y with initial value 10 and 20 respectively. These two variables are called as
class variables or member variables of the class. In class instantiation process, we have created
an object S to access the members of the class. The first two print statements simply print the
value of class variable x and y and the last print statement add the two values and print the
result.

10.5 Class Methods

Python class function or Method is very similar to ordinary function with a small
difference that, the class method must have the first parameter named as self. No need to pass
a value for this parameter when we call the method. Python provides its value automatically.
Even if a method takes no arguments, it should be defined with the first parameter called self.
If a method is defined to accept only one parameter it will take it as two arguments ie. self and
the defined parameter.
When you access class variable within class, methods must be prefixed by the class
name and dot operator.

Note
• The statements defined inside the class must be properly indented.
• Parameters are the variables in the function definition.
• Arguments are the values passed to the function definition.

Example: Program to find total and average marks using class

class Student:
mark1, mark2, mark3 = 45, 91, 71 #class variable

def process(self): #class method

sum = Student.mark1 + Student.mark2 + Student.mark3
avg = sum/3
print("Total Marks = ", sum)
print("Average Marks = ", avg)
return

S=Student()
S.process()

In the above program, after defining the class, an object S is created. The statement
S.process( ), calls the function to get the required output.
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Note that, we have declared three variables mark1, mark2 and mark3 with the values
45, 91, 71 respectively. We have defined a method named process with self argument, which
means, we are not going to pass any value to that method. First, the process method adds the
values of the class variables, stores the result in the variable sum, finds the average and displays
the result.
Thus the above code will show the following output.
Output
Total Marks = 207
Average Marks = 69.0
Example : program to check and print if the given number is odd or
even using class
class Odd_Even:
def check(self, num):
if num%2==0:
print(num," is Even number")
else:
print(num," is Odd number")
n=Odd_Even()
x = int(input("Enter a value: "))
n.check(x)
When you execute this program, Python accepts the value entered by the user
and passes it to the method check through object.
Output 1
Enter a value: 4
4 is Even number
Output 2
Enter a value: 5
5 is Odd number

10.6 Constructor and Destructor in Python

Constructor is the special function that is automatically executed when an object of a
class is created. In Python, there is a special function called “init” which act as a Constructor.
It must begin and end with double underscore. This function will act as an ordinary function;
but only difference is, it is executed automatically when the object is created. This constructor
function can be defined with or without arguments. This method is used to initialize the class
variables.
General format of _ _init_ _ method (Constructor function)
def _ _init_ _(self, [args ……..]):
<statements>

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Example : Program to illustrate Constructor

class name
class Sample: Parameter
def __init__(self, num):
print("Constructor of class Sample...")
self.num=num Instance variable
print("The value is :", num)
S=Sample(10)
The above class “Sample”, has only a constructor with one parameter named as num.
When the constructor gets executed, first the print statement, prints the “Constructor of
class Sample….”, then, the passing value to the constructor is assigned to instance variable
self.num = num and finally it prints the value passed along with the given string.
The above constructor gets executed automatically, when an object S is created with
actual parameter 10. Thus, the Python display the following output.
Constructor of class Sample...
The value is : 10
Class variable defined within constructor keep count of number of objects created with
the class.

Note

Instance variables are the variables whose value varies from object to object.
For every object, a separate copy of the instance variable will be created.
Instance variables are declared inside a method using the self keyword. In
the above example, we use constructor to define instance variable.

Example : Program to illustrate class variable to keep count of number

of objects created.
class Sample:
num=0 class variable
def __init__(self, var):
Sample.num+=1
self.var=var instance variable
print("The object value is = ", self.var)
print("The count of object created = ", Sample.num)

S1=Sample(15)
S2=Sample(35)
S3=Sample(45)

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In the above program, class variable num is shared by all three objects of the class
Sample. It is initialized to zero and each time an object is created, the num is incremented by
1. Since, the variable shared by all objects, change made to num by one object is reflected in
other objects as well. Thus the above program produces the output given below.

Output
The object value is = 15
The count of object created = 1
The object value is = 35
The count of object created = 2
The object value is = 45
The count of object created = 3
Destructor is also a special method to destroy the objects. In Python, _ _del_ _( )
method is used as destructor. It is just opposite to constructor.
Example : Program to illustrate about the __del__( ) method
class Sample:
num=0
def __init__(self, var):
Sample.num+=1
self.var=var
print("The object value is = ", self.var)
print("The value of class variable is= ", Sample.num)
def __del__(self):
Sample.num-=1
print("Object with value %d is exit from the scope"%self.var)
S1=Sample(15)
S2=Sample(35)
S3=Sample(45)
del S1, S2, S3

Note
The __del__ method gets called automatically when we deleted the object
reference using the del.

10.7 Public and Private Data Members

The variables which are defined inside the class is public by default. These variables can
be accessed anywhere in the program using dot operator.
A variable prefixed with double underscore becomes private in nature. These variables
can be accessed only within the class.

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Example : Program to illustrate private and public variables

class Sample:
n1 = 12
__n2 = 14
def display(self):
print("Class variable 1 = ", self.n1)
print("Class variable 2 = ", self.__n2)
S=Sample()
S.display()
print("Value 1 = ", S.n1)
print("Value 2 = ", S.__n2)

In the above program, there are two class variables n1 and n2 are declared. The variable
n1 is a public variable and n2 is a private variable. The display( ) member method is defined to
show the values passed to these two variables.

The print statements defined within class will successfully display the values of n1 and
n2, even though the class variable n2 is private. Because, in this case, n2 is called by a method
defined inside the class. But, when we try to access the value of n2 from outside the class
Python throws an error. Because, private variable cannot be accessed from outside the class.

Output
Class variable 1 = 12
Class variable 2 = 14
Value 1 = 12

Traceback (most recent call last):

File "D:/Python/Class-Test-04.py", line 12, in <module>
print("Value 2 = ", S.__n2)
AttributeError: 'Sample' object has no attribute '__n2'

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10.8 Sample Programs to illustrate classes and objects

Program 1: Write a program to calculate area and circumference of a circle

class Circle:
pi=3.14
def __init__(self,radius):
self.radius=radius
def area(self):
return Circle.pi*(self.radius**2)
def circumference(self):
return 2*Circle.pi*self.radius
r=int(input("Enter Radius: "))
C=Circle(r)
print("The Area =",C.area())
print("The Circumference =", C.circumference())

Output:
Enter Radius: 5
The Area = 78.5
The Circumference = 31.400000000000002

Program 2: Write a program to accept a string and print the number of

uppercase, lowercase, vowels, consonants and spaces in the given string
class String:
def __init__(self):
self.upper=0
self.lower=0
self.vowel=0
self.consonant=0
self.space=0
self.string=""
def getstr(self):
self.string=str(input("Enter a String: "))
def count (self):
for ch in self.string:
if (ch.isupper()):
self.upper+=1
if (ch.islower()):
self.lower+=1
if (ch in ('AEIOUaeiou'):
self.vowel+=1

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if (ch.isspace()):
self.space+=1
self.consonant = self.upper+self.lower - self.
vowel
def display(self):
print("The given string contains...")
print("%d Uppercase letters"%self.upper)
print("%d Lowercase letters"%self.lower)
print("%d Vowels"%self.vowel)
print("%d Consonants"%self.consonant)
print("%d Spaces"%self.space)
S = String()
S.getstr()
S.count()
S.display()
Output:
Enter a String:Welcome To Learn Computer Science
The given string contains...
4 Uppercase letters
25 Lowercase letters
12 Vowels
13 Consonants
4 Spaces

Points to remember

• Python is an Object Oriented Programming language.

• Classes and Objects are the key features of Object Oriented Programming.
• In Python, a class is defined by using the keyword class.
• Variables defined inside a class is called as “Class Variable” and function are
called as “Methods”.
• The process of creating object is called as “Class Instantiation”.
• Constructor is the special function that is automatically executed when an
object of a class is created.
• In Python, there is a special function called “init” is used as Constructor.
• Destructor is also a special method gets execution automatically when an
object exits from the scope.
• In Python, __del__( ) method is used as destructor.
• A variable prefixed with double underscore is becomes private in nature.

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Hands on Experience

1. Write a program using class to store name and marks of students in list and print total
marks.

2. Write a program using class to accept three sides of a triangle and print its area.

3. Write a menu driven program to read, display, add and subtract two distances.

Evaluation

Part - I

Choose the best answer (1 Mark)

1. Which of the following are the key features of an Object Oriented Programming language?
(a) Constructor and Classes (b) Constructor and Object
(c) Classes and Objects (d) Constructor and Destructor
2. Functions defined inside a class:
(a) Functions (b) Module
(c) Methods (d) section
3. Class members are accessed through which operator?
(a) & (b) .
(c) # (d) %
4. Which of the following method is automatically executed when an object is created?
(a) __object__( ) (b) __del__( )
(c) __func__( ) (d) __init__( )
5. A private class variable is prefixed with
(a) __ (b) &&
(c) ## (d) **
6. Which of the following method is used as destructor?
(a) __init__( ) (b) __dest__( )
(c) __rem__( ) (d) __del__( )

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7. Which of the following class declaration is correct?

(a) class class_name (b) class class_name<>
(c) class class_name: (d) class class_name[ ]
8. Which of the following is the output of the following program?
class Student:
def __init__(self, name):
self.name=name
print (self.name)
S=Student(“Tamil”)
(a) Error (b) Tamil
(c) name (d) self
9. Which of the following is the private class variable?
(a) __num (b) ##num
(c) $$num (d) &&num
10. The process of creating an object is called as:
(a) Constructor (b) Destructor
(c) Initialize (d) Instantiation

Part -II

Answer the following questions (2 Marks)

1. What is class?
2. What is instantiation?
3. What is the output of the following program?
class Sample:
__num=10
def disp(self):
print(self.__num)
S=Sample()
S.disp()
print(S.__num)
4. How will you create constructor in Python?
5. What is the purpose of Destructor?

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Part -III

Answer the following questions (3 Marks)

1. What are class members? How do you define it?
2. Write a class with two private class variables and print the sum using a method.
3. Find the error in the following program to get the given output?
class Fruits:
def __init__(self, f1, f2):
self.f1=f1
self.f2=f2
def display(self):
print("Fruit 1 = %s, Fruit 2 = %s" %(self.f1, self.f2))
F = Fruits ('Apple', 'Mango')
del F.display
F.display()
Output
Fruit 1 = Apple, Fruit 2 = Mango
4. What is the output of the following program?
class Greeting:
def __init__(self, name):
self.__name = name
def display(self):
print("Good Morning ", self.__name)
obj=Greeting('Bindu Madhavan')
obj.display()
5. How to define constructor and destructor in Python?
Part -IV

Answer the following questions (5 Marks)

1. Explain about constructor and destructor with suitable example.

References
1. https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/index.html
2. https://www.techbeamers.com/python-tutorial-step-by-step/#tutorial-list
3. Python programming using problem solving approach – Reema Thareja – Oxford University
press.
4. Python Crash Course – Eric Matthes – No starch press, San Francisco.

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CHAPTER 11
Unit IV
DATABASE CONCEPTS

11.2 Information
Learning Objectives
Information is processed data, which
At the completion of this chapter, the student allows to be utilized in a significant way.
will be able to know Example
• the concept of a database and relational SCERT
database. College Road
• different components of the database. DPI Campus
Chennai 600006
• types of database models.
As you can see
• types of relationship.
from the example above,
• the concepts of relational algebra. data appears as a set of
Introduction words and numbers. However, when the
data is processed, organized and formatted,
A database is an organized collection it gives a meaningful information about the
of data, generally stored and accessed SCERT institution contact address.
electronically from a computer system. The
11.3 Database
term "database" is also used to refer to any
Database is a repository collection of
of the DBMS, the database system or an
related data organized in a way that data can
application associated with the database.
be easily accessed, managed and updated.
Because of the close relationship between
Database can be a software or hardware
them, the term "database" is often used
based, with one sole purpose of storing data.
casually to refer to both a database and
the DBMS used to manipulate it. A school 11.4 DataBase Management
class register is a database where names are System (DBMS)
arranged alphabetically. Databases have A DBMS is a software that allows us
been around since people started recording to create, define and manipulate database,
things. Here we tend to focus on electronic allowing users to store, process and analyze
ones. data easily. DBMS provides us with an
interface or a tool, to perform various
11.1 Data operations to create a database, storing of
Data are raw facts stored in a data and for updating data, etc. DBMS also
computer. A data may contain any character, provides protection and security to the
text, word or a number. databases. It also maintains data consistency
Example : 600006, DPI Campus, SCERT, in case of multiple users.
Chennai, College Road Examples of DBMS softwares : Foxpro, dbase.
182
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11.4.1 Relational Database Management System (RDBMS)

RDBMS is more advanced version of DBMS, that allows to data in a more efficient way.
It is used to store and manupulate the data that are in the form of tables.
Examaple of RDBMS: MySQL,Oracle, MS-Access etc.,
11.4.2 Characteristics of Relational Database Management System
1. 
Ability to manipulate RDBMS provides the facility to manipulate data (store, modify
data and delete)in a data base.

2. Reduced Redundancy In the modern world hard drives are very cheap, but earlier
when hard drives were too expensive, unnecessary repetition
of data in database was a big problem But RDBMS follows
Normalisation which divides the data in such a way that
repetition is minimum.

3.Data Consistency On live data, it is being continuously updated and added,

maintaining the consistency of data can become a challenge.
But RDBMS handles it by itself.

4. Support Multiple user RDBMS allows multiple users to work on it(update, insert,
and Concurrent Access delete data) at the same time and still manages to maintain the
data consistency.

5.Query Language RDBMS provides users with a simple query language, using
which data can be easily fetched, inserted, deleted and updated
in a database.

6. Security The RDBMS also takes care of the security of data, protecting
the data from unauthorized access. In a typical RDBMS, we can
create user accounts with different access permissions, using
which we can easily secure our data by restricting user access.

7. DBMS Supports It allows us to better handle and manage data integrity in real
Transactions world applications where multi-threading is extensively used.

11.4.3 Advantages of RDBMS

• Segregation of application program
• Minimal data duplication or Data Redundancy
• Easy retrieval of data using the Query Language
• Reduced development time and maintenance

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11.4.4 Components of DBMS 3. Data: It is the resource for which DBMS

The Database Management System is designed. DBMS creation is to store and
can be divided into five major components utilize data.
as follows: 4. Procedures/Methods: They are general
1.Hardware 2.Software instructions to use a database management
system such as installation of DBMS,
3.Data 4.Procedures/Methods
manage databases to take backups, report
5.Database Access Languages generation, etc.
5. DataBase Access Languages: They are
the languages used to write commands to
access, insert, update and delete data stored
Hardware in any database.
Examples of popular DBMS: Dbase,
FoxPro
Software
11.5 Database Structure
Data Base Procedures
/ Methods Table is the entire collection of
Access
related data in one table, referred to as a File
DATA

Languages
or Table where the data is organized as row
USER and column.
Components of DBMS
Each row in a table represents a
Figure 11.1 record, which is a set of data for each
database entry.
1. Hardware: The computer, hard disk, I/O
channels for data, and any other physical Each table column represents a Field,
component involved in storage of data which groups each piece or item of data
2. Software: This main component is among the records into specific categories or
a program that controls everything. The types of data. Eg. StuNo., StuName, StuAge,
DBMS software is capable of understanding StuClass, StuSec.
the Database Access Languages and A Table is known as a RELATION
interprets into database commands for
execution. A Row is known as a TUPLE
A column is known as an ATTRIBUTE

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Attribute / Column Tuple / Row

StuNo StuName StuAge StuClass StuSec

1101 Kannan 14 9 A
1102 Ramakrishnan 14 9 A
1103 Vidhya 14 10 B
1104 Britto 15 9 A
1105 Padmaja 14 10 B

Table / Relation
DataBase Structure
Fig 11.2
11.6 Data Model
• A data model describes how the data can be represented and accessed from a software after
complete implementation
• It is a simple abstraction of complex real world data gathering environment.
• The main purpose of data model is to give an idea as how the final system or software will
look like after development is completed.

11.6.1 Types of Data Model

Following are the different types of a Data Model

• Hierarchical Model
• Relational Model
• Network Database Model
• Entity Relationship Model
• Object Model
1. Hierarchical Model
Hierarchical model was developed by IBM as Information Management System.

In Hierarchical model, data is represented as a simple tree like structure form. This
model represents a one-to-many relationship i.e parent-child relationship. One child can have
only one parent but one parent can have many children. This model is mainly used in IBM
Main Frame computers.

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School

Course Resources

Theory Lab

Hierarchical Model Fig. 11.3

2. Relational Model
The Relational Database model was first proposed by E.F. Codd in 1970 . Nowadays, it
is the most widespread data model used for database applications around the world.
The basic structure of data in relational model is tables (relations). All the information’s
related to a particular type is stored in rows of that table. Hence tables are also known as
relations in a relational model. A relation key is an attribute which uniquely identifies a
particular tuple (row in a relation (table)).

Stu_id Name Age Subj_id Name Teacher

1 Malar 17 1 C++ Kannan
2 Suncar 16 2 Php Ramakrishnan
3 Velu 16 3 Python Vidhya

Stu_id Subj_id Marks

1 1 92
1 2 89
3 2 96
Relational Model
Fig. 11.4

3. Network Model
Network database model is an extended form of hierarchical data model. The difference
between hierarchical and Network data model is :
• In hierarchical model, a child record has only one parent node,

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• In a Network model, a child may have many parent nodes. It represents the data in many-
to-many relationships.
• This model is easier and faster to access the data.

School

Library Office Staff Room This child has one parent node

Student Student has 3 parent node

Network Model
Fig. 11.5

School represents the parent node

Library, Office and Staff room is a child to school
Student is a child to library, office and staff room (one to many relationship)
4. Entity Relationship Model. (ER model)
In this database model, relationship are created by dividing the object into entity and its
characteristics into attributes.
It was developed by Chen in 1976. This model is useful in developing a conceptual
design for the database. It is very simple and easy to design logical view of data. The developer
can easily understand the system by looking at ER model constructed.
Rectangle represents the entities. E.g. Doctor and Patient
Ellipse represents the attributes E.g. D-id, D-name, P-id, P-name. Attributes describes
the characteristics and each entity becomes a major part of the data stored in the database.

Diamond represents the relationship in ER diagrams

E.g. Doctor diagnosis the Patient

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Doctor Diagnosis Patient

D-id D-Name P-id P-Name

ER model
Fig. 11.6

5. Object Model
Object model stores the data in the form of objects, attributes and methods, classes and
Inheritance. This model handles more complex applications, such as Geographic information
System (GIS), scientific experiments, engineering design and manufacturing. It is used in file
Management System. It represents real world objects, attributes and behaviors. It provides a
clear modular structure. It is easy to maintain and modify the existing code.

Shape
get_area()
get_perimeter()

Circle Rectangle Triangle

Radius Length Base
breath Height
Object Model
Fig. 11.7

An example of the Object model is Shape, Circle, Rectangle and Triangle are all objects
in this model.
• Circle has the attribute radius.
• Rectangle has the attributes length and breadth.
• Triangle has the attributes base and height .
• The objects Circle, Rectangle and Triangle inherit from the object Shape.

11.6.2 Types of DBMS Users

Database Administrators
Database Administrator or DBA is the one who manages the complete database
management system. DBA takes care of the security of the DBMS, managing the license keys,
managing user accounts and access etc.

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Application Programmers or Software Developers

This user group is involved in developing and designing the parts of DBMS.
End User
All modern applications, web or mobile, store user data. Applications are programmed
in such a way that they collect user data and store the data on DBMS systems running on their
server. End users are the one who store, retrieve, update and delete data.
Database designers: are responsible for identifying the data to be stored in the database for
choosing appropriate structures to represent and store the data.

11.7 Difference between DBMS and RDBMS

Basis of Comparison DBMS RDBMS

Expansion Database Management System Relational DataBase

Management System

Data storage Navigational model Relational model (in tables).

ie data by linked records ie data in tables as row and
column

Data redundancy Present Not Present

Normalization Not performed RDBMS uses normalization

to reduce redundancy

Data access Consumes more time Faster, compared to DBMS.

Keys and indexes Does not use. used to establish

relationship. Keys are used in
RDBMS.

Transaction Inefficient, Efficient and secure.

management Error prone and insecure.

Distributed Databases Not supported Supported by RDBMS.

Example Dbase, FoxPro. SQL server, Oracle, mysql,

MariaDB, SQLite, MS Access.

Database normalization was first proposed by Dr. Edgar F Codd as an integral part
of RDBMS in order to reduce data redundancy and improve data integrity. These rules are
known as E F Codd Rules.

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11.8 Types of Relationships staff members.

Following are the types of relationships used Staff

in a database. Department

1. One-to-One Relationship Gajalakshmi

2. One-to-Many Relationship
Computer Bindhu
3. Many-to-One Relationship
4. Many-to-Many Relationship Tamil Radha
1. One-to-One Relationship
In One-to-One Relationship, one Maths Ramesh
entity is related with only one other entity.
One row in a table is linked with only one
row in another table and vice versa. Malaiarasu

For example: A student can have only

one exam number One to Many Mapping
Fig 11.9
Student Exam No
3. Many-to-One Relationship
In Many-to-One Relationship, many
entities can be related with only one in the
Tamilselvi 1001 other entity.
For example: A number of staff
Jayapandiyan 1002 members working in one Department.
Multiple rows in staff members table
Sarojini 1003 is related with only one row in Department
table.
Staff Department

One to one Relationships

Fig 11.8
Suganya
Computer
2. One-to-Many Relationship
Bala
In One-to-Many relationship, one Maths
entity is related to many other entities. Valarmathi
One row in a table A is linked to
many rows in a table B, but one row in a
table B is linked to only one row in table A. Many to one Relationship
For example: One Department has many Fig 11.10

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4. Many-to-Many Relationship 11.9 Relational Algebra in DBMS

A many-to-many relationship
occurs when multiple records in a table are What is Relational Algebra?
associated with multiple records in another Relational Algebra, was first created
table. by Edgar F Codd while at IBM. It was used
for modeling the data stored in relational
Example 1: Customers and Product
databases and defining queries on it.
Customers can purchase various
products and Products can be purchased by Relational Algebra is a procedural
many customers query language used to query the database
tables using SQL.
Example 2: Students and Courses
Relational algebra operations are
A student can register for many
performed recursively on a relation (table)
Courses and a Course may include many
to yield an output. The output of these
stu d e nt s
operations is a new relation, which might be
Example 3: Books and Student. formed by one or more input relations.
Many Books in a Library are issued
Relational Algebra is divided into various
to many students.
groups
Book Student
Unary Relational Operations
SELECT ( symbol : σ)
C++ Kalaivani
PROJECT ( symbol : ∏)

SQL Manjula Relational Algebra Operations from Set

Theor y
Sridevi
python • UNION (∪)
• INTERSECTION (∩)
Many to Many Relationship • DIFFERENCE (−)
Fig 11.11
• CARTESIAN PRODUCT (X)
SELECT (symbol : σ)
The relational model
was invented by Edgar General form σ ( R ) with a relation
c
Frank Codd (Father of R and a condition C on the attributes of R.
Relational DataBase) as The SELECT operation is used for
a general model of data, and selecting a subset with tuples according to a
subsequently promoted by Chris Date given condition.
and Hugh Darwen among others.
Select filters out all tuples that do not
satisfy C.
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STUDENT

Studno Name Course Year

cs1 Kannan Big Data II

cs2 Gowri Shankar R language I

cs3 Lenin Big Data I

cs4 Padmaja Python Programming I

Table 11.1

σcourse = “Big Data” (STUDENT )

Studno Name Course Year

cs1 Kannan Big Data II

cs3 Lenin Big Data I

PROJECT (symbol : Π)
The projection eliminates all attributes of the input relation but those mentioned in
the projection list. The projection method defines a relation that contains a vertical subset of
Relation.

Example 1 using Table 11.1

Πcourse (STUDENT)
Result

Course

Big Data

R language

Python Programming

Note
duplicate row is removed in the result

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Example 2 (using Table 11.1)

Πstudno, course (STUDENT)
Result
Studno Course
cs1 Big Data
cs2 R language
cs3 Big Data
cs4 Python Programming

UNION (Symbol :∪)

It includes all tuples that are in tables A or in B. It also eliminates duplicates. Set A
Union Set B would be expressed as A ∪ B
Example 3
Consider the following tables

Table A Table B

Studno Name Studno Name

cs1 Kannan cs1 Kannan

cs3 Lenin cs2 GowriShankarn

cs4 Padmaja cs3 Lenin

Table 11.2
Result
Table A ∪ B
Studno Name
cs1 Kannan
cs2 GowriShankar
cs3 Lenin
cs4 Padmaja

SET DIFFERENCE ( Symbol : - )

The result of A – B, is a relation which includes all tuples that are in A but not in B.
The attribute name of A has to match with the attribute name in B.
Example 4 ( using Table 11.2)

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Result
Table A - B
cs4 Padmaja

INTERSECTION (symbol : ∩) A ∩ B
Defines a relation consisting of a set of all tuple that are in both in A and B. However, A
and B must be union-compatible.

Example 5 (using Table 11.2)

A∩B
cs1 Kannan
cs3 Lenin

PRODUCT OR CARTESIAN PRODUCT (Symbol : X )

Cross product is a way of combining two relations. The resulting relation contains, both
relations being combined.

A x B means A times B, where the relation A and B have different attributes.

This type of operation is helpful to merge columns from two relations.
Table A Table B Table A x Table B

1 S 1 S
2 1 R
R
3 2 S
2 R
Table A = 3
Table B = 2 3 S
Table A x B = 3 x 2 = 6
3 R
Cartesian Product
Fig. 11.12

Table A Table B
studno name course subject
cs1 Kannan cs28 Big Data
cs2 Gowri Shankar cs62 R language
cs4 Padmaja cs25 python programming
Table 11.3

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Cartesian product : Table A x Table B

studno name course subject
cs1 Kannan cs28 Big Data
cs1 Kannan cs62 R language
cs1 Kannan cs25 python rogramming
cs2 Gowri Shankar cs28 Big Data
cs2 Gowri Shankar cs62 R language
cs2 Gowri Shankar cs25 python programming
cs4 Padmaja cs28 Big Data
cs4 Padmaja cs62 R language
cs4 Padmaja cs25 python programming

Points to remember:
• DBMS is a computer based record keeping system
• Data is unprocessed data which contains any character, text, word or number
has no meaning
• Information is processed data, organized and formatted.
• Examples of RDBMS are mysql, oracle, sql server, ibm db2
• Redundancy means duplication of data in a database.
• Data Consistency means that data values are the same at all instances of a
database
• Data Integrity is security from unauthorized users
• Table is known a relation
• A row is called a tuple
• A column is known as an attribute
• Types of data model are Hierarchical, Relational, Network, ER and Object
model.
• Hierarchical model is a simple tree like structure form with one-to-many
relationship called parent-child relationship
• Relational Model represents data as relations or tables
• Network model is similar to Hierarchical model but it allows a record to have
more than one parent
• ER model consists of entities, attributes and relationships

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Points to remember:
• Object model stores data as objects, attributes, methods, classes and inheritance
• Normalization reduces data redundancy and improves data integrity
• Different types of Relationship are one-to-one, one-to-many, many-to-one and
many-to-many relationships
• Database Normalization was proposed by Dr.Edgar F Codd
• Relational Algebra is used for modeling data stored in relational databases and
for defining queries on it.

Evaluation

Part - I

Choose the best answer (1 Mark)

1. What is the acronym of DBMS?
a) DataBase Management Symbol b) Database Managing System
c) DataBase Management System d) DataBasic Management System
2 A table is known as
a) tuple b) attribute
c) relation d) entity
3 Which database model represents parent-child relationship?
a) Relational b) Network
c) Hierarchical d) Object
4 Relational database model was first proposed by
a) E F Codd b) E E Codd
c) E F Cadd d) E F Codder
5 What type of relationship does hierarchical model represents?
a) one-to-one b) one-to-many
c) many-to-one d) many-to-many
6. Who is called Father of Relational Database from the following?
a) Chris Date b) Hugh Darween
c) Edgar Frank Codd d) Edgar Frank Cadd

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7. Which of the following is an RDBMS?

a) Dbase b) Foxpro
c) Microsoft Access d) Microsoft Excel
8 What symbol is used for SELECT statement?
a) σ b) Π c) X d) Ω
9 A tuple is also known as
a) table b) row
c) attribute d) field
10. Who developed ER model?
a) Chen b) EF Codd
c) Chend d) Chand

Part -II

Answer the following questions (2 Marks)

1. Mention few examples of a DBMS.
2. List some examples of RDBMS.
3. What is data consistency?
4. What is the difference between Hierarchical and Network data model?
5. What is normalization?
Part -III

Answer the following questions (3 Marks)

1. What is the difference between Select and Project command?
2. What is the role of DBA?
3. Explain Cartesian Product with a suitable example.
4. Explain Object Model with example.
5. Write a note on different types of DBMS users.
Part -IV
Answer the following questions (5 Marks)
1. Explain the different types of data model.
2. Explain the different types of relationship mapping.
3. Differentiate DBMS and RDBMS.
4. Explain the different operators in Relational algebra with suitable examples.
5. Explain the characteristics of RDBMS.

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CHAPTER 12
Unit IV
STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

Learning Objectives

After studying this lesson, students will be able to:

• The processing skills of SQL.
• The components of SQL.
• To create a table by specifying the fields and records.
• To apply various manipulations like inserting, updating and deleting records in a table.
• To learn about various constraints and to apply it on tables.
• To generate queries in the table by applying various clauses.
• To modify the structure of an existing table.
• The commands to delete records, table and revoke the commands.

12.1 Introduction to SQL

The Structured Query Language (SQL) is a standard programming language to access

and manipulate databases. SQL allows the user to create, retrieve, alter, and transfer information
among databases. It is a language designed for managing and accessing data in a Relational
Data Base Management System (RDBMS).
There are many versions of SQL. The original version was developed at IBM’s Research
centre and originally called as Sequel in early 1970’s. Later the language was changed to SQL.
In 1986, ANSI (American National Standard Institute) published an SQL standard that was
updated again in 1992, the latest SQL was released in 2008 and named as SQL 2008.

Note
Latest SQL standard as of now is SQL 2008, released in 2008.

12.2 Role of SQL in RDBMS

RDBMS stands for Relational DataBase Management System. Oracle, MySQL, MS SQL
Server, IBM DB2 and Microsoft Access are RDBMS packages. SQL is a language used to access
data in such databases.
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In general, Database is a collection of tables that store sets of data that can be queried
for use in other applications. A database management system supports the development,
administration and use of database platforms. RDBMS is a type of DBMS with a row-based
table structure that connects related data elements and includes functions related to Create,
Read, Update and Delete operations, collectively known as CRUD.
The data in RDBMS, is stored in database objects, called Tables. A table is a collection
of related data entries and it consist of rows and columns.
A field is a column in a table that is designed to maintain specific related information
about every record in the table. It is a vertical entity that contains all information associated
with a specific field in a table. The fields in a student table may be of the type AdmnNo,
StudName, StudAge, StudClass, Place etc.
A Record is a row, which is a collection of related fields or columns that exist in a table.
A record is a horizontal entity in a table which represents the details of a particular student in
a student table.

12.3 Processing Skills of SQL

The various processing skills of SQL are :
1. Data Definition Language (DDL) : The SQL DDL provides commands for defining
relation schemas (structure), deleting relations, creating indexes and modifying relation
schemas.
2. Data Manipulation Language (DML) : The SQL DML includes commands to insert,
delete, and modify tuples in the database.
3. Embedded Data Manipulation Language : The embedded form of SQL is used in high
level programming languages.
4. View Definition : The SQL also includes commands for defining views of tables.
5. Authorization : The SQL includes commands for access rights to relations and views of
tables.
6. Integrity : The SQL provides forms for integrity checking using condition.
7. Transaction control : The SQL includes commands for file transactions and control over
transaction processing.

SQL-Structured Query Language is a language used for accessing databases while

MySQL is a database management system, like SQL Server, Oracle, Informix,
Postgres, etc. MySQL is a RDBMS.

Refer installing MYSQL in Annexure -1

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12.4 Creating Database

1. To create a database, type the following command in the prompt:

CREATE DATABASE database_name;
Example:
CREATE DATABASE stud;
2. To work with the database, type the following command.
USE DATABASE;
For example to use the stud database created, give the command
USE stud;

12.5 Components of SQL

SQL commands are divided into five categories:

DML - Data Manipulation Language

DDL - Data Definition Language

DCL - Data Control Language

TCL - Transaction Control Language

DQL - Data Query Language

12.5.1 DATA DEFINITION LANGUAGE

The Data Definition Language (DDL) consist of SQL statements used to define the
database structure or schema. It simply deals with descriptions of the database schema and is
used to create and modify the structure of database objects in databases.

The DDL provides a set of definitions to specify the storage structure and access
methods used by the database system.

A DDL performs the following functions :

1. It should identify the type of data division such as data item, segment, record and database
file.
2. It gives a unique name to each data item type, record type, file type and data base.

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3. It should specify the proper data type.

4. It should define the size of the data item.
5. It may define the range of values that a data item may use.
6. It may specify privacy locks for preventing unauthorized data entry.
SQL commands which comes under Data Definition Language are:
Create To create tables in the database.

Alter Alters the structure of the database.

Drop Delete tables from database.

Truncate Remove all records from a table, also release the space occupied by those records.

12.5.2 DATA MANIPULATION LANGUAGE

A Data Manipulation Language (DML) is a query language used for adding
(inserting), removing (deleting), and modifying (updating) data in a database. In SQL, the
data manipulation language comprises the SQL-data change statements, which modify stored
data but not the schema of the database table.
After the database schema has been specified and the database has been created, the
data can be manipulated using a set of procedures which are expressed by DML.

By Data Manipulation we mean,

• Insertion of new information into the database
• Retrieval of information stored in a database.
• Deletion of information from the database.
• Modification of data stored in the database.

The DML is basically of two types:

Procedural DML – Requires a user to specify what data is needed and how to get it.

Non-Procedural DML - Requires a user to specify what data is needed without

specifying how to get it.
SQL commands which comes under Data Manipulation Language are :

Insert Inserts data into a table

Update Updates the existing data within a table.

Delete Deletes all records from a table, but not the space occupied by them.

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12.5.3 DATA CONTROL LANGUAGE

A Data Control Language (DCL) is a programming language used to control
the access of data stored in a database. It is used for controlling privileges in the database
(Authorization). The privileges are required for performing all the database operations such as
creating sequences, views of tables etc.

SQL commands which come under Data Control Language are:

Grant Grants permission to one or more users to perform specific tasks.

Revoke Withdraws the access permission given by the GRANT statement.

12.5.4 TRANSACTIONAL CONTROL LANGUAGE

Transactional control language (TCL) commands are used to manage transactions
in the database. These are used to manage the changes made to the data in a table by DML
statements.

SQL command which come under Transfer Control Language are:

Commit Saves any transaction into the database permanently.

Roll back Restores the database to last commit state.

Save point Temporarily save a transaction so that you can rollback.

12.5.5 DATA QUERY LANGUAGE

The Data Query Language consist of commands used to query or retrieve data from a
database. One such SQL command in Data Query Language is

Select : It displays the records from the table.

12.6 Data Types

The data in a database is stored based on the kind of value stored in it. This is identified
as the data type of the data or by assigning each field a data type. All the values in a given field
must be of same type.
The ANSI SQL standard recognizes only Text and Number data type, while some
commercial programs use other datatypes like Date and Time etc. The ANSI data types are
listed in the following Table 12.1

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Data Type Description

char Fixed width string value. Values of this type is enclosed in single quotes.
(Character) For ex. Anu’s will be written as ‘Anu’ ‘s’.

Variable width character string. This is similar to char except the size of the
varchar
data entry vary considerably.

It represents a fractional number such as 15.12, 0.123 etc. Here the size
argument consist of two parts : precision and scale. The precision indicates
dec (Decimal) how many digits the number may have and the scale indicates the maximum
number of digits to the right of the decimal point. The size (5, 2) indicates
precision as 5 and scale as 2. The scale cannot exceed the precision.

It is same as decimal except that the maximum number of digits may not
numeric
exceed the precision argument.
int It represents a number without a decimal point. Here the size argument is
(Integer) not used.

smallint It is same as integer but the default size may be smaller than Integer.

It represents a floating point number in base 10 exponential notation and

float
may define a precision up to a maximum of 64.

It is same as float, except the size argument is not used and may define a
real
precision up to a maximum of 64.

double Same as real except the precision may exceed 64.

Table 12.1

12.7 SQL Commands and their Functions

Tables are the only way to store data, therefore all the information has to be arranged in
the form of tables. The SQL provides a predetermined set of commands to work on databases.

Keywords They have a special meaning in SQL. They are understood as instructions.

They are instructions given by the user to the database also known as
Commands
statements.

Clauses They begin with a keyword and consist of keyword and argument.

Arguments They are the values given to make the clause complete.

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12.7.1 DDL Commands

CREATE TABLE Command
You can create a table by using the CREATE TABLE command. When a table is created,
its columns are named, data types and sizes are to be specified. Each table must have at least
one column. The syntax of CREATE TABLE command is :

CREATE TABLE <table-name>

(<column name><data type>[<size>]
(<column name><data type>[<size>]……
);

Now let us use the above syntax to store some information about the students of a class
in a database, for this you first need to create table. To create a student table, let us take some
information related to students like admission number which we can use it in short form as
(admno), name of student (name), gender, age etc. of the student. Let us create a table having
the field names Admno, Name, Gender, Age and Place.
The SQL command will be as follows:

CREATE TABLE Student

(Admno integer,
Name char(20),
Gender char(1),
Age integer,
Place char(10),
);

The above one is a simple table structure without any restrictions. You can also set
constraints to limit the type of data that can go into the fields of the table. Constraints are used
to limit the type of data that can go into a table. This ensures the accuracy and reliability of the
data in the database. Constraints could be either on a column level or a table level.

Note
Constraint is a condition applicable on a field or set of fields.

Column constraint: Column constraint apply only to individual column.

Table constraint : Table constraint apply to a group of one or more columns.

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The syntax for a table created with constraint is given as below:

CREATE TABLE <table-name>

(<column name><data type>[<size>]<column constraint>,
<column name><data type>[<size>]<column constraint>……
<table constraint>(<column name>,[<column name>….]…..
);

Following is an example for student table with “NOT NULL” column constraint. This
constraint enforces a field to always contain a value.
CREATE TABLE Student
(
Admno integer NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY, → Primary Key constraint
Name char(20) NOT NULL,
Gender char(1),
Age integer,
Place char(10),
);

The above command creates a table “student” in which the field Admno of integer type
is defined NOT NULL, Name of char type is defined as NOT NULL which means these two
fields must have values. The fields Gender, Age and Place do not have any constraints.
12.7.2 Type of Constraints
Constraints ensure database integrity, therefore known as database integrity constraints.
The different types of constraints are :
Unique Constraint
Primary Key Constraint
Constraint
Default Constraint
Check Constraint

12.7.2.1 Unique Constraint

This constraint ensures that no two rows have the same value in the specified columns.
For example UNIQUE constraint applied on Admno of student table ensures that no two
students have the same admission number and the constraint can be used as:

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CREATE TABLE Student

(
Admno integer NOT NULL UNIQUE, → Unique constraint
Name char (20) NOT NULL,
Gender char (1),
Age integer,
Place char (10),
);

The UNIQUE constraint can be applied only to fields that have also been declared as
NOT NULL.
When two constraints are applied on a single field, it is known as multiple constraints. In
the above Multiple constraints NOT NULL and UNIQUE are applied on a single field Admno,
the constraints are separated by a space and at the end of the field definition a comma(,) is
added. By adding these two constraints the field Admno must take some value ie. will not be
NULL and should not be duplicated.

12.7.2.2 Primary Key Constraint

This constraint declares a field as a Primary key which helps to uniquely identify a
record. It is similar to unique constraint except that only one field of a table can be set as
primary key. The primary key does not allow NULL values.
Example showing Primary Key Constraint in the student table:

CREATE TABLE Student

(
Admno integer PRIMARY KEY, → Primary Key constraint
Name char(20) NOT NULL,
Gender char(1),
Age integer,
Place char(10),
);

In the above example the Admno field has been set as primary key and therefore will
help us to uniquely identify a record, it is also set NOT NULL, therefore this field value cannot
be empty.
12.7.2.3 DEFAULT Constraint
The DEFAULT constraint is used to assign a default value for the field. When no value
is given for the specified field having DEFAULT constraint, automatically the default value will
be assigned to the field.

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Example showing DEFAULT Constraint in the student table:

CREATE TABLE Student

(
Admno integer PRIMARY KEY,
Name char(20)NOT NULL,
Gender char(1),
Age integer DEFAULT 17, → Default Constraint
Place char(10)
);

In the above example the “Age” field is assigned a default value of 17, therefore when no
value is entered in age by the user, it automatically assigns 17 to Age.
12.7.2.4 Check Constraint
This constraint helps to set a limit value placed for a field. When we define a check
constraint on a single column, it allows only the restricted values on that field. Example
showing check constraint in the student table:
CREATE TABLE Student
(
Admno integer PRIMARY KEY
Name char(20)NOT NULL,
Gender char(1),
Age integer CHECK (Age <=19), → Check Constraint
Place char(10),
);

In the above example the check constraint is set to Age field where the value of Age
must be less than or equal to 19.

Note
The check constraint may use relational and logical operators for condition.

12.7.2.5 TABLE CONSTRAINT

When the constraint is applied to a group of fields of the table, it is known as Table
constraint. The table constraint is normally given at the end of the table definition. Let us take
a new table namely Student1 with the following fields Admno, Firstname, Lastname, Gender,
Age, Place:

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CREATE TABLE Student 1

(
Admno integer NOT NULL,
Firstname char(20),
Lastname char(20),
Gender char(1),
Age integer,
Place char(10),
PRIMARY KEY (Firstname, Lastname) → Table constraint
);
In the above example, the two fields, Firstname and Lastname are defined as Primary
key which is a Table constraint.
12.7.3 DML COMMANDS
Once the schema or structure of the table is created, values can be added to the table.
The DML commands consist of inserting, deleting and updating rows into the table.

12.7.3.1 INSERT command

The INSERT command helps to add new data to the database or add new records to the
table. The command is used as follows:
INSERT INTO <table-name> [column-list] VALUES (values);

INSERT INTO Student (Admno, Name, Gender, Age, Place)

VALUES (100, ‘Ashish’, ‘M’, 17, ‘Chennai’);
INSERT INTO Student (Admno, Name, Gender, Age, Place)
VALUES (101, ‘Adarsh’, ‘M’, 18, ‘Delhi’);
Two new records are added to the table as shown below:
Admno Name Gender Age Placee
100 Ashish M 17 Chennai
101 Adarsh M 18 Delhi

The order of values must match the order of columns in the CREATE TABLE command.
Specifying the column names is optional if data is to be added for all columns. The command
to add values into the student table can also be used in the following way:
INSERT INTO Student VALUES ( 102, ‘Akshith’, ‘M’, 17, ‘Bangalore’);
102 Akshith M 17 Bangalore
The above command inserts the record into the student table.
To add data to only some columns in a record by specifying the column name and their data,
it can be done by:

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INSERT INTO Student(Admno, Name, Place) VALUES (103, ‘Ayush’, ‘Delhi’);

103 Ayush M 18 Delhi
The above command adds the following record with default values of ‘M’ for Gender and Age
as 18.
INSERT INTO Student (Admno, Name, Place) VALUES (104, ‘Abinandh’, ‘Chennai’);
104 Abinandh M 18 Chennai
The student table will have the following data:
Admno Name Gender Age Place
100 Ashish M 17 Chennai
101 Adarsh M 18 Delhi
102 Akshith M 17 Bangalore
103 Ayush M 18 Delhi
104 Abinandh M 18 Chennai
The fields that are not given in the INSERT command will take default values, if it is defined
for them, otherwise NULL value will be stored.

In the INSERT command the fields that are omitted will have either default value
defined or NULL value.

12.7.3.2 DELETE COMMAND

The DELETE command permanently removes one or more records from the table. It
removes the entire row, not individual fields of the row, so no field argument is needed. The
DELETE command is used as follows :

DELETE FROM table-name WHERE condition;

For example to delete the record whose admission number is 104 the command is given
as follows:
DELETE FROM Student WHERE Admno=104;
104 Abinandh M 18 Chennai

The following record is deleted from the Student table.

To delete all the rows of the table, the command is used as :
DELETE FROM Student;
The table will be empty now and could be destroyed using the DROP command
(Discussed in section 12.7.4.3).

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12.7.3.3 UPDATE COMMAND

The UPDATE command updates some or all data values in a database. It can update
one or more records in a table. The UPDATE command specifies the rows to be changed using
the WHERE clause and the new data using the SET keyword. The command is used as follows:

UPDATE <table-name> SET column-name = value, column-name = value,…

WHERE condition;
For example to update the following fields:
UPDATE Student SET Age = 20 WHERE Place = ῾Bangalore᾿;
The above command will change the age to 20 for those students whose place is “Bangalore”.
The table will be as updated as below:
Admno Name Gender Age Place
100 Ashish M 17 Chennai
101 Adarsh M 18 Delhi
102 Akshith M 20 Bangalore
103 Ayush M 18 Delhi
To update multiple fields, multiple field assignment can be specified with the SET clause
separated by comma. For example to update multiple fields in the Student table, the command
is given as:
UPDATE Student SET Age=18, Place = ‘Chennai’ WHERE Admno = 102;
102 Akshith M 18 Chennai
The above command modifies the record in the following way.

Admno Name Gender Age Place

100 Ashish M 17 Chennai
101 Adarsh M 18 Delhi
102 Akshith M 18 Chennai
103 Ayush M 18 Delhi

12.7.4 Some Additional DDL Commands:

12.7.4.1 ALTER COMMAND

The ALTER command is used to alter the table structure like adding a column, renaming
the existing column, change the data type of any column or size of the column or delete the
column from the table. It is used in the following way :

ALTER TABLE <table-name> ADD <column-name><data type><size>;

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To add a new column “Address” of type ‘char’ to the Student table, the command is used as
ALTER TABLE Student ADD Address char;
To modify existing column of table, the ALTER TABLE command can be used with MODIFY
clause like wise:
ALTER TABLE <table-name> MODIFY<column-name><data type><size>;

ALTER TABLE Student MODIFY Address char (25);

The above command will modify the address column of the Student table to now hold 25
characters.
The ALTER command can be used to rename an existing column in the following way :
ALTER TABLE <table-name> CHANGE old-column-name new-column-name new column definition;

For example to rename the column Address to City, the command is used as :
ALTER TABLE Student CHANGE Address City char(20);
The ALTER command can also be used to remove a column or all columns, for example
to remove a particular column, the DROP COLUMN is used with the ALTER TABLE to
remove a particular field. The command can be used as:
ALTER TABLE <table-name> DROP COLUMN <column-name>;

To remove the column City from the Student table, the command is used as :

ALTER TABLE Student DROP COLUMN City;

12.7.4.2 TRUNCATE command

The TRUNCATE command is used to delete all the rows from the table, the structure
remains and the space is freed from the table. The syntax for TRUNCATE command is:
TRUNCATE TABLE table-name;

For example to delete all the records of the student table and delete the table the SQL statement
is given as follows:
TRUNCATE TABLE Student;
The table Student is removed and the space is freed.

12.7.4.3 DROP TABLE command

The DROP TABLE command is used to remove a table from the database. If you
drop a table, all the rows in the table is deleted and the table structure is removed from the
database. Once a table is dropped we cannot get it back, so be careful while using DROP
TABLE command.

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The table can be deleted by DROP TABLE command in the following way:

DROP TABLE table-name;

For example to delete the Student table:

DROP TABLE Student;

DELETE, TRUNCATE AND DROP statement:

The DELETE command deletes only the rows from the table based on
the condition given in the where clause or deletes all the rows from the
DELETE
table if no condition is specified. But it does not free the space containing
the table.

The TRUNCATE command is used to delete all the rows, the structure
TRUNCATE
remains in the table and free the space containing the table.

The DROP command is used to remove an object from the database. If you
DROP drop a table, all the rows in the table is deleted and the table structure is
removed from the database. Once a table is dropped we cannot get it back.

12.7.5 DQL COMMAND– SELECT command

One of the most important tasks when working with SQL is to generate Queries and
retrieve data. A Query is a command given to get a desired result from the database table. The
SELECT command is used to query or retrieve data from a table in the database. It is used to
retrieve a subset of records from one or more tables. The SELECT command can be used in
various forms:
Syntax of SELECT command :

SELECT <column-list>FROM<table-name>;

• Table-name is the name of the table from which the information is retrieved.

• Column-list includes one or more columns from which data is retrieved.

For example to view only admission number and name of students from the Student table the
command is given as follows:
If the Student table has the following data:

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Admno Name Gender Age Place

100 Ashish M 17 Chennai
101 Adarsh M 18 Delhi
102 Akshith M 17 Bangalore
103 Ayush M 18 Delhi
104 Abinandh M 18 Chennai
105 Revathi F 19 Chennai
106 Devika F 19 Bangalore
107 Hema F 17 Chennai
SELECT Admno, Name FROM Student;
The above SELECT command will display the following data:
Admno Name
100 Ashish
101 Adarsh
102 Akshith
103 Ayush
104 Abinandh
105 Revathi
106 Devika
107 Hema
To view all the fields and rows of the table the SELECT command can be given as
SELECT * FROM STUDENT;
12.7.5.1 DISTINCT Keyword
The DISTINCT keyword is used along with the SELECT command to eliminate
duplicate rows in the table. This helps to eliminate redundant data. For Example:
SELECT DISTINCT Place FROM Student;
Will display the following data as follows :

Place
Chennai
Bangalore
Delhi
In the above output you can see, there would be no duplicate rows in the place field.
When the keyword DISTINCT is used, only one NULL value is returned, even if more NULL
values occur.

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12.7.5.2 ALL Keyword

The ALL keyword retains duplicate rows. It will display every row of the table without
considering duplicate entries.
SELECT ALL Place FROM Student;
The above command will display all values of place field from every row of the table
without eliminating the duplicate entries.
Place
Chennai
Delhi
Bangalore
Delhi
Chennai
Chennai
Bangalore
Chennai
The WHERE clause in the SELECT command specifies the criteria for getting the
desired result. The general form of SELECT command with WHERE Clause is:
SELECT <column-name>[,<column-name>,….] FROM <table-name>WHERE condition>;

For example to display the students admission number and name of only those students who
belong to Chennai, the SELECT command is used in the following way :
SELECT Admno, Name, Place FROM Student WHERE Place = ῾Chennai᾿;

Admno Name Place

100 Ashish Chennai
104 Abinandh Chennai
105 Revathi Chennai
107 Hema Chennai
SELECT Admno, Name, Age FROM Student WHERE Age >= 18;
Admno Name Age
101 Adarsh 18
103 Ayush 18
104 Abinandh 18
105 Revathi 19
106 Devika 19
The relational operators like =, <, <=, >, >=, <> can be used to compare two values in
the SELECT command used with WHERE clause. The logical operaors OR, AND and NOT

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can also be used to connect search conditions in the WHERE clause. For example :
SELECT Admno, Name, Age, Place FROM Student WHERE (Age>=18 AND Place = ῾Delhi᾿);

Admno Name Age Place

101 Adarsh 18 Delhi
103 Ayush 18 Delhi
The SELECT command can also be used in the following ways:
SELECT Admno, Name, Age, Place FROM Student WHERE (Age>=18 OR Place =῾Delhi᾿);
SELECT Admno, Name, Place FROM Student WHERE (NOT Place =῾Delhi᾿);

12.7.5.3 BETWEEN and NOT BETWEEN Keywords

The BETWEEN keyword defines a range of values the record must fall into to make the
condition true. The range may include an upper value and a lower value between which the
criteria must fall into.
SELECT Admno, Name, Age, Gender FROM Student WHERE Age BETWEEN 18 AND 19;

Admno Name Age Gender

101 Adarsh 18 M
103 Ayush 18 M
104 Abinandh 18 M
105 Revathi 19 F
106 Devika 19 F

The NOT BETWEEN is reverse of the BETWEEN operator where the records not satisfying
the condition are displayed.
SELECT Admno, Name, Age FROM Student WHERE Age NOT BETWEEN 18 AND 19;

Admno Name Age

100 Ashish 17
102 Akshith 17
107 Hema 17

12.7.5.4 IN Keyword
The IN keyword is used to specify a list of values which must be matched with the
record values. In other words it is used to compare a column with more than one value. It is
similar to an OR condition.
For example :
SELECT Admno, Name, Place FROM Student WHERE Place IN (῾Chennai᾿, ῾Delhi᾿);

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Admno Name Place

100 Ashish Chennai
101 Adarsh Delhi
103 Ayush Delhi
104 Abinandh Chennai
105 Revathi Chennai
107 Hema Chennai
The NOT IN keyword displays only those records that do not match in the list.

For example:
SELECT Admno, Name, Place FROM Student WHERE Place NOT IN (῾Chennai᾿, ῾Delhi᾿);
will display students only from places other than “Chennai” and “Delhi”.
Admno Name Place
102 Akshith Bangalore
106 Devika Bangalore
NULL Value :
The NULL value in a field can be searched in a table using the IS NULL in the WHERE
clause. For example to list all the students whose Age contains no value, the command is used
as:
SELECT * FROM Student WHERE Age IS NULL;

Note
Non NULL values in a table can be listed using IS NOT NULL.

12.7.5.5 ORDER BY clause

The ORDER BY clause in SQL is used to sort the data in either ascending or descending
based on one or more columns.
1. By default ORDER BY sorts the data in ascending order.
2. We can use the keyword DESC to sort the data in descending order and the keyword ASC
to sort in ascending order.
The ORDER BY clause is used as :

SELECT <column-name>[,<column-name>,….] FROM <table-name>ORDER

BY <column1>,<column2>,…ASC| DESC ;

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For example :
To display the students in alphabetical order of their names, the command is used as

SELECT * FROM Student ORDER BY Name;

The above student table is arranged as follows :

Admno Name Gender Age Place

104 Abinandh M 18 Chennai
101 Adarsh M 18 Delhi
102 Akshith M 17 Bangalore
100 Ashish M 17 Chennai
103 Ayush M 18 Delhi
106 Devika F 19 Bangalore
107 Hema F 17 Chennai
105 Revathi F 19 Chennai

Note
The ORDER BY clause does not affect the original table.

12.7.5.6 WHERE clause

The WHERE clause is used to filter the records. It helps to extract only those records
which satisfy a given condition. For example in the student table, to display the list of students
of age18 and above in alphabetical order of their names, the command is given as below:
SELECT * FROM Student WHERE Age>=18 ORDER BY Name;

Admno Name Gender Age Place

104 Abinandh M 18 Chennai

101 Adarsh M 18 Delhi
103 Ayush M 18 Delhi
106 Devika F 19 Bangalore
105 Revathi F 19 Chennai
To display the list of students in the descending order of names of those students of age
18 and above the command is given as :
SELECT * FROM Student WHERE Age>=18 ORDER BY Name DESC;

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Admno Name Gender Age Place

105 Revathi F 19 Chennai
106 Devika F 19 Bangalore
103 Ayush M 18 Delhi
101 Adarsh M 18 Delhi
104 Abinandh M 18 Chennai

Note
Sorting can be done on multiple fields.

12.7.5.7 GROUP BY clause

The GROUP BY clause is used with the SELECT statement to group the students on
rows or columns having identical values or divide the table in to groups. For example to know
the number of male students or female students of a class, the GROUP BY clause may be
used. It is mostly used in conjunction with aggregate functions to produce summary reports
from the database.

The syntax for the GROUP BY clause is

SELECT <column-names> FROM <table-name> GROUP BY <column-name>HAVING

condition];

To apply the above command on the student table :

SELECT Gender FROM Student GROUP BY Gender;
The following command will give the below given result:
Gender
M
F
The point to be noted is that only two results have been returned. This is because we
only have two gender types ‘Male’ and ‘Female’. The GROUP BY clause grouped all the ‘M’
students together and returned only a single row for it. It did the same with the ‘F’ students.
For example to count the number of male and female students in the student table, the
following command is given :

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SELECT Gender, count(*) FROM Student GROUP BY Gender;

Gender count(*)
M 5
F 3

Note
The * is used with the COUNT to include the NULL values.

The GROUP BY applies the aggregate functions independently to a series of groups that
are defined by having a field value in common. The output of the above SELECT statement
gives a count of the number of Male and Female students.

12.7.5.8 HAVING clause

The HAVING clause can be used along with GROUP BY clause in the SELECT statement
to place condition on groups and can include aggregate functions on them. For example to
count the number of students belonging to chennai.
SELECT Place , count(*) FROM Student GROUP BY Place HAVING place = ‘Chennai’;

Place count
Chennai 2
The above output shows the no. of students belongs to chennai.

12.7.6 TCL commands

12.7.6.1 COMMIT command
The COMMIT command is used to permanently save any transaction to the database.
When any DML commands like INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE commands are used, the
changes made by these commands are not permanent. It is marked permanent only after the
COMMIT command is given from the SQL prompt. Once the COMMIT command is given,
the changes made cannot be rolled back. The COMMIT command is used as

COMMIT;

12.7.6.2 ROLLBACK command

The ROLLBACK command restores the database to the last commited state. It is used
with SAVEPOINT command to jump to a particular savepoint location. The syntax for the
ROLLBACK command is :
ROLL BACK TO save point name;

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12.7.6.3 SAVEPOINT command

The SAVEPOINT command is used to temporarily save a transaction so that you
can rollback to the point whenever required. The different states of our table can be saved at
anytime using different names and the rollback to that state can be done using the ROLLBACK
command.
SAVEPOINT savepoint_name;

Example showing COMMIT, SAVEPOINT and ROLLBACK in the student table

having the following data:

Admno Name Gender Age Place

105 Revathi F 19 Chennai
106 Devika F 19 Bangalore
103 Ayush M 18 Delhi
101 Adarsh M 18 Delhi
104 Abinandh M 18 Chennai

INSERT INTO Student VALUES (107, 'Beena', 'F', 20 , 'Cochin');

COMMIT;

Admno Name Gender Age Place

105 Revathi F 19 Chennai
106 Devika F 19 Bangalore
103 Ayush M 18 Delhi
101 Adarsh M 18 Delhi
104 Abinandh M 18 Chennai
107 Beena F 20 Cochin

UPDATE Student SET Name = ‘Mini’ WHERE Admno=105;

SAVEPOINT A;

Admno Name Gender Age Place

105 Mini F 19 Chennai
106 Devika F 19 Bangalore
103 Ayush M 18 Delhi
101 Adarsh M 18 Delhi
104 Abinandh M 18 Chennai
107 Beena F 20 Cochin

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INSERT INTO Student VALUES(108, 'Jisha', 'F', 19, 'Delhi');

SAVEPOINT B;

Admno Name Gender Age Place

105 Mini F 19 Chennai
106 Devika F 19 Bangalore
103 Ayush M 18 Delhi
101 Adarsh M 18 Delhi
104 vAbinandh M 18 Chennai
107 Beena F 20 Cochin
108 Jisha F 19 Delhi

ROLLBACK TO A;

Admno Name Gender Age Place

105 Mini F 19 Chennai
106 Devika F 19 Bangalore
103 Ayush M 18 Delhi
101 Adarsh M 18 Delhi
104 Abinandh M 18 Chennai
107 Beena F 20 Cochin

Points to remember:
• SQL is a language that helps to create and operate relational databases.
• MySQL is a database management system.
• The various components of SQL are Data Definition Language (DDL), Data
Manipulation Language (DML), Data Query Language (DQL), Transactional
Control Language (TCL), Data Control Language (DCL).
• The DDL provides statements for creation and deletion of tables.
• The DML provides statements to insert, update and delete data of a table.
• The DCL provides authorization commands to access data.
• The TCL commands are used to manage transactions in a database.
• The DQL commands help to generate queries in a database.
• The CREATE TABLE command creates a new table.

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Hands on Experience
1. Create a query of the student table in the following order of fields name, age, place and
admno.
2. Create a query to display the student table with students of age more than 18 with unique
city.
3. Create a employee table with the following fields employee number, employee name,
designation, date of joining and basic pay.
4. In the above table set the employee number as primary key and check for NULL values in
any field.
5. Prepare a list of all employees who are Managers.

Evaluation

Part - I

Choose the best answer (1 Mark)

1. Which commands provide definitions for creating table structure, deleting relations, and
modifying relation schemas.
a. DDL b. DML c. DCL d. DQL
2. Which command lets to change the structure of the table?
a. SELECT b. ORDER BY c. MODIFY d. ALTER
3. The command to delete a table including the structure is
a. DROP b. DELETE c. DELETE ALL d. ALTER TABLE
4. Queries can be generated using
a. SELECT b. ORDER BY c. MODIFY d. ALTER
5. The clause used to sort data in a database
a. SORT BY b. ORDER BY c. GROUP BY d. SELECT

Part -II

Answer the following questions (2 Marks)

1. Write a query that selects all students whose age is less than 18 in order wise.
2. Differentiate Unique and Primary Key constraint.
3. Write the difference between table constraint and column constraint?
4. Which component of SQL lets insert values in tables and which lets to create a table?
5. What is the difference between SQL and MySQL?

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Part -III

Answer the following questions (3 Marks)

1. What is a constraint? Write short note on Primary key constraint.
2. Write a SQL statement to modify the student table structure by adding a new field.
3. Write any three DDL commands.
4. Write the use of Savepoint command with an example.
5. Write a SQL statement using DISTINCT keyword.

Part -IV

Answer the following questions (5 Marks)

1. Write the different types of constraints and their functions.
2. Consider the following employee table. Write SQL commands for the qtns.(i) to (v).

EMP CODE NAME DESIG PAY ALLO WANCE

S1001 Hariharan Supervisor 29000 12000

P1002 Shaji Operator 10000 5500
P1003 Prasad Operator 12000 6500
C1004 Manjima Clerk 8000 4500
M1005 Ratheesh Mechanic 20000 7000

(i) To display the details of all employees in descending order of pay.

(ii) To display all employees whose allowance is between 5000 and 7000.
(iii) To remove the employees who are mechanic.
(iv) To add a new row.
(v) To display the details of all employees who are operators.
3. What are the components of SQL? Write the commands in each.
4. Construct the following SQL statements in the student table-
(i) SELECT statement using GROUP BY clause.
(ii) SELECT statement using ORDER BY clause.
5. Write a SQL statement to create a table for employee having any five fields and create a
table constraint for the employee table.

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CHAPTER 13
Unit IV
PYTHON AND CSV FILES

Learning Objectives

After the completion of this chapter, the student will be able to

• Understand what is CSV?
• Able to import CSV files in python programs
• Execute and debug python programs

13.1 Introduction

Python has a vast library of modules that are included with its distribution. One among
the module is the CSV module which gives the Python programmer the ability to parse CSV
(Comma Separated Values) files. A CSV file is a human readable text file where each line
has a number of fields, separated by commas or some other delimiter. You can assume each
line as a row and each field as a column. The CSV module will be able to read and write the vast
majority of CSV files.
13.2 Difference between CSV and XLS file formats

The difference between Comma-Separated Values (CSV) and eXceL Sheets(XLS) file
formats is
Excel CSV
Excel is a binary file that holds information CSV format is a plain text format with a
about all the worksheets in a file, including series of values separated by commas.
both content and formatting
XLS files can only be read by applications CSV can be opened with any text editor
that have been especially written to read their in Windows like notepad, MS Excel,
format, and can only be written in the same OpenOffice, etc.
way.
Excel is a spreadsheet that saves files into its CSV is a format for saving tabular
own proprietary format viz. xls or xlsx information into a delimited text file with
extension .csv
Excel consumes more memory while Importing CSV files can be much faster, and
importing data it also consumes less memory

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Files saved in excel cannot be opened or edited by text editors.

13.3 Purpose Of CSV File

CSV is a simple file format used to store tabular data, such as a spreadsheet or database.
Since they're plain text, they're easier to import into a spreadsheet or another storage database,
regardless of the specific software you're using.
You can open CSV files in a spreadsheet program like Microsoft Excel or in a text editor
or through a database which make them easier to read.

Note
CSV File cannot store charts or graphs. It stores data but does not contain
formatting, formulas, macros, etc.

A CSV file is also known as a Flat File. Files in the CSV format can be
imported to and exported from programs that store data in tables, such as Microsoft
Excel or OpenOfficeCalc

13.4 Creating a CSV file using Notepad (or any text editor)

A CSV file is a text file, so it can be created and edited using any text editor, But more
frequently a CSV file is created by exporting a spreadsheet or database in the program that
created it.

13.4.1 Creating CSV Normal File

To create a CSV file in Notepad, First open a new file using
File →New or ctrl +N.
Then enter the data you want the file to contain, separating each value with a comma
and each row with a new line.
For example consider the following details
Topic1,Topic2,Topic3
one,two,three
Example1,Example2,Example3

Save this content in a file with the extension .csv . You can then open the same using
Microsoft Excel or any other spreadsheet program. Here we have opened using Microsoft
Excel. It would create a table of data similar to the following:

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Topic1 Topic2 Topic3

one two three

Example1 Example2 Example3

Fig. 13.4.1 CSV file when opened in MS-Excel

In the above CSV file, you can observe the fields of data were separated by commas. But
what happens if the data itself contains commas in it?
If the fields of data in your CSV file contain commas, you can protect them by enclosing
those data fields in double-quotes (“). The commas that are part of your data will then be kept
separate from the commas which delimit the fields themselves.

13.4.2 Creating CSV File That contains Comma With Data

For example, let’s say that one of our fields contain commas in the description. If our
data looked like the below example:

RollNo Name Address

12101 Nivetha Mylapore, Chennai
12102 Lavanya Adyar, Chennai
12103 Ram Gopalapuram, Chennai

To retain the commas in “Address” column, you can enclose the fields in quotation
marks. For example:
RollNo, Name, Address
12101, Nivetha, “Mylapore, Chennai”
12102, Lavanya, “Adyar, Chennai”
12103, Ram, “Gopalapuram, Chennai”
As you can see, only the fields that contain commas are enclosed in quotes. If you open
this in MS Excel, It looks like as follows

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Roll No Name Address

12101 Nivetha Mylapore, Chennai
12102 Lavanya Adyar, Chennai

12103 Ram Gopalapuram, Chennai

Fig 13.4.2 (a) CSV Field data with comma in Excel

The same goes for newlines (display data in more than one line example Address
column) which may be part of your field data. Any fields containing a newline as part of its
data need to be enclosed in double-quotes.
For Example
RollNo Name Address
Mylapore,
12101 Nivetha
Chennai
Adyar,
12102 Lavanya
Chennai
Gopalapuram,
12103 Ram
Chennai

It should be written in CSV file as

RollNo, Name, Address

12101, Nivetha, “Mylapore
Chennai”
12102, Lavanya, “Adyar
Chennai”
12103, Ram, “Gopalapuram
Chennai”

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The Result will look like this

Roll No Name Address

Mylapore,
12101 Nivetha Chennai
12102 Lavanya Adyar,
Chennai
12103 Ram Gopalapuram,
Chennai

Fig 13.4.2 (b) CSV Field Data with newline in Excel

13.4.3 Creating CSV File That contains Double Quotes With Data
If your fields contain double-quotes as part of their data, the internal quotation
marks need to be doubled so that they can be interpreted correctly. For Example, given the
following data:

Roll No Name Favorite Sports Address

12101 Nivetha “Cricket”, “Football” Mylapore Chennai
12102 Lavanya “Basketball”, “Cricket” Adyar Chennai
12103 Ram “Soccer”, “Hockey” Gopala puram Chennai

It should be written in csv file as

RollNo, Name, FavoriteSports, Address

12101, Nivetha,””” Cricket ””,”” Football ”””, Mylapore chennai
12102, Lavanya,””” Basketball ””,”” Cricket ”””, Adyar chennai
12103, Ram,””” Soccer””,”” Hockey”””, Gopalapuram chennai

The output will be

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Roll No Name Favorite Sports Address

12101 Nivetha "Cricket", "Football" Mylapore, Chennai
12102 Lavanya "Basketball", "Cricket" Adyar, Chennai
12103 Ram "Soccer", "Hockey" Gopalapuram, Chennai

Fig 13.4.3 CSV Field Data with Double quotes in Excel

13.4.4 Rules to be followed to format data in a CSV file
1. Each record (row of data) is to be located on a separate line, delimited by a line break by
pressing enter key. For example:
xxx,yyy
denotes enter Key to be pressed

2. The last record in the file may or may not have an ending line break. For example:

ppp, qqq
yyy, xxx

3. There may be an optional header line appearing as the first line of the file with the same
format as normal record lines. The header will contain names corresponding to the fields
in the file and should contain the same number of fields as the records in the rest of the
file. For example:

field_name1,field_name2,field_name3
aaa,bbb,ccc
zzz,yyy,xxx CRLF( Carriage Return and Line Feed)

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4. Within the header and each record, there may be one or more fields, separated by commas.
Spaces are considered part of a field and should not be ignored. The last field in the record
must not be followed by a comma. For example: Red , Blue
5. Each field may or may not be enclosed in double quotes. If fields are not enclosed with
double quotes, then double quotes may not appear inside the fields. For example:

"Red","Blue","Green" #Field data with doule quotes

Black,White,Yellow #Field data without doule quotes

6. Fields containing line breaks (CRLF), double quotes, and commas should be enclosed in
double-quotes. For example:

Red, “,”, Blue CRLF # comma itself is a field value.so it is enclosed with double quotes
Red, Blue , Green

7. If double-quotes are used to enclose fields, then a double-quote appearing inside a field
must be preceded with another double quote. For example:

““Red””, ““Blue””, ““Green”” CRLF # since double quotes is a field value it is enclosed with another
double quotes
, , White

Note
The last row in the above example (, , White ) begins with two commas because the first
two fields of that row were empty in our spreadsheet. Don't delete them — the two commas
are required so that the fields correspond from row to row. They cannot be omitted.

13.5 Create A CSV File Using Microsoft Excel

To create a CSV file using Microsoft Excel, launch Excel and then open the file you
want to save in CSV format. For example, below is the data contained in our sample Excel
worksheet:

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Item Name Cost - Rs Quantity Profit

Keyboard 480 12 1152
Monitor 5200 10 10400
Mouse 200 50 2000
Total Profit 13552

Fig 13.5 Sample Worksheet Data

Once the data is entered in the worksheet, select File → Save As option, and for the
“Save as type option”, select CSV (Comma delimited) or type the file name along with extension
.csv.
Saving excel file as CSV

Fig 13.6 Save As dialog box

After you save the file, you are free to open it up in a text editor to view it or to edit it
manually. Its contents will resemble the following:

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Item Name, Cost-Rs, Quantity, Profit

Keyboard, 480, 12, 1152
Monitor, 5200, 10, 10400
Mouse, 200, 50, 2000
,,Total Profit =,13552

13.5.1 Microsoft Excel to open a CSV file

If Microsoft Excel has been installed on the computer, by default CSV files should
open automatically in Excel when the file is double-clicked. If you are getting an Open With
prompt when opening the CSV file, choose Microsoft Excel from the available programs to
open the file.
Alternatively, you can open Microsoft Excel and in the menu bar, select File → Open,
and select the CSV file. If the file is not listed, make sure to change the file type to be opened
to Text Files (*.prn, *.txt, *.csv).

If both MS Excel and Open Office calc is installed in the computer, by

default the CSV file will be opened in MS Excel.

13.6 Read and write a CSV file Using Python

Python provides a module named CSV, using this you can do several operations on the
CSV files. The CSV library contains objects and other code to read, write, and process data
from and to CSV files.

CSV files have been used extensively in e-commerce applications because

they are considered very easy to process.

13.6.1 Read a CSV File Using Python

There are two ways to read a CSV file.
1. Use the csv module’s reader function
2. Use the DictReader class.
Two ways of Reading CSV File

reader () function Dict Reader class

Fig 13.7 Ways to read CSV file

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When you want to read from or write to a file ,you need to open it. Once the reading
is over it needs to be closed. So that, resources that are tied with the file are freed. Hence, in
Python, a file operation takes place in the following order

Step 1 Open a file

Step 2 Perform Read or write operation

Step 3 Close the file

Note
File name or the complete path name can be represented either with in “ “ or in ‘ ‘
in the open command.

Python has a built-in function open() to open a file. This function returns a file
object, also called a handle, as it is used to read or modify the file accordingly.

For Example

>>> f = open("sample.txt") # open file in current directory and f is file object

>>> f = open('c:\pyprg\ch13sample5.csv') # specifying full path

You can specify the mode while opening a file. In mode, you can specify whether you
want to read 'r', write 'w' or append 'a' to the file. you can also specify “text or binary” in which
the file is to be opened.

The default is reading in text mode. In this mode, while reading from the file the data
would be in the format of strings.

On the other hand, binary mode returns bytes and this is the mode to be used when
dealing with non-text files like image or exe files.

Python File Modes

Mode Description
'r' Open a file for reading. (default)
'w' Open a file for writing. Creates a new file if it does not exist or truncates the file if
it exists.
'x' Open a file for exclusive creation. If the file already exists, the operation fails.

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'a' Open for appending at the end of the file without truncating it. Creates a new file
if it does not exist.
't' Open in text mode. (default)
'b' Open in binary mode.
'+' Open a file for updating (reading and writing)

f=open("sample.txt")
#equivalent to 'r' or 'rt'
f = open("sample.txt",'w') # write in text mode
f = open("image1.bmp",'r+b') # read and write in binary mode
Python has a garbage collector to clean up unreferenced objects but, one must not
rely on it to close the file.

f = open("test.txt") # since no mode is specified the default mode rt is used

# perform file operations
f.close()

The above method is not entirely safe. If an exception occurs when you are performing
some operation with the file, the code exits without closing the file. The best way to do this is
using the “with” statement. This ensures that the file is closed when the block inside with is
exited. You need not to explicitly call the close() method. It is done internally.

with open("test.txt",’r’) as f:
# f is file object to perform file operations

Closing a file will free up the resources that were tied with the file and is done using
Python close() method.
f = open("sample.txt")
# perform file operations
f.close()

13.6.1.1 CSV Module’s Reader Function

You can read the contents of CSV file with the help of csv.reader() function. The reader
function is designed to take each line of the file and make a list of all columns. Then, you
just choose the column you want the variable data for. Using this function one can read data
from csv files of different formats like quotes (" "), pipe (|) and comma (,).
The syntax for csv.reader() is

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csv.reader(fileobject,delimiter,fmtparams)
where
file object :- passes the path and the mode of the file
delimiter :- an optional parameter containing the standard dilects like , | etc can be omitted
fmtparams: optional parameter which help to override the default values of the dialects like
skipinitialspace,quoting etc. Can be omitted

CSV file - data with default delimiter comma (,)

1

CSV file - data with Space at the beginning

2

CSV file - data with quotes

3

CSV file - data with custom Delimiters

4

13.6.1.1.1 CSV file with default delimiter comma (,)

The following program read a file called “sample1.csv” with default delimiter comma (,)
and print row by row.
#importing csv
import csv
#opening the csv file which is in different location with read mode
with open('c:\pyprg\sample1.csv', 'r', newline‘=’) as F:
#other way to open the file is f= ('c:\pyprg\sample1.csv', 'r')
reader = csv.reader(F)
# printing each line of the Data row by row
for row in reader:
print(row)
F.close()
OUTPUT
['SNO', 'NAME', 'CITY']
['12101', 'RAM', 'CHENNAI']
['12102', 'LAVANYA', 'TIRUCHY']
['12103', 'LAKSHMAN', 'MADURAI']

13.6.1.1.2. CSV files- data with Spaces at the beginning

Consider the following file “sample2.csv” containing the following data when opened
through notepad
Topic1, Topic2, Topic3,
one, two, three
Example1, Example2, Example3

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The following program read the file through Python using “csv.reader()”.

import csv
csv.register_dialect('myDialect',delimiter = ',',skipinitialspace=True)
F=open('c:\pyprg\sample2.csv','r')
reader = csv.reader(F, dialect='myDialect')
for row in reader:
print(row)
F.close()

OUTPUT
['Topic1', 'Topic2', 'Topic3']
['one', 'two', 'three']
['Example1', 'Example2', 'Example3']

As you can see in “sample2.csv” there are spaces after the delimiter due to which the
output is also displayed with spaces.

These whitespaces can be removed, by registering new dialects using csv.register_dialect()

class of csv module. A dialect describes the format of the csv file that is to be read. In dialects
the parameter “skipinitialspace” is used for removing whitespaces after the delimiter.

Note
By default “skipinitialspace” has a value false

The following program reads “sample2.csv” file, which contains spaces after the delimiter.

import csv
csv.register_dialect('myDialect',delimiter = ',',skipinitialspace=True)
F=open('c:\pyprg\sample2.csv','r')
reader = csv.reader(F, dialect='myDialect')
for row in reader:
print(row)
F.close()
OUTPUT
['Topic1', 'Topic2', 'Topic3']
['one', 'two', 'three']
['Example1', 'Example2', 'Example3']

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Note
A dialect is a class of csv module which helps to define parameters for
reading and writing CSV. It allows you to create, store, and re-use various formatting
parameters for your data.

13.6.1.1.3 CSV File-Data With Quotes

You can read the csv file with quotes, by registering new dialects using csv.register_dialect()
class of csv module.
Here, we have quotes.csv file with following data.

SNO,Quotes
1, "The secret to getting ahead is getting started."
2, "Excellence is a continuous process and not an accident."
3, "Work hard dream big never give up and believe yourself."
4, "Failure is the opportunity to begin again more intelligently."
5, "The successful warrior is the average man, with laser-like focus."

The following Program read “quotes.csv” file, where delimiter is comma (,) but the
quotes are within quotes (“ “).
import csv
csv.register_dialect('myDialect',delimiter = ',',skipinitialspace=True)
f=open('c:\pyprg\quotes.csv','r')
reader = csv.reader(f, dialect='myDialect')
for row in reader:
print(row)

OUTPUT
['SNO', 'Quotes']
['1', 'The secret to getting ahead is getting started.']
['2', 'Excellence is a continuous process and not an accident.']
['3', 'Work hard dream big never give up and believe yourself.']
['4', 'Failure is the opportunity to begin again more intelligently.']
['5', 'The successful warrior is the average man, with laser-like focus. ']

In the above program, register a dialect with name myDialect. Then, we used csv.
QUOTE_ALL to display all the characters after double quotes.

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13.6.1.1.4 CSV files with Custom Delimiters

You can read CSV file having custom delimiter by registering a new dialect with the
help of csv.register_dialect().
In the following file called “sample4.csv”,each column is separated with | (Pipe symbol)

Roll No | Name | City

12101 | Arun | Chennai
12102 | Meena | Kovai
12103 | Ram | Nellai

The following program read the file “sample4.csv” with user defined delimiter “|”

import csv
csv.register_dialect('myDialect', delimiter = '|') OUTPUT
with open('c:\pyprg\sample4.csv', 'r', newline‘=’) as f: ['RollNo', 'Name', 'City']
reader = csv.reader(f, dialect='myDialect') ['12101', 'Arun', 'Chennai']
for row in reader: ['12102', 'Meena', 'Kovai']
print(row) ['12103', 'Ram', 'Nellai']
f.close()

In the above program, a new dialects called myDialect is registered. Use the delimiter=|
where a pipe (|) is considered as column separator.

13.6.2 Read a specific column In a File

To get the specific columns like only Item Name and profit for the “sample5.csv” file .
Then you have to do the following:

import csv
#opening the csv file which is in different location with read mode
f=open("c:\pyprg\ch13sample5.csv",'r')
#reading the File with the help of csv.reader()
readFile=csv.reader(f)
#printing the selected column
for col in readFile :
print (col[0],col[3])
f.close()
sample5.csv File in Excel

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A B C D

1 item Nam Cost-Rs Quantity Profit

2 Keyboard 480 12 1152
3 Monitor 5200 10 10400
4 Mouse 200 50 2000

sample5.csv File with selected col

OUTPUT
Item Name Profit
Keyboard 1152
Monitor 10400
Mouse 2000

13.6.3 Read A CSV File And Store It In A List

In this topic you are going to read a CSV file and the contents of the file will be stored
as a list. The syntax for storing in the List is

list = [] # Start as the empty list

list.append(element) # Use append() to add elements

For example all the row values of “sample.csv” file is stored in a list using the following
program

import csv
# other way of declaring the filename
inFile= 'c:\pyprg\sample.csv'
F=open(inFile,'r')
reader = csv.reader(F)
# declaring array
arrayValue = []
# displaying the content of the list
for row in reader:
arrayValue.append(row)
print(row)
F.close()
sample.csv opened in MS-Excel

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A1 fx Topic 1

>
A B C
1 Topic 1 Topic 2 Topic 3
2 One two three
3 Example 1 Example 2 Example 3
4
OUTPUT
['Topic1', 'Topic2', 'Topic3']
[' one', 'two', 'three']
['Example1', 'Example2', 'Example3']

Note
A list is a data structure in Python that is a mutable, or changeable,
ordered sequence of elements.

List literals are written within square brackets [ ]. Lists work similarly to strings

13.6.4 Read A CSV File And Store A Column Value In A List For Sorting

In this program you are going to read a selected column from the “sample6.csv” file by
getting from the user the column number and store the content in a list.

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Item Name Cost - Rs Quantity Profit

Keyboard 480 12 1152
Monitor 5200 10 10400
Mouse 200 50 2000

Fig 13.6.4 CSV file Data for a selected column for sorting

Since the row heading is also get sorted, to avoid that the first row should be skipped.
This is can be done by using the command “next()”. The list is sorted and displayed.

# sort a selected column given by user leaving the header column in

# descending order of value
import csv
# other way of declaring the filename
inFile= ‘c:\pyprg\sample6.csv’
# opening the csv file which is in the same location of where the current #
python file

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F=open(inFile,’r’)
# reading the File with the help of csv.reader()
reader = csv.reader(F)
# skipping the first row(heading)
next(reader)
# declaring a list
arrayValue = []
a = int(input (“Enter the column number between 0 to 3:-“))
# sorting a particular column-cost
for row in reader:
arrayValue.append(row[a])
arrayValue.sort(reverse=True)
for row in arrayValue:
print (row)
F.close()

OUTPUT
Enter the column number between 0 to 3:- 2
50
12
10

Read a specific column in a csv file and display its result in Ascending
order

list_name.sort() command arranges a list value in ascending order. list_name.

sort(reverse=True) is used to arrange a list in descending order

13.6.5 Sorting A CSV File With A Specified Column

In this program you are going to see the “sample8.csv” file’s entire content is transferred
to a list. Then the list of rows is sorted and displayed in ascending order of quantity. To sort
by more than one column you can use itemgetter with multiple indices: operator .itemgetter
(1,2), The content of “sample8.csv” is

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sample8.csv in Excel screen

Item Name Quantity

Keyboard 48
Monitor 52
Mouse 20

sample8.csv in Notepad
ItemName ,Quantity
Keyboard, 48
Monitor,52
Mouse ,20

Fig 13.6.5 CSV file Data into a list for sorting

The following program do the task mentioned above using operator.itemgetter(col_no)

#Program to sort the entire row by using a specified column.
# declaring multiple header files
import csv ,operator
#One more way to read the file
data = csv.reader(open(‘c:\pyprg\sample8.csv’))
next(data) #(to omit the header)
#using operator module for sorting multiple columns
sortedlist = sorted (data, key=operator.itemgetter(1)) # 1 specifies we want to sort
# according to second column
for row in sortedlist:
print(row)
OUTPUT
[‘Mouse ‘, ‘20’]
[‘Keyboard ‘, ‘48’]
[‘Monitor’, ‘52’]

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Note
The sorted() method sorts the elements of a given item in a specific order –
Ascending or Descending. Sort() method which performs the same way as sorted().
Only difference, sort() method doesn’t return any value and changes the original list
itself.

Add one more column “cost” in “sample8.csv” and sort it in descending order
of cost by using the syntax
sortedlist = sorted(data, key=operator.itemgetter(Col_number),reverse=True)

13.6.6 Reading CSV File Into A Dictionary

To read a CSV file into a dictionary can be done by using DictReader method of csv
module which works similar to the reader() class but creates an object which maps data to a
dictionary. The keys are given by the fieldnames as parameter. DictReader works by reading
the first line of the CSV and using each comma separated value in this line as a dictionary key.
The columns in each subsequent row then behave like dictionary values and can be accessed
with the appropriate key (i.e. fieldname).
If the first row of your CSV does not contain your column names, you can pass a
fieldnames parameter into the DictReader’s constructor to assign the dictionary keys manually.
The main difference between the csv.reader() and DictReader() is in simple terms csv.
reader and csv.writer work with list/tuple, while csv.DictReader and csv.DictWriter work with
dictionary. csv.DictReader and csv.DictWriter take additional argument fieldnames that are
used as dictionary keys.
For Example Reading “sample8.csv” file into a dictionary
import csv
filename = ‘c:\pyprg\sample8.csv’
input_file =csv.DictReader(open(filename,’r’))
for row in input_file:
print(dict(row)) #dict() to print data

OUTPUT
{‘ItemName ‘: ‘Keyboard ‘, ‘Quantity’: ‘48’}
{‘ItemName ‘: ‘Monitor’, ‘Quantity’: ‘52’}
{‘ItemName ‘: ‘Mouse ‘, ‘Quantity’: ‘20’}

In the above program, DictReader() is used to read “sample8.csv” file and map into
a dictionary. Then, the function dict() is used to print the data in dictionary format without
order.
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Remove the dict() function from the above program and use print(row).Check
you are getting the following output
OrderedDict([(‘ItemName ‘, ‘Keyboard ‘), (‘Quantity’, ‘48’)])
OrderedDict([(‘ItemName ‘, ‘Monitor’), (‘Quantity’, ‘52’)])
OrderedDict([(‘ItemName ‘, ‘Mouse ‘), (‘Quantity’, ‘20’)])

13.6.7 Reading CSV File With User Defined Delimiter Into A Dictionary
You can also register new dialects and use it in the DictReader() methods. Suppose
“sample8.csv” is in the following format
ItemName|Quantity
Keyboard|48
Monitor|52
Mouse|20
Then “sample8.csv” can be read into a dictionary by registering a new dialect

import csv
csv.register_dialect(‘myDialect’,delimiter = ‘|’,skipinitialspace=True)
filename = ‘c:\pyprg\ch13\sample8.csv’
with open(filename, ‘r’, newline‘=’) as csvfile:
reader = csv.DictReader(csvfile, dialect=’myDialect’)
for row in reader:
print(dict(row))
csvfile.close()

OUTPUT
{‘ItemName’:‘Keyboard’,‘Quantity’: 48}
{‘ItemName’ :‘Monitor’:‘Quantity’:52}
{‘ItemName’: ‘Mouse’:‘Quantity’: 20}

Note
DictReader() gives OrderedDict by default in its output. An OrderedDict is a
dictionary subclass which saves the order in which its contents are added. To remove the
OrderedDict use dict().

13.7 Writing Data Into Different Types in Csv Files

As you know Python provides an easy way to work with CSV file and has csv module
to read and write data in the csv file. In the previous topics, You have learned how to read CSV
files in Python. In similar way, You can also write a new or edit an existing CSV files in Python.
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Creating A New Normal CSV File

1

Modifying An Existing File

2

Writing On A CSV File with Quotes

3

Writing On A CSV File with Custom Delimiters

4

Writing On A CSV File with Lineterminator

5

Writing On A CSV File with Quotechars

6

Writing CSV File Into A Dictionary

7

Getting Data At Runtime And Writing In a File

8

13.7.1 Creating A New Normal CSV File

When you have a set of data that you would like to store inside a CSV file, it’s time to do
the opposite and use the writer function.

The csv.writer() function returns a writer object which converts the user’s data into
delimited strings on the given file-like object. The writerow() function writes a row of data
into the specified file.
The syntax for csv.writer() is

csv.writer(fileobject,delimiter,fmtparams)

where
fileobject :- passes the path and the mode of the file
delimiter :- an optional parameter containing the standard dilects like , | etc can
be omitted
fmtparams : optional parameter which help to override the default values of the
dialects like skipinitialspace,quoting etc. can be omitted

You can create a normal CSV file using writer() function of csv module having
default delimiter comma (,)
Here’s an example.
The following Python program converts a List of data to a CSV file called “Pupil.csv”
that uses, (comma) as a value separator.

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Import csv
csvData = [[‘Student’, ‘Age’], [‘Dhanush’, ‘17’], [‘Kalyani’, ‘18’], [‘Ram’, ‘15’]]
with open(‘c:\pyprg\ch13\Pupil.csv’, ‘w’, newline‘=’) as CF:
writer = csv.writer(CF) # CF is the file object
writer.writerows(csvData) # csvData is the List name
CF.close()

When you open the “Pupil.csv” file with a text editor, it will show the content as
follows.
Student, Age
Dhanush, 17
Kalyani, 18
Ram, 15

In the above program, csv.writer() function converts all the data in the list “csvData” to
strings and create the content as file like object. The writerows () function writes all the data in
to the new CSV file “Pupil.csv”.

Note
The writerow() function writes one row at a time. If you need to write all the data at
once you can use writerows() method.

13.7.2 Modifying An Existing File

Making some changes in the data of the existing file or adding more data is called
modification .For example the “student.csv” file contains the following data.
Roll No, Name, City
1, Harshini, Chennai
2, Adhith, Mumbai
3, Dhuruv, Bangalore
4, Krishna, Tiruchy
5, Venkat, Madurai

The following program modify the “student.csv” file by modifying the value of an
existing row in student.csv

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import csv
row = [‘3’, ‘Meena’,’Bangalore’]
with open(‘student.csv’, ‘r’, newline‘=’) as readFile:
reader = csv.reader(readFile)
lines = list(reader) # list()- to store each row of data as a list
lines[3] = row
with open(‘student.csv’, ‘w’) as writeFile:
# returns the writer object which converts the user data with delimiter
writer = csv.writer(writeFile)
#writerows()method writes multiple rows to a csv file
writer.writerows(lines)
readFile.close()
writeFile.close()

When we open the student.csv file with text editor, then it will show:

Roll No, Name, City

1, Harshini, Chennai

2, Adhith, Mumbai

3, Meena, Bangalore

4, Krishna, Tiruchy

5, Venkat, Madurai

In the above program,the third row of “student.csv” is modified and saved. First the
“student.csv” file is read by using csv.reader() function. Then, the list() stores each row of the
file. The statement “lines[3] = row”, changed the third row of the file with the new content in
“row”. The file object writer using writerows (lines) writes the values of the list to “student.csv”
file.

13.7.2.1 ADDING NEW ROW

Sometimes, you may need to add new rows in the existing CSVfile. Adding a new row
at the end of the file is called appending a row.
The following program add a new row to the existing “student.csv” file.

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import csv
row = [‘6’, ‘Sajini ‘, ‘Madurai’]
with open(‘student.csv’, ‘a’, newline‘=’) as CF: # append mode to add data at the end
writer = csv.writer(CF)
writer.writerow(row) # writerow() method write a single row of data in file
CF.close()

When “student.csv” file is opened with a text editor, it displays as follows

Roll No, Name, City

1, Harshini, Chennai

2, Adhith, Mumbai

3, Meena, Bangalore

4, Krishna, Tiruchy

5, Venkat, Madurai

6, Sajini, Madurai

In the above program, a new row is appended into “student.csv”. For this, purpose only
the CSV file is opened in ‘a’ append mode. Append mode write the value of row after the last
line of the “student.csv file.”

The ‘w’ write mode creates a new file. If the file is already existing ‘w’ mode
over writs it. Where as ‘a’ append mode add the data at the end of the file if the file
already exists otherwise creates a new one

Note
writerow() takes 1-dimensional data (one row), and writerows takes 2-dimensional
data (multiple rows) to write in a file.

13.7.3 CSV Files With Quotes

You can write the csv file with quotes, by registering new dialects using
csv.register_dialect() class of csv module. The following program explains this.

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import csv
info = [[‘SNO’, ‘Person’, ‘DOB’],
[‘1’, ‘Madhu’, ‘18/12/2001’],
[‘2’, ‘Sowmya’,’19/2/1998’],
[‘3’, ‘Sangeetha’,’20/3/1999’],
[‘4’, ‘Eshwar’, ‘21/4/2000’],
[‘5’, ‘Anand’, ‘22/5/2001’]]
csv.register_dialect(‘myDialect’,quoting=csv.QUOTE_ALL)
with open(‘c:\pyprg\ch13\person.csv’, ‘w’, newline‘=’) as f:
writer = csv.writer(f, dialect=’myDialect’)
for row in info:
writer.writerow(row)
f.close()
When you open “person.csv” file, we get following output :
“SNO”,”Person”,”DOB”
”1”,”Madhu”,”18/12/2001”
”2”,”Sowmya”,”19/2/1998”
”3”,”Sangeetha”,”20/3/1999”
”4”,”Eshwar”,”21/4/2000”
“5”,”Anand”,”22/5/2001”
In above program, a dialect named myDialect is registered(declared). Quoting=csv.
QUOTE_ALL allows to write the double quote on all the values.
13.7.4 CSV Files With Custom Delimiters
A delimiter is a string used to separate fields. The default value is comma(,).
You can have custom delimiter in CSV files by registering a new dialect with the help of
csv.register_dialect().This example Program is written using the custom delimiter pipe(|)

import csv
info = [[‘SNO’, ‘Person’, ‘DOB’],
[‘1’, ‘Madhu’, ‘18/12/2001’],
[‘2’, ‘Sowmya’,’19/2/1998’],
[‘3’, ‘Sangeetha’,’20/3/1999’],
[‘4’, ‘Eshwar’, ‘21/4/2000’],
[‘5’, ‘Anand’, ‘22/5/2001’]]
csv.register_dialect(‘myDialect’,delimiter = ‘|’)
with open(‘c:\pyprg\ch13\dob.csv’, ‘w’, newline‘=’) as f:
writer = csv.writer(f, dialect=’myDialect’)
for row in info:
writer.writerow(row)
f.close()

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When we open “dob.csv” file, we get the following output:

SNO|Person|DOB
1|Madhu|18/12/2001
2|Sowmya|19/2/1998
3|Sangeetha|20/3/1999
4|Eshwar|21/4/2000
5|Anand|22/5/2001
In the above program, a dialect with delimiter as pipe(|)is registered. Then the list “info”
is written into the CSV file “dob.csv”.

Note
The dialect parameter skipinitialspace when it is True, whitespace immediately following
the delimiter is ignored. The default is False.

13.7.5 CSV File With A Line Terminator

A Line Terminator is a string used to terminate lines produced by writer. The default
value is \r or \n. We can write csv file with a line terminator in Python by registering new
dialects using csv.register_dialect() class of csv module. For Example

import csv
Data = [[‘Fruit’, ‘Quantity’], [‘Apple’, ‘5’], [‘Banana’, ‘7’], [‘Mango’, ‘8’]]
csv.register_dialect(‘myDialect’, delimiter = ‘|’, lineterminator = ‘\n’)
with open(‘c:\pyprg\ch13\line.csv’, ‘w’, newline‘=’) as f:
writer = csv.writer(f, dialect=’myDialect’)
writer.writerows(Data)
f.close()

When we open the line.csv file, we get following output with spacing between lines:

Fruit|Quantity
Apple|5
Banana|7
Mango|8

In the above code, the new dialect “myDialect uses the delimiter=’|’ where a | (pipe)
is considered as column separator. The line terminator=’\r\n\r\n’ separates each row and
displays the data after one blank line in Notepad.

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Note
Python’s CSV module only accepts \r\n, \n or \r as line terminator

13.7.6 CSV File with quote characters

You can write the CSV file with custom quote characters, by registering new dialects
using csv.register_dialect() class of csv module.

import csv
csvData = [[‘SNO’,’Items’], [‘1’,’Pen’], [‘2’,’Book’], [‘3’,’Pencil’]]
csv.register_dialect(‘myDialect’,delimiter = ‘|’,quotechar = ‘”’,
quoting=csv.QUOTE_ALL)
with open(‘c:\pyprg\ch13\quote.csv’, ‘w’, newline‘=’) as csvFile:
writer = csv.writer(csvFile, dialect=’myDialect’)
writer.writerows(csvData)
print(“writing completed”)
csvFile.close()

When you open the “quote.csv” file in notepad, we get following output:
“SNO”|“Items”
“1”|“Pen”
“2”|“Book”
“3”|“Pencil”
In the above program, myDialect uses pipe (|) as delimiter and quotechar as doublequote
‘”’ to write inside the file.
13.7.7 Writing CSV File Into A Dictionary
Using DictWriter() class of csv module, we can write a csv file into a dictionary. It
creates an object which maps data into a dictionary. The keys are given by the fieldnames
parameter. The following program helps to write the dictionary in to file.

import csv
data = [{‘MOUNTAIN’ : ‘Everest’, ‘HEIGHT’: ‘8848’},
{‘MOUNTAIN’ : ‘Anamudi ‘, ‘HEIGHT’: ‘2695’},
{‘MOUNTAIN’ : ‘Kanchenjunga’, ‘HEIGHT’: ‘8586’}]
with open(‘c:\pyprg\ch13\peak.csv’, ‘w’, newline‘=’) as CF:
fields = [‘MOUNTAIN’, ‘HEIGHT’]
w = csv.DictWriter(CF, fieldnames=fields)
w.writeheader()
w.writerows(data)
print(“writing completed”)
CF.close()

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When you open the “peak.csv” file in notepad, you get the following output:

MOUNTAIN,HEIGHT
Everest,8848
Anamudi,2695
Kanchenjunga,8586
In the above program, use fieldnames as headings of each column in csv file. Then, use
a DictWriter() to write dictionary data into “peak.csv” file.
13.7.7.1 Writing Dictionary Into CSV File With Custom Dialects
import csv
csv.register_dialect(‘myDialect’, delimiter = ‘|’, quoting=csv.QUOTE_ALL)
with open(‘c:\pyprg\ch13\grade.csv’, ‘w’, newline‘=’) as csvfile:
fieldnames = [‘Name’, ‘Grade’]
writer = csv.DictWriter(csvfile, fieldnames=fieldnames, dialect=”myDialect”)
writer.writeheader()
writer.writerows([{‘Grade’: ‘B’, ‘Name’: ‘Anu’},
{‘Grade’: ‘A’, ‘Name’: ‘Beena’},
{‘Grade’: ‘C’, ‘Name’: ‘Tarun’}])
print(“writing completed”)

When we open grade.csv file, it will contain following output:

“Name”|”Grade”
”Anu”|”B”
”Beena”|”A”
“Tarun”|”C”

In the above program, a custom dialect called myDialect with pipe (|) as delimiter uses
the fieldnames as headings of each column to write in a csv file. Finally, we use a DictWriter()
to write dictionary data into “grade.csv” file.

13.7.8 Getting Data At Runtime And Writing It In a CSV File

You can even accept the data through keyboard and write in to a CSV file. For example
the following program accept data from the user through key board and stores it in the file
called “dynamicfile.csv”. It also displays the content of the file.

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import csv
with open(‘c:\pyprg\ch13\dynamicfile.csv’, ‘w’, newline‘=’) as f:
w = csv.writer(f)
ans=’y’
while (ans==’y’):
name = input(“Name?: “)
date = input(“Date of birth: “)
place = input(“Place: “)
w.writerow([name, date, place])
ans=input(“Do you want to enter more y/n?: “)
F=open(‘c:\pyprg\ch13\dynamicfile.csv’,’r’)
reader = csv.reader(F)
for row in reader:
print(row)
F.close()

OUTPUT
Name?: Nivethitha
Date of birth: 12/12/2001
Place: Chennai
Do you want to enter more y/n?: y
Name?: Leena
Date of birth: 15/10/2001
Place: Nagercoil
Do you want to enter more y/n?: y
Name?: Padma
Date of birth: 18/08/2001
Place: Kumbakonam
Do you want to enter more y/n?: n
[‘Nivethitha’, ‘12/12/2001’, ‘Chennai’]
[]
[‘Leena’, ‘15/10/2001’, ‘Nagercoil’]
[]
[‘Padma’, ‘18/08/2001’, ‘Kumbakonam’]

MS Excel output
H8 fx
>

A B C
1 Nivethitha 12/12/2001 Chennai
2
3 Leena 15/10/2001 Nagercoil
4
5 Padma 18/08/2001 Kumbakonam
6

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Points to remember:
• A CSV file is a human readable text file where each line has a number of fields, separated
by commas or some other delimiter
• Excel is a binary file whereas CSV format is a plain text format
• The two ways to read a CSV file are using csv.reader() function and using DictReader
class.
• The default mode of csv file in reading and writing is text mode
• Binary mode can be be used when dealing with non-text files like image or exe files.
• Python has a garbage collector to clean up unreferenced objects
• close() method will free up the resources that were tied with the file
• By default CSV files should open automatically in Excel
• The CSV library contains objects and other code to read, write, and process data from
and to CSV files.
• “skipinitialspace” is used for removing whitespaces after the delimiter
• To sort by more than one column operator.itemgetter() can be used
• DictReader() class of csv module creates an object which maps data to a dictionary
• CSV file having custom delimiter is read with the help of csv.register_dialect().
• To sort by more than one column itemgetter() with multiple indices is used.
• csv.reader and csv.writer work with list/tuple, while csv.DictReader and csv.DictWriter
work with dictionary .
• csv.DictReader and csv.DictWriter take additional argument fieldnames that are used
as dictionary keys.
• The function dict() is used to print the data in dictionary format with order.
• The csv.writer() function returns a writer object which converts the user’s data into
delimited strings.
• The writerow() function writes one row at a time. Writerows() method is used to write
all the data at once
• Adding a new row at the end of the file is called appending a row.

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Hands on Experience
1. Write a Python program to read the following Namelist.csv file and sort the data in
alphabetically order of names in a list and display the output

A B C
1 SNO NAME OCCUPATION
2 1 NIVETHITHA ENGINEER
3 2 ADHITH DOCTOR
4 3 LAVANYA SINGER
5 4 VIDHYA TEACHER
6 5 BINDHU LECTURER

2. Write a Python program to accept the name and five subjects mark of 5 students .Find
the total and store all the details of the students in a CSV file

Evaluation

Part - I

Choose the best answer (1 Mark)

1. A CSV file is also known as a ….
(A) Flat File (B) 3D File
(C) String File (D) Random File
2. The expansion of CRLF is
(A) Control Return and Line Feed
(B) Carriage Return and Form Feed
(C) Control Router and Line Feed
(D) Carriage Return and Line Feed
3. Which of the following module is provided by Python to do several operations on the
CSV files?
(A) py (B) xls (C) csv (D) os
4. Which of the following mode is used when dealing with non-text files like image or exe
files?
(A) Text mode (B) Binary mode (C) xls mode (D) csv mode
5. The command used to skip a row in a CSV file is
(A) next() (B) skip() (C) omit() (D) bounce()

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6. Which of the following is a string used to terminate lines produced by writer()method of

csv module?
(A) Line Terminator (B) Enter key
(C) Form feed (D) Data Terminator
7. What is the output of the following program? import csv
d=csv.reader(open('c:\PYPRG\ch13\city.csv'))
next(d)
for row in d:
print(row)
if the file called “city.csv” contain the following details

chennai,mylapore

mumbai,andheri

A) chennai,mylapore (B) mumbai,andheri

(C) chennai (D) chennai,mylapore
mumba mumbai,andheri
8. Which of the following creates an object which maps data to a dictionary?
(A) listreader() (B) reader() (C) tuplereader() (D) DictReader ()
9. Making some changes in the data of the existing file or adding more data is called
(A)Editing (B) Appending
(C)Modification (D) Alteration
10. What will be written inside the file test.csv using the following program
import csv
D = [['Exam'],['Quarterly'],['Halfyearly']]
csv.register_dialect('M',lineterminator = '\n')
with open('c:\pyprg\ch13\line2.csv', 'w') as f:
wr = csv.writer(f,dialect='M')
wr.writerows(D)
f.close()
(A) Exam Quarterly Halfyearly (B) Exam Quarterly Halfyearly
(C) E (D) Exam,
Q Quarterly,
H Halfyearly

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Part - II

Answer the following questions (2 Marks)

1. What is CSV File?
2. Mention the two ways to read a CSV file using Python.
3. Mention the default modes of the File.
4. What is use of next() function?
5. How will you sort more than one column from a csv file?Give an example statement.

Part - III

Answer the following questions (3 Marks)

1. Write a note on open() function of python. What is the difference between the two
methods?
2. Write a Python program to modify an existing file.
3. Write a Python program to read a CSV file with default delimiter comma (,).
4. What is the difference between the write mode and append mode.
5. What is the difference between reader()method and DictReader() class?

Part - IV

Answer the following questions (5 Marks)

1. Differentiate Excel file and CSV file.
2. Tabulate the different mode with its meaning.
3. Write the different methods to read a File in Python.
4. Write a Python program to write a CSV File with custom quotes.
5. Write the rules to be followed to format the data in a CSV file.

REFERENCES
1. Python for Data Analysis, Data Wrangling with Pandas, NumPy, and IPython By
William McKinney
2. CSV File Reading and Writing - Python 3.7.0 documentation
3. https://docs.python.org

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CHAPTER 14
Unit V
IMPORTING C++ PROGRAMS IN PYTHON

Learning Objectives

After the completion of this chapter, the student will be able to

• Understand what is wrapping
• Able to import C++ functions and classes in to Python programs
• Create environment to work with both languages
• Execute and debug Python programs

14.1 Introduction
Python and C++ are general-purpose programming language. However, Python is
quite different from C++.

S.NO PYTHON C++

1 Python is typically an "interpreted" C++ is typically a "compiled"

language language

2 Python is a dynamic-typed C++ is compiled statically typed

language language

3 Data type is not required while Data type is required while

declaring variable declaring variable

4 It can act both as scripting and general It is a general purpose language

purpose language

Yet these two languages complement one another perfectly. Python is mostly used as a
scripting or "glue", language. That is, the top level program mostly calls routines written in C
or C++. This is useful when the logic can be written in terms of existing code (For example a
program written in C++) but can be called and manipulated through Python program.

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14.2 Scripting Language

A scripting language is a programming language designed for integrating and
communicating with other programming languages. Some of the most widely used scripting
languages are JavaScript, VBScript, PHP, Perl, Python, Ruby, ASP and Tcl. Since a scripting
language is normally used in conjunction with another programming language, they are often
found alongside HTML, Java or C++.
14.2.1 Difference between Scripting and Programming Languages
Scripting Language and Programming Language looks like the following picture.

9
6

Basically, all scripting languages are programming languages. The theoretical difference
between the two is that scripting languages do not require the compilation step and are rather
interpreted. For example, normally, a C++ program needs to be compiled before running
whereas, a scripting language like JavaScript or Python need not be compiled. A scripting
language requires an interpreter while a programming language requires a compiler. A given
language can be called as a scripting or programming language depending on the environment
they are put to use.

14.3 Applications of Scripting Languages

1. To automate certain tasks in a program

2. Extracting information from a data set
3. Less code intensive as compared to traditional programming language
4. can bring new functions to applications and glue complex systems together
Python is actually an interpreted, high-level, general-purpose programming language
that can be used on any modern computer operating system. It can be used for processing text,
numbers, images, scientific data and just about anything else you might save on a computer.
Now a days, large applications are written almost exclusively in Python.

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14.4 Features of Python over C++

• Python uses Automatic Garbage Collection whereas C++ does not.

• C++ is a statically typed language, while Python is a dynamically typed language.
• Python runs through an interpreter, while C++ is pre-compiled.
• Python code tends to be 5 to 10 times shorter than that written in C++.
• In Python, there is no need to declare types explicitly where as it should be done in C++
• In Python, a function may accept an argument of any type, and return multiple values
without any kind of declaration beforehand. Whereas in C++ return statement can return
only one value.

Note
Python deletes unwanted objects (built-in types or class instances) automatically
to free the memory space. The process by which Python periodically frees and reclaims
blocks of memory that no longer are in use is called Garbage Collection.

14.5 Importing C++ Files in Python

Importing C++ program in a Python program is called wrapping up of C++ in Python.

Wrapping or creating Python interfaces for C++ programs are done in many ways. The
commonly used interfaces are
• Python-C-API (API-Application Programming Interface for interfacing with C
programs)
• Ctypes (for interfacing with c programs)
• SWIG (Simplified Wrapper Interface Generator- Both C and C++)
• Cython (Cython is both a Python-like language for writing
C-extensions)
• Boost. Python (a framework for interfacing Python and C++)
• MinGW (Minimalist GNU for Windows)

14.5.1 MinGW Interface

MinGW refers to a set of runtime header files, used in compiling and linking the code
of C, C++ and FORTRAN to be run on Windows Operating System.
MinGw-W64 (version of MinGW) is the best compiler for C++ on Windows. To compile
and execute the C++ program, you need ‘g++’ for Windows. MinGW allows to compile and
execute C++ program dynamically through Python program using g++.

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Python program that contains the C++ coding can be executed through either by using
command prompt or by using run terminal.

g++ is a program that calls GCC (GNU C Compiler) and automatically links the
required C++ library files to the object code.

Refer installation of MinGW in Annexure -2

14.5.2 Executing C++ Program through Python

1. Double click on the command prompt or the run terminal.

c:\>
c:\>python
Python 2. 7. 6 <default. Dec 11 2017 16:54:32> [Msc v.1500 32 bit <Intel>] On win 32
Type "help", "copyright", "credits" or "license" for more information
>>>

Figure 14.1
2. In the figure 14.1 the prompt shows the "C:\>”. See that highlighted area in the above
window. To change a directory 'cd' command is used. For example to goto the directory pyprg,
type the command 'cd pyprg' in the command prompt.
Consider the Example pycpp.py is a Python program which will read the C++program
Pali.cpp. The “Pali.cpp” program accepts a number and display whether it is a “Palindrome or
Not”. For example the entered input number is 232 the output displayed will be “Palindrome”.
The C++ program Pali is typed in notepad and saved as pali.cpp. Same way the Python
program pycpp.py code is also typed in notepad and saved as pycpp.py.

3. To execute our program double click the run terminal change the path to the Python
folder location. The syntax to execute the Python program is

Python <filename.py> -i <C++ filename without cpp extension>

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Where,

Python keyword to execute the Python program from command-

line

filename.py Name of the Python program to executed

-i input mode

C++ filename without name of C++ file to be compiled and executed

cpp extension

For example type Python pycpp.py –i pali in the command prompt and press enter key.
If the compilation is successful you will get the desired output. Otherwise the error will be
displayed.

Note
In the execution command, the input file doesn’t require its extension. For
example, it is enough to mention just the name “pali” instead of “pali.cpp”.

Now let us will see the execution through our example pycpp.py and pali.cpp. These
two programs are stored in the folder c:\pyprg. If the programs are not located in same folder
then the complete path must be specified for the files during execution. The output is displayed
below

C:\Program Files\migw-w64\i686-8.1.0-posix-dwarf-rt_v6-rev0>echo off

Microsoft windows [Version 6.1.7601]
copy right <c> 2009 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

C:\>cd Pyprg

C:\Pyprg> Python c:\pyprg\pycpp.py-i c:\pyprg\pali

Enter apositive number:232
The reverse of the number is:232
The number is a palindrome

C:\Pyprg> Python c:\pyprg\pycpp.py -i c:\pyprg\pali

Enter a positive number:234
The reverse of the number is:432
The number is not a palindrome

C:\Pyprg>

Fig 14.2

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Note
To clear the screen in command window use cls command

Now let us will see how to write the Python program for compiling C++ code.
14.6 Python Program to import C++

Python contains many modules. For a problem Python allow programmers to have the
flexibility in using different module as per their convenience. The Python program what we
have written contains a few new commands which we have not come across in basic Python
program. Since our program is an integration of two different languages, we have to import the
modules like os, sys and getopt.
14.6.1 MODULE
Modular programming is a software design technique to split your code into separate
parts. These parts are called modules. The focus for this separation should have modules with no
or just few dependencies upon other modules. In other words: Minimization of dependencies
is the goal.
But how do we create modules in Python? Modules refer to a file containing Python
statements and definitions. A file containing Python code, for e.g. factorial.py, is called a
module and its function name would be fact (). We use modules to break down large programs
into small manageable and organized program. Furthermore, modules provide reusability of
code. We can define our most used functions in a module and import it, instead of copying
their definitions into different programs.

Example:
def fact(n):
f=1
if n == 0:
return 0
elif n == 1:
return 1
else:
for i in range(1, n+1):
f= f*i
print (f)
Output:
>>>fact (5)
120

The above example is named as factorial.py

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14.6.2 How to import modules in Python?

We can import the definitions inside a module to another module. We use the import
keyword to do this. To import our previously defined module factorial we type the following
in the Python prompt.
>>> import factorial
Using the module name we can access the functions defined inside the module. The
dot (.) operator is used to access the functions. The syntax for accessing the functions from
the module is
<module name> . <function name>

For example:
>>> factorial.fact(5)
120

factorial . fact (5)

Function call

Dot operator
Module name
Python has number of standard (built in) modules. Standard modules can be imported
the same way as we import our user-defined modules. We are now going to see the Standard
modules which are required for our program to run C++ code.
14.6.2.1 Python’s sys module
This module provides access to builtin variables used by the interpreter. One among the
variable in sys module is argv
sys.argv
sys.argv is the list of command-line arguments passed to the Python program. argv
contains all the items that come via the command-line input, it's basically a list holding the
command-line arguments of the program.
To use sys.argv, import sys should be used. The first argument, sys.argv[0] contains the
name of the python program (example pali.py) and sys.argv [1]is the next argument passed to
the program (here it is the C++ file), which will be the argument passed through main (). For
example

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main(sys.argv[1]) The input file (C++ file) is send along with its path as a list(array)
using argv[1]. argv[0] contains the Python program which need
not be passed because by default __main__ contains source code
reference.

14.6.2.2 Python's OS Module

The OS module in Python provides a way of using operating system dependent
functionality.
The functions that the OS module allows you to interface with the Windows operating
system where Python is running on.
os.system(): Execute the C++ compiling command (a string contains Unix, C command
which also supports C++ command) in the shell (Here it is Command Window). For Example
to compile C++ program g++ compiler should be invoked. To do so the following command
is used.

os.system (‘g++ ’ + <variable_name1> +‘ -<mode> ’ + <variable_name2>)

where each argument contains

function system() defined in os module to interact with the

os.system :-
operating system

General compiler to compile C++ program under Windows

g++ :-
Operating system.

Name of the C++ file along with its path and without extension
variable_name1:-
in string format

To specify input or output mode. Here it is o prefixed with

mode :-
hyphen.

variable_name2 :- Name of the executable file without extension in string format

For example the command to compile and execute C++ program is given below

g++ compiler compiles the file cpp_file and –o

os.system('g++ ' + cpp_file + ' -o ' + exe_file)
(output) send to exe_file

Note
‘+’ in os.system() indicates that all strings are concatenated as a single
string Therfore give a space after each word for the above argument. For example
'g++ ' + cpp_file + ' -o ' + exe_file

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14.6.2.3.3 Python getopt module

The getopt module of Python helps you to parse (split) command-line options and
arguments. This module provides getopt() method to enable command-line argument parsing.
getopt.getopt function
This function parses command-line options and parameter list. Following is the syntax
for this method −
<opts>,<args>=getopt.getopt(argv, options, [long_options])

Here is the detail of the parameters −

argv − This is the argument list of values to be parsed (splited). In our
program the complete command will be passed as a list. For example
c:\pyprg\pali.py -i c:\pyprg\pali_cpp
options − This is string of option letters that the Python program recognize as, for input or for
output, with options (like ‘i’ or ‘o’) that followed by a colon (:). Here colon is used
to denote the mode.
long_options −This contains a list of strings. Argument of Long options should be followed
by an equal sign '='. In our program the C++ file name along with its path
will be passed as string and ‘i’ i will be also passed to indicate it as the input
file.
getopt() method returns value consisting of two elements. Each of these values are
stored separately in two different list (arrays) opts and args .Opts contains list of splitted strings
like mode and path. args contains error string, if at all the comment is given with wrong path
or mode. args will be an empty list if there is no error.
For example The Python code which is going to execute the C++ file p4 in command
line will have the getopt() method like the following one.
opts, args = getopt.getopt (argv, "i:",['ifile='])

where opts contains [('-i', 'c:\\pyprg\\p4')]

-i :- option - mode should be followed by : (colon)

'c:\\pyprg\\p4' value - absolute path of C++ file.

In our examples since the entire command line commands are parsed and no leftover
argument, the second argument args will be empty []. If args is displayed using print()
command it displays the output as [].

>>>print(args)
[]

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Note
You can check out the full list of Python standard modules and what they are
for. These files are in the Lib directory inside the location where Python is installed.

Some more command for wrapping C++ code

if __name__=='__main__':
main(sys.argv[1:])

__name__ (A Special variable) in Python

Since there is no main() function in Python, when the command to run a Python
program is given to the interpreter, the code that is at level 0 indentation (top must line of
the program) is to be executed. However, before doing that, interpreter will define a few
special variables. __name__ is one such special variable which by default stores the name
of the Python file. If the source file is executed as the main program, the interpreter sets the
__name__ variable to have a value “__main__”.
__name__ is a built-in variable which evaluates to the name of the current module.
Thus it can be used to check whether the current script is being run on its own.
For example consider the following

if __name__ == '__main__':
main (sys.argv[1:])

If the command line Python program itself is going to execute first, then __name__
contains the string " __main__". The condition if " __main__"==" __main__": is true then the
main function is called.

Note
sys.argv[1:] - get everything after the script name(file name).
sys.argv[0] is the script name (python program)
Remember “string slicing” you have studied in chapter 8.

14.7 Python program Executing C++ Program using control statement

Now let us write a Python program to read a C++ coding and execute its result. The steps
for executing the C++ program to check a given number is palindrome or not is given below

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Type the C++ program to check whether the input number is

Step 1 palindrome or not in notepad and save it as “pali_cpp.cpp”.

Type the Python program and save it as pali.py

Step 2

Click the Run Terminal and open the command window

Step 3

Type the command Python pali.py -i pali_cpp

Step 4

Example:- 14.7.1 - Write a C++ program to enter any number and check
whether the number is palindrome or not using while loop.
/*. To check whether the number is palindrome or not using while loop.*/
//Now select File->New in Notepad and type the C++ program
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int main()
{
int n, num, digit, rev = 0;
cout<< "Enter a positive number: ";
cin>>num;
n = num;
while(num)
{
digit = num % 10;
rev = (rev * 10) + digit;
num = num / 10;
}
cout<< " The reverse of the number is: " << rev <<endl;
if (n == rev)
cout<< " The number is a palindrome";
else
cout<< " The number is not a palindrome";
return 0;
}
// Save this file as pali_cpp.cpp

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#Now select File→New in Notepad and type the Python program

# Save the File as pali.py . Program that compiles and executes a .cpp file
# Python c:\pyprg\pali.py -i c:\pyprg\pali_cpp
import sys, os, getopt
def main(argv):
opts, args = getopt.getopt(argv, "i:")
for o, a in opts:
if o in "-i":
run(a)

def run(a):
inp_file=a+'.cpp'
exe_file=a+'.exe'
os.system('g++ ' + inp_file + ' -o ' + exe_file)
os.system(exe_file)
if __name__=='__main__':
main(sys.argv[1:])

Output of the above program

Output 1
C:\Users\Dell>python c:\pyprg\pali.py -i c:\pyprg\pali_cpp
Enter a positive number: 56765
The reverse of the number is: 56765
The number is a palindrome

Output 2
C:\Users\Dell>python c:\pyprg\pali.py -i c:\pyprg\pali_cpp
Enter a positive number: 56756
The reverse of the number is: 65765
The number is not a palindrome

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Python code How does it works

import sys, os, getopt include sys , os and getopt modules to
use the required function
def main(argv): Function main() is defined and 'argv'
contains the 'input mode and the c++
program file' in the form of list i.e ['-i',
'c:\ pyprg \pali_cpp']
opts, args = getopt.getopt(argv, "i:") getopt() splits the command as option
and argument. ‘opts’ contains
[('-i', 'c:\pyprg\pali_cpp')]. Since no error
‘args’ shows []
for o, a in opts: ‘o’ contains the mode and ‘a’ contains the
path of c++ program i.e
print("o = ",o) shows o = -i
print("a = ",a) shows a = c:\pyprg\pali_cpp
if o in ("-i"): Checks o == ‘i’ if true
run(a) Calls the function run() passed along
with the c++ program
def run(a): Definition of run() function begins here
inp_file=a+'.cpp' Variable ‘inp_file’ contains the joined c++
program name and .cpp
print( inp_file) shows c:\pyprg\pali_cpp.cpp
exe_file=a+'.exe' Variable ’exe_file’ contains the joined c++
program name and .exe
print( exe_file) shows c:\pyprg\pali_cpp.exe
os.system('g++ ' + inp_file + ' -o ' + exe_file) g++ compiler compiles the c++ program
in inp_file and store the executable file in
exe_file
os.system(exe_file) Executes the exe file
if __name__=='__main__': __name__ stores name of the python
program
__ main__ also stores the name of the
python program.
main(sys.argv[1:]) If 'name' and 'main' are equal then main()
is called and passed with the command line
argument omitting the python program name
argv[1:] contains –i c:\pyprg\pali_cpp

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The Python script(program) is mainly used to read the C++ file along with the type
of mode like ‘i’/’o’. ‘getopt()’ Parses(splits) each value of the command line and passes the
options(values) as list to ‘opt’ and since no error ‘args’ generates empty list[]. Using ‘for loop’
the tuple in the list is unpacked - ‘o’ stores the mode and ‘a’ stores the name along with the path
of the c++ file.
The variable ‘inp_file’ store the c++ file along with its extension and ‘exe_file’ stores the
executable file with .exe extension. ‘+’ usd in this program helps to concatenate the file name
with the extensions. ‘os.system()’ along with ‘g++’ compiles the inp_file. Mode ‘o’ sends the
executable file to ‘exe_file’.
‘__name__’ variable directs the program to start from the beginning of the Python
script(zero’th line) The “main()” definition does the Parsing and calling the run(). The “run()”
invoke the “g++” compiler and creates the exe file. The system() of “os” module executes the
.exe file and the desired output will be displayed on the output screen. The file extensions are
added by the Python script so it is even possible to execute C programs.

14.8 How Python is handling the errors in C++

Python not only execute the successful C++ program, it also helps to display even errors
if any in C++ statement during compilation. For example in the following C++ program an
error is there. Let us see what happens when you compile through Python.
Example 14.8.1
// C++ program to print the message Hello
//Now select File→New in Notepad and type the C++ program
#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main()
{
std::cout<<"hello"
return 0;
}
// Save this file as hello.cpp
# Now select File→New in Notepad and type the Python program as main.py
# Program that compiles and executes a .cpp file
# Python main.py -i hello
import sys, os, getopt
def main(argv):
opts, args = getopt.getopt(argv, "i:")
for o, a in opts:
if o in "-i":
run(a)

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def run(a):
inp_file=a+'.cpp'
exe_file=a+'.exe'
os.system('g++ ' + inp_file + ' -o ' + exe_file)
os.system(exe_file)
if __name__=='__main__':
main(sys.argv[1:])

Output of the above program

C:\Users\Dell>python c:\pyprg\main.py -i c:\pyprg\hello
c:\pyprg\hello.cpp: In function 'int main()':
c:\pyprg\hello.cpp:7:19: error: expected ';' before 'return'
std::cout<<"hello"
^
;
return 0;
~~~~~~
'c:\pyprg\hello.exe' is not recognized as an internal or external command,
operable program or batch file.

Note
In the above program Python helps to display the error in C++. The error is
displayed along with its line number. The line number starts from the beginning of
the C++ program

Points to remember:
• C++ is a compiler based language while Python is an interpreter based language.
• C++is compiled statically whereas Python is interpreted dynamically
• A static typed language like C++ requires the programmer to explicitly tell the
computer what “data type” each data value is going to use.
• A dynamic typed language like Python, doesn’t require the data type to be given
explicitly for the data. Python manipulate the variable based on the type of value.
• A scripting language is a programming language designed for integrating and
communicating with other programming languages
• MinGW refers to a set of runtime header files, used in compiling and linking the code
of C, C++ and FORTRAN to be run on Windows Operating System

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Points to remember:
• The dot (.) operator is used to access the functions of a imported module
• sys module provides access to some variables used by the interpreter and to functions
that interact with the interpreter
• OS module in Python provides a way of using operating system dependent functionality
• The getopt module of Python helps you to parse (split) command-line options and
arguments

Hands on Experience

1. Write a C++ program to create a class called Student with the following details
Protected member
Rno integer
Public members
void Readno(int); to accept roll number and assign to Rno
void Writeno(); To display Rno.
The class Test is derived Publically from the Student class contains the following details
Protected member
Mark1 float
Mark2 float
Public members
void Readmark(float, float); To accept mark1 and mark2
void Writemark(); To display the marks
Create a class called Sports with the following detail
Protected members
score integer
Public members
void Readscore(int); To accept the score
void Writescore(); To display the score
The class Result is derived Publically from Test and Sports class contains the following
details
Private member
Total float

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Public member
void display() assign the sum of mark1, mark2, score in total.
invokeWriteno(), Writemark() and Writescore(). Display the total also.
Save the C++ program in a file called hybrid. Write a python program to execute the
hybrid.cpp
2. Write a C++ program to print boundary elements of a matrix and name the file as Border.
cpp. Write a python program to execute the Border.cpp

Evaluation

Part - I

Choose the best answer (1 Mark)

1. Which of the following is not a scripting language?
(A) JavaScript (B) PHP
(C) Perl (D) HTML
2. Importing C++ program in a Python program is called
(A) wrapping (B) Downloading
(C) Interconnecting (D) Parsing

3. The expansion of API is

(A) Application Programming Interpreter
(B) Application Programming Interface
(C) Application Performing Interface
(D) Application Programming Interlink

4. A framework for interfacing Python and C++ is

(A) Ctypes (B) SWIG
(C) Cython (D) Boost

5. Which of the following is a software design technique to split your code into separate
parts?
(A) Object oriented Programming
(B) Modular programming
(C) Low Level Programming
(D) Procedure oriented Programming
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6. The module which allows you to interface with the Windows operating system is
(A) OS module      (B) sys module
(c) csv module      (d) getopt module
7. getopt() will return an empty array if there is no error in splitting strings to
(A) argv variable      (B) opt variable
(c)args variable     (d) ifile variable
8. Identify the function call statement in the following snippet.
if __name__ =='__main__':
main(sys.argv[1:])
(A) main(sys.argv[1:]) (B) __name__
(C) __main__ (D) argv
9. Which of the following can be used for processing text, numbers, images, and scientific
data?
(A) HTML (B) C
(C) C++ (D) PYTHON
10. What does __name__ contains ?
(A) c++ filename (B) main() name
(C) python filename (D) os module name

Part - II

Answer the following questions (2 Marks)

1. What is the theoretical difference between Scripting language and other programming
language?
2. Differentiate compiler and interpreter.
3. Write the expansion of (i) SWIG (ii) MinGW
4. What is the use of modules?
5. What is the use of cd command. Give an example.

Part - III

Answer the following questions (3 Marks)

1. Differentiate PYTHON and C++
2. What are the applications of scripting language?

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3. What is MinGW? What is its use?

4. Identify the module ,operator, definition name for the following
welcome.display()
5. What is sys.argv? What does it contain?

Part - IV

Answer the following questions (5 Marks)

1 Write any 5 features of Python.
2. Explain each word of the following command.
Python <filename.py> -<i> <C++ filename without cpp extension>
3. What is the purpose of sys,os,getopt module in Python.Explain
4. Write the syntax for getopt() and explain its arguments and return values
5. Write a Python program to execute the following c++ coding
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int main()
{ cout<<“WELCOME”;
return(0);
}
The above C++ program is saved in a file welcome.cpp

REFERENCES
1. Learn Python The Hard Way by Zed Shaw
2. Python Programming Advanced by Adam Stuart or Powerful Python by Aaron Maxwell
3. https://docs.python.org

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CHAPTER 15
Unit V
DATA MANIPULATION THROUGH SQL

Learning Objectives

After the completion of this chapter, the student will be able to write Python script to
• Create a table and to add new rows in the database.
• Update and Delete record in a table
• Query the table
• Write the Query in a CSV file

15.1 Introduction
A database is an organized collection of data. The term "database" can both refer to the
data themselves or to the database management system. The Database management system is
a application software for the interaction between users and the databases. Users don't have
to be human users. They can be other programs and applications as well. We will learn how
Python program can interact as a user of an SQL database.

15.2 SQLite
SQLite is a simple relational database system, which saves its data in regular data
files within internal memory of the computer. It is designed to be embedded in applications,
instead of using a separate database server program such as MySQLor Oracle. SQLite is fast,
rigorously tested, and flexible, making it easier to work. Python has a native library for SQLite.
To use SQLite,

import sqlite3
Step 1

Step 2 create a connection using connect () method and pass the name of the database File

Step 3
Set the cursor object cursor = connection. cursor ()

• Connecting to a database in step2 means passing the name of the database to be accessed.
If the database already exists the connection will open the same. Otherwise, Python will
open a new database file with the specified name.

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• Cursor in step 3: is a control structure used to traverse and fetch the records of the
database.
• Cursor has a major role in working with Python. All the commands will be executed
using cursor object only.
To create a table in the database, create an object and write the SQL command in it.
Example:- sql_comm = "SQL statement"

For executing the command use the cursor method and pass the required sql command
as a parameter. Many number of commands can be stored in the sql_comm and can be executed
one after other. Any changes made in the values of the record should be saved by the commend
"Commit" before closing the "Table connection".
15.3 Creating a Database using SQLite

The following example explains how a connection to be made to a database through

Python sqlite3
# Python code to demonstrate table creation and insertions with SQL
# importing module
import sqlite3
# connecting to the database
connection = sqlite3.connect ("Academy.db")
# cursor
cursor = connection.cursor()

In the above example a database with the name "Academy" would be created. It's
similar to the sql command "CREATE DATABASE Academy;" to SQL server."sqlite3.connect
('Academy.db')" is again used in some program, "connect" command just opens the already
created database.

15.3.1 Creating a Table

After having created an empty database, you will most probably add one or more tables
to this database. The SQL syntax for creating a table "Student" in the database "Academy" looks
like as follows :

CREATE TABLE Student (

Rollno INTEGER, Sname VARCHAR(20), Grade CHAR(1), gender CHAR(1),

Average float(5, 2), birth_date DATE, PRIMARY KEY (Rollno) );

This is the way, somebody might do it on a SQL command shell. Of course, we want to
do this directly from Python. To be capable to send a command to "SQL", or SQLite, we need a

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cursor object. Usually, a cursor in SQL and databases is a control structure to traverse over
the records in a database. So it's used for the fetching of the results.

Note
Cursor is used for performing all SQL commands.

The cursor object is created by calling the cursor() method of connection. The cursor is
used to traverse the records from the result set. You can define a SQL command with a triple
quoted string in Python. The reason behind the triple quotes is sometime the values in the
table might contain single or double quotes.

Example 15.3.1

sql_command = """
CREATE TABLE Student (
Rollno INTEGER PRIMARY KEY ,
Sname VARCHAR(20),
Grade CHAR(1),
gender CHAR(1),
Average DECIMAL(5,2),
birth_date DATE);"""

In the above example the Rollno field as "INTEGER PRIMARY KEY" A column which
is labeled like this will be automatically auto-incremented in SQLite3. To put it in other words:
If a column of a table is declared to be an INTEGER PRIMARY KEY, then whenever a
NULL will be used as an input for this column, the NULL will be automatically converted
into an integer which will one larger than the highest value so far used in that column. If
the table is empty, the value 1 will be used.

15.3.2 Adding Records

To populate (add record) the table "INSERT" command is passed to SQLite. “execute”
method executes the SQL command to perform some action. The following example 15.3.2 is
a complete working example. To run the program you should uncomment the "DROP TABLE"
line in the SQL command, if the program has been executed already.

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Example 15.3.2 -1

import sqlite3

connection = sqlite3.connect ("Academy.db")

cursor = connection.cursor()

sql_command = """

CREATE TABLE Student (

Rollno INTEGER PRIMARY KEY , Sname VARCHAR(20), Grade CHAR(1),

gender CHAR(1), Average DECIMAL (5, 2), birth_date DATE);"""

cursor.execute(sql_command)

sql_command = """INSERT INTO Student (Rollno, Sname, Grade, gender, Average,

birth_date) VALUES (NULL, "Akshay", "B", "M","87.8", "2001-12-12");"""

cursor.execute(sql_command)

sql_command = """INSERT INTO Student (Rollno, Sname, Grade, gender, Average,

birth_date) VALUES (NULL, "Aravind", "A", "M","92.50","2000-08-17");"""

cursor.execute(sql_command)

# never forget this, if you want the changes to be saved:

connection.commit()

connection.close()

print("STUDENT TABLE CREATED")

OUTPUT

STUDENT TABLE CREATED

Of course, in most cases, you will not literally insert data into a SQL table. You will
rather have a lot of data inside of some Python data type e.g. a dictionary or a list, which has
to be used as the input of the insert statement.

The following working example, assumes that you have an already existing database
Academy.db and a table Student. We have a list with data of persons which will be used in the
INSERT statement:

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Example 15.3.2-2

import sqlite3
connection = sqlite3.connect("Academy.db")
cursor = connection.cursor()
student_data = [("BASKAR", "C", "M","75.2","1998-05-17"),
("SAJINI", "A", "F","95.6","2002-11-01"),
("VARUN", "B", "M","80.6","2001-03-14"),
("PRIYA", "A", "F","98.6","2002-01-01"),
("TARUN", "D", "M","62.3","1999-02-01") ]
for p in student_data:
format_str = """INSERT INTO Student (Rollno, Sname, Grade, gender,Average,
birth_date) VALUES (NULL,"{name}", "{gr}", "{gender}","{avg}","{birthdate}");"""
sql_command = format_str.format(name=p[0], gr=p[1], gender=p[2],avg=p[3],
birthdate = p[4])
cursor.execute(sql_command)
connection.commit()
connection.close()
print("RECORDS ADDED TO STUDENT TABLE ")

OUTPUT
RECORDS ADDED TO STUDENT TABLE

In the above program {gr} is a place holder (variable) to get the value.
format_str.format() is a function used to format the value to the required datatype.

15.4 SQL Query Using Python

The time has come now to finally query our “Student” table. Fetching the data from
record is as simple as inserting them. The execute method uses the SQL command to get all
the data from the table.
15.4.1 SELECT Query
“Select” is the most commonly used statement in SQL. The SELECT Statement in SQL
is used to retrieve or fetch data from a table in a database. The syntax for using this statement
is “Select * from table_name” and all the table data can be fetched in an object in the form of
list of Tuples.
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If you run the program 15.4.1-1, you would get the following result, depending on the
actual data:
It should be noted that the database file that will be created will be in the same folder as
that of the python file. If we wish to change the path of the file, change the path while opening
the file.
Example 15.4.1-1
#save the file as “sql_Academy_query.py”
import sqlite3
connection = sqlite3.connect("Academy.db")
crsr = connection.cursor()
# execute the command to fetch all the data from the table Student
crsr.execute("SELECT * FROM Student")
# store all the fetched data in the ans variable
ans= crsr.fetchall()
# loop to print all the data
for i in ans:
print(i)

15.4.1.1 Displaying all records using fetchall()

The fetchall() method is used to fetch all rows from the database table

Example 15.4.1.1-2

import sqlite3
connection = sqlite3.connect("Academy.db")
cursor = connection.cursor()
cursor.execute("SELECT * FROM student")
print("fetchall:")
result = cursor.fetchall()
for r in result:
print(r)
OUTPUT
fetchall:
(1, 'Akshay', 'B', 'M', 87.8, '2001-12-12')
(2, 'Aravind', 'A', 'M', 92.5, '2000-08-17')
(3, 'BASKAR', 'C', 'M', 75.2, '1998-05-17')
(4, 'SAJINI', 'A', 'F', 95.6, '2002-11-01')
(5, 'VARUN', 'B', 'M', 80.6, '2001-03-14')
(6, 'PRIYA', 'A', 'F', 98.6, '2002-01-01')
(7, 'TARUN', 'D', 'M', 62.3, '1999-02-01')

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Note
cursor.fetchall() -fetchall () method is to fetch all rows from the database table
cursor.fetchone() - The fetchone () method returns the next row of a query result set or
None in case there is no row left.
cursor.fetchmany() method that returns the next number of rows (n) of the result set

15.4.1.2 Displaying A record using fetchone()

The fetchone() method returns the next row of a query result set or None in case there
is no row left.

Example 15.4.1.2-1
import sqlite3
connection = sqlite3.connect("Academy.db")
cursor = connection.cursor()
cursor.execute("SELECT * FROM student")
print("\nfetch one:")
res = cursor.fetchone()
print(res)
OUTPUT
fetch one:
(1, 'Akshay', 'B', 'M', 87.8, '2001-12-12')

15.4.1.3 Displaying all records using fetchone()

Using while loop and fetchone() method we can display all the records from a table.

Example 15.4.1.3 -1
import sqlite3 OUTPUT
connection = sqlite3.connect("Academy.db") fetching all records one by one:
cursor = connection.cursor() (1, 'Akshay', 'B', 'M', 87.8, '2001-12-12')
cursor.execute("SELECT * FROM student") (2, 'Aravind', 'A', 'M', 92.5, '2000-08-17')
print("fetching all records one by one:") (3, 'BASKAR', 'C', 'M', 75.2, '1998-05-17')
result = cursor.fetchone() (4, 'SAJINI', 'A', 'F', 95.6, '2002-11-01')
while result is not None: (5, 'VARUN', 'B', 'M', 80.6, '2001-03-14')
print(result) (6, 'PRIYA', 'A', 'F', 98.6, '2002-01-01')
result = cursor.fetchone() (7, 'TARUN', 'D', 'M', 62.3, '1999-02-01')

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15.4.1.4 Displaying Specified number of records using fetchmany(n)

Displaying specified number of records is done by using fetchmany(n). This method
returns the number of rows of the result set.

Example 15.4.1.4-1: Program to display the content of tuples using fetchmany()

import sqlite3
connection = sqlite3.connect("Academy.db")
cursor = connection.cursor()
cursor.execute("SELECT * FROM student")
print("fetching first 3 records:")
result = cursor.fetchmany(3)
print(result)
OUTPUT
fetching first 3 records:
[(1, 'Akshay', 'B', 'M', 87.8, '2001-12-12'), (2, 'Aravind', 'A', 'M', 92.5, '2000-08-17'), (3,
'BASKAR', 'C', 'M', 75.2, '1998-05-17')]

Example 15.4.1.4-2: Program to display the content of tuples in newline without

using loops

import sqlite3
connection = sqlite3.connect("Academy.db")
cursor = connection.cursor()
cursor.execute("SELECT * FROM student")
print("fetching first 3 records:")
result = cursor.fetchmany(3)
print(*result,sep="\n") # * is used for unpacking a tuple.

OUTPUT
fetching first 3 records:
(1, 'Akshay', 'B', 'M', 87.8, '2001-12-12')
(2, 'Aravind', 'A', 'M', 92.5, '2000-08-17')
(3, 'BASKAR', 'C', 'M', 75.2, '1998-05-17')

Note
* symbol is used to print the list of all elements in a single line with space. To print all
elements in new lines or separated by space use sep= "\n" or sep= "," respectively.

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15.4.2 CLAUSES IN SQL

SQL provides various clauses that can be used in the SELECT statements. This clauses
can be called through python script. Almost all clauses will work with SQLite. The following
frequently used clauses are discussed here
• DISTINCT
• WHERE
• GROUP BY
• ORDER BY.
• HAVING

15.4.2.1 SQL DISTINCT Keyword

The distinct keyword is helpful when there is need of avoiding the duplicate values
present in any specific columns/table. When we use distinct keyword only the unique values
are fetched. In this example we are going to display the different grades scored by students
from “student table”.

Example 15.4.2.1-1

import sqlite3
connection = sqlite3.connect("Academy.db")
cursor = connection.cursor()
cursor.execute("SELECT DISTINCT (Grade) FROM student")
result = cursor.fetchall()
print(result)

OUTPUT
[('B',), ('A',), ('C',), ('D',)]

Without the keyword “distinct” in the above example displays 7 records instead of 4,
since in the original table there are actually 7 records and some are with the duplicate values.

15.4.2.2 SQL WHERE CLAUSE

The WHERE clause is used to extract only those records that fulfill a specified condition.
In this example we are going to display the different grades scored by male students from
“student table”

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import sqlite3
connection = sqlite3.connect("Academy.db")
cursor = connection.cursor()
cursor.execute("SELECT DISTINCT (Grade) FROM student where gender='M'")
result = cursor.fetchall()
print(*result,sep="\n")

OUTPUT
('B',)
('A',)
('C',)
('D',)

15.4.2.3 SQL Group By Clause

The SELECT statement can be used along with GROUP BY clause. The GROUP BY
clause groups records into summary rows. It returns one records for each group. It is often
used with aggregate functions (COUNT, MAX, MIN, SUM, AVG) to group the result-set by
one or more columns. The following example count the number of male and female from the
student table and display the result.

Example 15.4.2.3 -1

import sqlite3
connection = sqlite3.connect("Academy.db")
cursor = connection.cursor()
cursor.execute("SELECT gender,count(gender) FROM student Group BY gender")
result = cursor.fetchall()
print(*result,sep="\n")

OUTPUT
('F', 2)
('M', 5)

15.4.2.4 SQL ORDER BY Clause

The ORDER BY Clause can be used along with the SELECT statement to sort the data
of specific fields in an ordered way. It is used to sort the result-set in ascending or descending
order. In this example name and Rollno of the students are displayed in alphabetical order of
names

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Example 15.4.2.4 -1
import sqlite3
connection = sqlite3.connect("Academy.db")
cursor = connection.cursor()
cursor.execute("SELECT Rollno,sname FROM student Order BY sname")
result = cursor.fetchall()
print(*result,sep="\n")

OUTPUT
(1, 'Akshay')
(2, 'Aravind')
(3, 'BASKAR')
(6, 'PRIYA')
(4, 'SAJINI')
(7, 'TARUN')
(5, 'VARUN')

15.4.2.5 SQL HAVING Clause

Having clause is used to filter data based on the group functions. This is similar to
WHERE condition but can be used only with group functions. Group functions cannot be
used in WHERE Clause but can be used in HAVING clause.
Example 15.4.2.5 -1
import sqlite3
connection = sqlite3.connect("Academy.db")
cursor = connection.cursor()
cursor.execute("SELECT GENDER,COUNT(GENDER) FROM Student GROUP BY
GENDER HAVING COUNT(GENDER)>3")
result = cursor.fetchall()
co = [i[0] for i in cursor.description]
print(co)
print(result)
OUTPUT
['gender', 'COUNT(GENDER)']
[('M', 5)]

15.5 The SQL AND, OR and NOT Operators

The WHERE clause can be combined with AND, OR, and NOT operators. The AND
and OR operators are used to filter records based on more than one condition. In this example
you are going to display the details of students who have scored other than ‘A’ or ‘B’ from the
“student table”

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Example for WHERE WITH NOT Operator

Example 15.5 -1
import sqlite3
connection = sqlite3.connect("Academy.db")
cursor = connection.cursor()
cursor.execute("SELECT * FROM student where NOT Grade='A' and NOT
Grade='B'")
result = cursor.fetchall()
print(*result,sep="\n")

OUTPUT
(3, 'BASKAR', 'C', 'M', 75.2, '1998-05-17')
(7, 'TARUN', 'D', 'M', 62.3, '1999-02-01')

Example for WHERE WITH AND Operator

In this example we are going to display the name, Rollno and Average of students who
have scored an average between 80 to 90% (both limits are inclusive)
Example 15.5 -2

import sqlite3
connection = sqlite3.connect("Academy.db")
cursor = connection.cursor()
cursor.execute("SELECT Rollno, Sname, Average FROM student WHERE
(Average>=80 AND Average<=90)")
result = cursor.fetchall()
print(*result,sep="\n")

OUTPUT
(1, 'Akshay', 87.8)
(5, 'VARUN', 80.6)

Example for WHERE WITH OR Operator

In this example we are going to display the Rollno and name of students who have not
scored an average between 60 to 70%

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Example 15.5 -3

import sqlite3
connection = sqlite3.connect("Academy.db")
cursor = connection.cursor()
cursor.execute("SELECT Rollno, Sname FROM student WHERE (Average<60
OR Average>70)")
result = cursor.fetchall()
print(*result,sep="\n")

OUTPUT
(1, 'Akshay')
(2, 'Aravind')
(3, 'BASKAR')
(4, 'SAJINI')
(5, 'VARUN')
(6, 'PRIYA')

15.6 Querying A Date Column

In this example we are going to display the rollno, name and grade of students who have
born in the year 2001
Example 15.6 -1
import sqlite3
connection = sqlite3.connect("Academy.db")
cursor = connection.cursor()
cursor.execute("SELECT Rollno, Sname, grade FROM student
WHERE(Birth_date>='2001-01-01' AND Birth_date<='2001-12-31')")
result = cursor.fetchall()
print(*result,sep="\n")
OUTPUT
(1, 'Akshay', 'B')
(5, 'VARUN', 'B')

15.7 Aggregate Functions

These functions are used to do operations from the values of the column and a single
value is returned.

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• COUNT() • AVG()
• SUM() • MAX()
• MIN()
15.7.1 COUNT() function
The SQL COUNT() function returns the number of rows in a table satisfying the criteria
specified in the WHERE clause. COUNT() returns 0 if there were no matching rows.

Example 15.7.1-1

Example 1 : In this example we are going to count the number of records(rows)

import sqlite3
connection = sqlite3.connect("Academy.db")
cursor = connection.cursor()
cursor.execute("SELECT COUNT(*) FROM student ")
result = cursor.fetchall()
print(result)
Output:
[(7,)]

EXAMPLE 15.7.1-2

Example 2 : In this example we are going to count the number of records by

specifying a column
import sqlite3
connection = sqlite3.connect("Academy.db")
cursor = connection.cursor()
cursor.execute("SELECT COUNT(AVERAGE) FROM student ")
result = cursor.fetchall()
print(result

Output:
[(7,)]

Note
NULL values are not counted. In case if we had null in one of the records in
student table for example in Average field then the output would be 6

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15.7.2AVG():
The following SQL statement in the python program finds the average mark of all
students.

Example 15.7.2-1

import sqlite3
connection = sqlite3.connect("Academy.db")
cursor = connection.cursor()
cursor.execute("SELECT AVG(AVERAGE) FROM student ")
result = cursor.fetchall()
print(result)

OUTPUT
[(84.65714285714286,)]

Note
NULL values are ignored.

15.7.3 SUM():
The following SQL statement in the python program finds the sum of all average in the
Average field of “Student table”.

Example 15.7.1-3

import sqlite3
connection = sqlite3.connect("Academy.db")
cursor = connection.cursor()
cursor.execute("SELECT SUM(AVERAGE) FROM student ")
result = cursor.fetchall()
print(result)

OUTPUT
[(592.6,)]

Note
NULL values are ignored.

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15.7.4 MAX() AND MIN() FUNCTIONS

The MAX() function returns the largest value of the selected column.
The MIN() function returns the smallest value of the selected column.
The following example show the highest and least average student’s name.

Example 15.7.4-1

import sqlite3
connection = sqlite3.connect("Organization.db")
cursor = connection.cursor()
print("Displaying the name of the Highest Average")
cursor.execute("SELECT sname,max(AVERAGE) FROM student ")
result = cursor.fetchall()
print(result)
print("Displaying the name of the Least Average")
cursor.execute("SELECT sname,min(AVERAGE) FROM student ")
result = cursor.fetchall()
print(result)

OUTPUT
Displaying the name of the Highest Average
[('PRIYA', 98.6)]
Displaying the name of the Least Average
[('TARUN', 62.3)]

15.8 Updating A Record

You can even update a record (tuple) in a table through python script. The following
example change the name “Priya” to “Priyanka” in a record in “student table”

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Example 15.8 -1

# code for update operation

import sqlite3
# database name to be passed as parameter
conn = sqlite3.connect("Academy.db")
# update the student record
conn.execute("UPDATE Student SET sname ='Priyanka' where Rollno='6'")
conn.commit()
print ("Total number of rows updated :", conn.total_changes)
cursor = conn.execute("SELECT * FROM Student")
for row in cursor:
print (row)
conn.close()
OUTPUT
Total number of rows updated : 1
(1, 'Akshay', 'B', 'M', 87.8, '2001-12-12')
(2, 'Aravind', 'A', 'M', 92.5, '2000-08-17')
(3, 'BASKAR', 'C', 'M', 75.2, '1998-05-17')
(4, 'SAJINI', 'A', 'F', 95.6, '2002-11-01')
(5, 'VARUN', 'B', 'M', 80.6, '2001-03-14')
(6, 'Priyanka', 'A', 'F', 98.6, '2002-01-01')
(7, 'TARUN', 'D', 'M', 62.3, '1999-02-01')

Note
Remember throughout this chapter student table what we have created is taken as example
to explain the SQL queries .Example 15.3.2 -2 contain the student table with records

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15.9 Deletion Operation

Similar to Sql command to delete a record, Python also allows to delete a record. The
following example delete the content of Rollno 2 from "student table"

Example 15.9-1

# code for delete operation

import sqlite3
# database name to be passed as parameter
conn = sqlite3.connect("Academy.db")
# delete student record from database
conn.execute("DELETE from Student where Rollno='2'")
conn.commit()
print("Total number of rows deleted :", conn.total_changes)
cursor =conn.execute("SELECT * FROM Student")
for row in cursor:
print(row)
conn.close()

OUTPUT
Total number of rows deleted : 1
(1, 'Akshay', 'B', 'M', 87.8, '2001-12-12')
(3, 'BASKAR', 'C', 'M', 75.2, '1998-05-17')
(4, 'SAJINI', 'A', 'F', 95.6, '2002-11-01')
(5, 'VARUN', 'B', 'M', 80.6, '2001-03-14')
(6, 'Priyanka', 'A', 'F', 98.6, '2002-01-01')
(7, 'TARUN', 'D', 'M', 62.3, '1999-02-01')

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15.10 Data input by User

In this example we are going to accept data using Python input() command during
runtime and then going to write in the Table called "Person"

Example 15.10 -1

# code for executing query using input data

import sqlite3
# creates a database in RAM
con =sqlite3.connect("Academy.db")
cur =con.cursor()
cur.execute("DROP Table person")
cur.execute("create table person (name, age, id)")
print("Enter 5 students names:")
who =[input() for i in range(5)]
print("Enter their ages respectively:")
age =[int(input()) for i in range(5)]
print("Enter their ids respectively:")
p_id =[int(input())for i in range(5)]
n =len(who)
for i in range(n):
# This is the q-mark style:
cur.execute("insert into person values (?, ?, ?)", (who[i], age[i], p_id[i]))
cur.execute("select * from person")
# Fetches all entries from table
print("Displaying All the Records From Person Table")
print (*cur.fetchall(), sep='\n' )

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OUTPUT
Enter 5 students names:
RAM
KEERTHANA
KRISHNA
HARISH
GIRISH
Enter their ages respectively:
28
12
21
18
16
Enter their ids respectively:
1
2
3
4
5
Displaying All the Records From Person Table
('RAM', 28, 1)
('KEERTHANA', 12, 2)
('KRISHNA', 21, 3)
('HARISH', 18, 4)
('GIRISH', 16, 5)

You can even add records to the already existing table like “Student” Using the above
coding with appropriate modification in the Field Name. To do so you should comment the
create table statement

Note
Execute (sql[, parameters]) :- Executes a single SQL statement. The SQL statement
may be parametrized (i. e. Use placeholders instead of SQL literals). The sqlite3 module
supports two kinds of placeholders: question marks? (“qmark style”) and named
placeholders :name (“named style”).

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15.11 Using Multiple Table for Querying

Python allows to query more than one table by joining them. In the following example
a new table called “Appointment” which contain the details of students Rollno, Duty, Age is
created. The tables “student” and “Appointment” are joined and displayed the result with the
column headings.
Example 15.11-1
import sqlite3
connection = sqlite3.connect("Academy.db")
cursor = connection.cursor()
cursor.execute("""DROP TABLE Appointment;""")
sql_command = """
CREATE TABLE Appointment(rollnointprimarkey,Dutyvarchar(10),age int)"""
cursor.execute(sql_command)
sql_command = """INSERT INTO Appointment (Rollno,Duty ,age )
VALUES ("1", "Prefect", "17");"""
cursor.execute(sql_command)
sql_command = """INSERT INTO Appointment (Rollno, Duty, age)
VALUES ("2", "Secretary", "16");"""
cursor.execute(sql_command)
# never forget this, if you want the changes to be saved:
connection.commit()
cursor.execute ("SELECT student.rollno,student.sname,
Appointment.Duty, Appointment.Age FROM student,Appointment
where student.rollno=Appointment.rollno")
#print (cursor.description) to display the field names of the table
co = [i[0] for i in cursor.description]
print(co)
# Field informations can be read from cursor.description.
result = cursor.fetchall()
for r in result:
print(r)

OUTPUT
['Rollno', 'Sname', 'Duty', 'age']
(1, 'Akshay', 'Prefect', 17)
(2, 'Aravind', 'Secretary', 16)

.
Note
cursor. description contain the details of each column headings .It will be stored
as a tuple and the first one that is 0(zero) index refers to the column name. From index
1 onwards the values of the column(Records) are refered. Using this command you can
display the table’s Field names.

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15.12 Integrating Query With Csv File

You can even store the query result in a CSV file. This will be useful to display the query
output in a tabular format. In the following example (EXAMPLE 15.12 -1) Using Python
script the student table is sorted “gender” wise in descending order and then arranged the
records alphabetically. The output of this Query will be written in a CSV file called “SQL.CSV”,
again the content is read from the CSV file and displayed the result.
Example 15.12 -1

import sqlite3
import csv
# CREATING CSV FILE
d=open('c:/pyprg/sql.csv','w, newline= ' ')
c=csv.writer(d)
connection = sqlite3.connect("Academy.db")
cursor = connection.cursor()

cursor.execute("SELECT * FROM student ORDER BY GENDER DESC,SNAME")

# WRITING THE COLUMN HEADING
co = [i[0] for i in cursor.description]
c.writerow(co)
data=cursor.fetchall()
for item in data:
c.writerow(item)
d.close()
# Reading the CSV File
with open('c:/pyprg/sql.csv', "r") as fd:
for line in fd:
line = line.replace("\n", "")
print(line)
cursor.close()
connection.close()
OUTPUT
Rollno,Sname,Grade,gender,Average,birth_date
1, Akshay, B, M, 87.8, 2001-12-12
2, Aravind, A, M, 92.5, 2000-08-17
3, BASKAR, C, M, 75.2, 1998-05-17
7, TARUN, D, M, 62.3, 1999-02-01
5, VARUN, B, M, 80.6, 2001-03-14
6, PRIYA, A, F, 98.6, 2002-01-01
4, SAJINI, A, F, 95.6, 2002-11-01

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Example 15.12 -2 Opening the file (“sqlexcel.csv”) through MS-Excel and view the
result (Program is same similar to EXAMPLE 15.12 -1 script)

import sqlite3
import csv
# database name to be passed as parameter
conn = sqlite3.connect("Academy.db")
print(“Content of the table before sorting and writing in CSV file”)
cursor = conn.execute("SELECT * FROM Student")
for row in cursor:
print (row)
# CREATING CSV FILE
d=open('c:\pyprg\sqlexcel.csv','w', newline= ' ')
c=csv.writer(d)
cursor = conn.cursor()
cursor.execute("SELECT * FROM student ORDER BY GENDER DESC,SNAME")
#WRITING THE COLUMN HEADING
co = [i[0] for i in cursor.description]
c.writerow(co)
data=cursor.fetchall()
for item in data:
c.writerow(item)
d.close()
print(”sqlexcel.csv File is created open by visiting c:\pyprg\sqlexcel.csv”)
conn.close()

Note
By default while writing in a csv file each record ends with \n (newline) to
eliminate this newline replace () is used during the reading of csv file.

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OUTPUT
Content of the table before sorting and writing in CSV file
(1, 'Akshay', 'B', 'M', 87.8, '2001-12-12')
(2, 'Aravind', 'A', 'M', 92.5, '2000-08-17')
(3, 'BASKAR', 'C', 'M', 75.2, '1998-05-17')
(4, 'SAJINI', 'A', 'F', 95.6, '2002-11-01')
(5, 'VARUN', 'B', 'M', 80.6, '2001-03-14')
(6, 'Priyanka', 'A', 'F', 98.6, '2002-01-01')
(7, 'TARUN', 'D', 'M', 62.3, '1999-02-01')
sqlexcel.csv File is created open by visiting c:\pyprg\sqlexcel.csv
OUTPUT THROUGH EXCEL
A B C D E F

1 Rollno Sname Grade gender Average birth_date

2 1 Akshay B M 87.8 12-12-2001

3 2 Aravind A M 92.5 17-08-2000

4 3 BASKAR C M 75.2 17-05-1998

5 7 TARUN D M 62.3 01-02-1999

6 5 VARUN B M 80.6 14-03-2001

7 6 PRIYA A F 98.6 01-01-2002

8 4 SAJINI A F 95.6 01-11-2002

15.3 Table List

To show (display) the list of tables created in a database the following program (Example
15.3 – 1) can be used.

Example 15.3 – 1

import sqlite3
con = sqlite3.connect('Academy.db')
cursor = con.cursor()
cursor.execute("SELECT name FROM sqlite_master WHERE type='table';")
print(cursor.fetchall())

OUTPUT
[('Student',), ('Appointment',), ('Person',)]

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The above program (Example 15.3-1) display the names of all tables created in ‘Academy.
db’ database. The master table holds the key information about your database tables and it
is called sqlite_master
So far, you have been using the Structured Query Language in Python scripts. This
chapter has covered many of the basic SQL commands. Almost all sql commands can be
executed by Python SQLite module. You can even try the other commands discussed in the
SQL chapter.

Points to remember:
• A database is an organized collection of data.
• Users of database can be human users, other programs or applications
• SQLite is a simple relational database system, which saves its data in regular data files.
• Cursor is a control structure used to traverse and fetch the records of the database. All
the SQL commands will be executed using cursor object only.
• As data in a table might contain single or double quotes, SQL commands in Python
are denoted as triple quoted string.
• “Select” is the most commonly used statement in SQL
• The SELECT Statement in SQL is used to retrieve or fetch data from a table in a database
• The GROUP BY clause groups records into summary rows
• The ORDER BY Clause can be used along with the SELECT statement to sort the data
of specific fields in an ordered way
• Having clause is used to filter data based on the group functions.
• Where clause cannot be used along with ‘Group by’
• The WHERE clause can be combined with AND, OR, and NOT operators
• The ‘AND’ and ‘OR’ operators are used to filter records based on more than one
condition
• Aggregate functions are used to do operations from the values of the column and a
single value is returned.
• COUNT() function returns the number of rows in a table.
• AVG() function retrieves the average of a selected column of rows in a table.
• SUM() function retrieves the sum of a selected column of rows in a table.
• MAX() function returns the largest value of the selected column.
• MIN() function returns the smallest value of the selected column
• sqlite_master is the master table which holds the key information about your database
tables.
• The path of a file can be either represented as ‘/’ or using ‘\’ in Python. For example the
path can be specified either as 'c:/pyprg/sql.csv', or c:\pyprg\sql.csv’.

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Hands on Experience
1. Create an interactive program to accept the details from user and store it in a csv file using
Python for the following table.
Database name;- DB1
Table name : Customer

Cust_Id Cust_Name Address Phone_no City

C008 Sandeep 14/1 Pritam Pura 41206819 Delhi

C010 Anurag Basu 15A, Park Road 61281921 Kolkata

C012 Hrithik 7/2 Vasant Nagar 26121949 Delhi

2. Consider the following table GAMES. Write a python program to display the records for
question (i) to (v)
Table: GAMES

Gcode Name GameName Number PrizeMoney ScheduleDate

101 Padmaja Carom Board 2 5000 01-23-2014

102 Vidhya Badminton 2 12000 12-12-2013

103 Guru Table Tennis 4 8000 02-14-2014

105 Keerthana Carom Board 2 9000 01-01-2014

108 Krishna Table Tennis 4 25000 03-19-2014

(i) To display the name of all Games with their Gcodes in descending order of their schedule
date.
(ii) To display details of those games which are having Prize Money more than 7000.
(iii) To display the name and gamename of the Players in the ascending order of Gamename.
(iv) To display sum of PrizeMoney for each of the Numberof participation groupings (as
shown in column Number 4)
(v) Display all the records based on GameName

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Evaluation

Part - I

Choose the best answer (1 Mark)

1. Which of the following is an organized collection of data?
(A) Database (B) DBMS (C) Information (D) Records
2. SQLite falls under which database system?
(A) Flat file database system (B) Relational Database system
(C) Hierarchical database system (D) Object oriented Database system
3. Which of the following is a control structure used to traverse and fetch the records of the
database?
(A) Pointer (B) Key
(C) Cursor (D) Insertion point
4. Any changes made in the values of the record should be saved by the command
(A) Save (B) Save As (C) Commit (D) Oblige
5. Which of the following executes the SQL command to perform some action?
(A) execute() (B) key() (C) cursor() (D) run()
6. Which of the following function retrieves the average of a selected column of rows in a
table?
(A) Add() (B) SUM() (C) AVG() (D) AVERAGE()
7. The function that returns the largest value of the selected column is
(A) MAX() (B) LARGE()
(C) HIGH() (D) MAXIMUM()
8. Which of the following is called the master table?
(A) sqlite_master (B) sql_master
(C) main_master (D) master_main
9. The most commonly used statement in SQL is
(A) cursor (B) select (C) execute (D) commit
10. Which of the following keyword avoid the duplicate?
(A) Distinct (B) Remove (C) Where (D) GroupBy

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Part - II
Answer the following questions (2 Marks)
1. Mention the users who uses the Database.
2. Which method is used to connect a database? Give an example.
3. What is the advantage of declaring a column as “INTEGER PRIMARY KEY”
4. Write the command to populate record in a table. Give an example.
5. Which method is used to fetch all rows from the database table?

Part - III
Answer the following questions (3 Marks)
1. What is SQLite?What is it advantage?
2. Mention the difference between fetchone() and fetchmany()
3. What is the use of Where Clause.Give a python statement Using the where clause.
4. Read the following details.Based on that write a python script to display department wise
records
database name :- organization.db
Table name :- Employee
Columns in the table :- Eno, EmpName, Esal, Dept
5. Read the following details.Based on that write a python script to display records in
desending order of
Eno
database name :- organization.db
Table name :- Employee
Columns in the table :- Eno, EmpName, Esal, Dept

Part - IV
Answer the following questions (5 Marks)
1. Write in brief about SQLite and the steps used to use it.
2. Write the Python script to display all the records of the following table using fetchmany()
Icode ItemName Rate
1003 Scanner 10500
1004 Speaker 3000
1005 Printer 8000
1008 Monitor 15000
1010 Mouse 700

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3. hat is the use of HAVING clause. Give an example python script

4. Write a Python script to create a table called ITEM with following specification.
Add one record to the table.
Name of the database :- ABC
Name of the table :- Item
Column name and specification :-

Icode :- integer and act as primary key

Item Name :- Character with length 25

Rate :- Integer

Record to be added :- 1008, Monitor,15000

5. Consider the following table Supplier and item .Write a python script for (i) to (ii)

SUPPLIER

Suppno Name City Icode SuppQty

S001 Prasad Delhi 1008 100

S002 Anu Bangalore 1010 200

S003 Shahid Bangalore 1008 175

S004 Akila Hydrabad 1005 195

S005 Girish Hydrabad 1003 25

S006 Shylaja Chennai 1008 180

S007 Lavanya Mumbai 1005 325

i) Display Name, City and Itemname of suppliers who do not reside in Delhi.
ii) Increment the SuppQty of Akila by 40

References
1. The Definitive Guide to SQLite by Michael Owens
2. Programming for Beginners: 2 Manuscripts: SQL & Python by Byron Francis
3. Tutorialspoint.com

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CHAPTER 16
Unit V DATA VISUALIZATION USING PYPLOT:
LINE CHART, PIE CHART AND BAR CHART

Learning Objectives

After learning this chapter, the learners will be able to

• Define the term Data Visualization.
• List the types of Data Visualization.
• List the uses of Data Visualization.
• List the types of Visualizations in Matplotlib.
• Explore importing Matplotlib.
• Classify the types of Data Visualization plots.
• Practice creating various types of plots using Matplotlib.

16.1 Data Visualization Definition

Data Visualization is the graphical representation of information and data. The

objective of Data Visualization is to communicate information visually to users. For this, data
visualization uses statistical graphics. Numerical data may be encoded using dots, lines, or
bars, to visually communicate a quantitative message.
General types of Data Visualization
• Charts
• Tables
• Graphs
• Maps
• Infographics
• Dashboards
Data visualization - Uses
• Data Visualization help users to analyze and interpret the data easily.

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• It makes complex data understandable and usable.

• Various Charts in Data Visualization helps to show relationship in the data for one or more
variables.

Infographics → An infographic (information graphic) is the representation of

information in a graphic format.
Dashboard → A dashboard is a collection of resources assembled to create a single unified
visual display. Data visualizations and dashboards translate complex ideas and concepts
into a simple visual format. Patterns and relationships that are undetectable in text are
detectable at a glance using dashboard.

Introduction to Matplotlib — Data Visualization in Python

Matplotlib is the most popular data visualization library in Python. It allows you to
create two dimension (2D) charts in few lines of code.
Types of Visualizations in Matplotlib
There are many types of Visualizations under Matplotlib. Some of them are:
• Line plot
• Scatter plot
• Histogram
• Box plot
• Bar chart and
• Pie chart

Scatter plot: A scatter plot is a type of plot that shows the data as a collection of
points. The position of a point depends on its two-dimensional value, where each
value is a position on either the horizontal or vertical dimension.
Box plot: The box plot is a standardized way of displaying the distribution of data based
on the five number summary: minimum, first quartile, median, third quartile, and
maximum.

Installing Matplotlib
You can install matplotlib using pip. Pip is a Package manager software for installing
python packages.

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Note
Detailed installation procedures given in Annexure - II

16.2 Getting Started

After installing Matplotlib, we will begin coding by importing Matplotlib using the
command:
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
Now you have imported Matplotlib in your workspace. You need to display the plots.
Using Matplotlib from within a Python script, you have to add plt.show() function inside the
file to display your plot.
Example
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
plt.plot([1,2,3,4])
plt.show()
Output
This window is a matplotlib window, which allows you to see your graph. You
can hover the graph and see the coordinates in the bottom right.

4.0

3.5

3.0

2.5

2.0

1.5

1.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0

Figure 16.1
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You may be wondering why the x-axis ranges from 0-3 and the y-axis from 1-4. If you
provide a single list or array to the plot () command, matplotlib assumes it is a sequence of y
values, and automatically generates the x values for you. Since python ranges start with 0, the
default x vector has the same length as y but starts with 0. Hence the x data are [0, 1, 2, 3].
plot() is a versatile command, and will take an arbitrary number of arguments.
Program

For example, to plot x and y, you can issue the command:

import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
plt.plot([1,2,3,4], [1,4,9,16])
plt.show()

This .plot takes many arguments, but the first two here are 'x' and 'y' coordinates. This
means, you have 4 co-ordinates according to these lists: (1,1), (2,4), (3,9) and (4,16).

16

14

12

10

1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0

Figure 16.2

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Plotting Two Lines

To plot two lines, use the following code:
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
x = [1,2,3]
y = [5,7,4]
x2 = [1,2,3]
y2 = [10,14,12]
plt.plot(x, y, label='Line 1')
plt.plot(x2, y2, label='Line 2')
plt.xlabel('X-Axis')
plt.ylabel('Y-Axis')
plt.title('LINE GRAPH')
plt.legend()
plt.show()
Output
With plt.xlabel and plt.ylabel, you can assign labels to those respective axis. Next, you
can assign the plot's title with plt.title, and then you can invoke the default legend with plt.
legend().

LINE GRAPH
14 Line1
Line2

12

10
Y - Axis

4
1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.25 2.50 2.75 3.00
X - Axis

Figure 16.3
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Buttons in the output

In the output figure, you can see few buttons at the bottom left corner. Let us see the use
of these buttons.

Configure
Subplots
Home Button Pan Axis Button Button

Forward / Back Buttons Zoom Save the

Button Figure Button

Figure 16.4
Home Button → The Home Button will help once you have begun navigating your chart. If
you ever want to return back to the original view, you can click on this.

Forward/Back buttons → These buttons can be used like the Forward and Back buttons in
your browser. You can click these to move back to the previous point you were at, or forward
again.
Pan Axis → This cross-looking button allows you to click it, and then click and drag your
graph around.
Zoom → The Zoom button lets you click on it, then click and drag a square that you would like
to zoom into specifically. Zooming in will require a left click and drag. You can alternatively
zoom out with a right click and drag.
Configure Subplots → This button allows you to configure various spacing options with your
figure and plot.
Save Figure → This button will allow you to save your figure in various forms.

16.3 Special Plot Types

Matplotlib allows you to create different kinds of plots ranging from histograms and
scatter plots to bar graphs and bar charts.
Line Chart
A Line Chart or Line Graph is a type of chart which displays information as a series of
data points called ‘markers’ connected by straight line segments. A Line Chart is often used
to visualize a trend in data over intervals of time – a time series – thus the line is often drawn
chronologically.

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Example: Line plot

import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
years = [2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018]
total_populations = [8939007, 8954518, 8960387, 8956741, 8943721]
plt.plot (years, total_populations)
plt.title ("Year vs Population in India")
plt.xlabel ("Year")
plt.ylabel ("Total Population")
plt.show()
In this program,
Plt.title() → specifies title to the graph
Plt.xlabel() → specifies label for X-axis
Plt.ylabel() → specifies label for Y-axis
Output

Year vs Population in India

8960000

8955000
Total Population

8950000

8945000

8940000

2014.4 2014.5 2015.0 2015.5 2016.0 2016.6 2017.0 2017.7 2018.0

Year

Figure 16.5
Bar Chart
A BarPlot (or BarChart) is one of the most common type of plot. It shows the
relationship between a numerical data and a categorical values.
Bar chart represents categorical data with rectangular bars. Each bar has a height
corresponds to the value it represents. The bars can be plotted vertically or horizontally.
It’s useful when we want to compare a given numeric value on different categories. To
make a bar chart with Matplotlib, we can use the plt.bar() function.
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Example
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
# Our data
labels = ["TAMIL", "ENGLISH", "MATHS", "PHYSICS", "CHEMISTRY", "CS"]
usage = [79.8, 67.3, 77.8, 68.4, 70.2, 88.5]
# Generating the y positions. Later, we'll use them to replace them with labels.
y_positions = range (len(labels))
# Creating our bar plot
plt.bar (y_positions, usage)
plt.xticks (y_positions, labels)
plt.ylabel ("RANGE")
plt.title ("MARKS")
plt.show()
Output

MARKS

80

60
RANGE

40

20

0
TAMIL ENGLISH MATHS PHYSICS CHEMISTRY CS

Figure 16.6

The above code represents the following:

Labels → Specifies labels for the bars.
Usgae → Assign values to the labels specified.
Xticks → Display the tick marks along the x-axis at the values represented. Then specify
the label for each tick mark.
Range → Create sequence of numbers.
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Bar Graph and Histogram are the two ways to display data in the form of a diagram.

Key Differences Between Histogram and Bar Graph

The differences between Histogram and bar graph are as follows
1. Histogram refers to a graphical representation; that displays data by way of bars to
show the frequency of numerical data. A bar graph is a pictorial representation of data
that uses bars to compare different categories of data.
2. A histogram represents the frequency distribution of continuous variables. Conversely,
a bar graph is a diagrammatic comparison of discrete variables.
3. Histogram presents numerical data whereas bar graph shows categorical data.
4. The histogram is drawn in such a way that there is no gap between the bars. On the ot her
hand, there is proper spacing between bars in a bar graph that indicates discontinuity.
5. Items of the histogram are numbers, which are categorised together, to represent ranges
of data. As opposed to the bar graph, items are considered as individual entities.
6. In the case of a bar graph, it is quite common to rearrange the blocks, from highest to
lowest. But with histogram, this cannot be done, as they are shown in the sequence of
classes.
7. The width of rectangular blocks in a histogram may or may not be same while the
width of the bars in a bar graph is always same.
Pie Chart
Pie Chart is probably one of the most common type of chart. It is a circular graphic
which is divided into slices to illustrate numerical proportion. The point of a pie chart is
to show the relationship of parts out of a whole.
To make a Pie Chart with Matplotlib, we can use the plt.pie() function. The autopct
parameter allows us to display the percentage value using the Python string formatting.

Example
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
sizes = [89, 80, 90, 100, 75]
labels = ["Tamil", "English", "Maths", "Science", "Social"]
plt.pie (sizes, labels = labels, autopct = "%.2f ")
plt.show()

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Output

English

Tamil
18.43
20.51

Maths 20.74

17.28

23.04 Social

Science

Figure 16.7

Hands on Practice

1. Plot a line chart for the given data and set the title for x and y axis.
Average Pulse: 80, 85, 90, 95, 100
Calorie Burnage: 240, 250, 260, 270, 280

2. Plot a pie chart for your marks in the recent examination.

3. Plot a line chart on the academic performance of Class 12 students in Computer

Science for the past 10 years.

4. Plot a bar chart for the number of computer science periods in a week.

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Evaluation

Part - I

Choose the best answer (1 Mark)

1. Which is a python package used for 2D charts?
a. matplotlib.pyplot b. matplotlib.pip
c. matplotlib.numpy d. matplotlib.plt
2. Identify the package manager for installing Python packages, or modules.
a. Matplotlib b. PIP
c. plt.show() d. python package
3. Which of the following feature is used to represent data and information graphically?
a. Data List b. Data Tuple
c. Classes and Objects d. Data Visualization
4. .......... is a collection of resources assembled to create a single unified visual display.
a. Interface b. Dashboard
c. Objects d. Graphics
5. Which of the following module should be imported to visualize data and information
in Python?
a. csv b. getopt
c. mysql d. matplotlib
6. ............ is a type of chart which displays information as a series of data points connected
by straight line segments.
a. csv b. Pie chart
c. Bar chart d. All the above
7. Read the code:
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
plt.plot(3,2)
plt.show()
Identify the output for the above coding.

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a. Epic Info b.
16 1 info
16
14 14
12
12
Y axis

y axis
10
8
10
2 6
4
8
2
2 3 4 5 6 7
6
8 11
3 x axis
5 6 7 9 10
X axis

c.
d.
2.100
4.0
2.075
3.5
2.050

some numbers
2.025 3.0

2.000 2.5

1.975 2.0
1.950
1.5
1.925
1.0
1.900
0.0 0.0 0.5 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
2.85 2.90 2.95 3.00 3.05 3.10 3.15

8. Identify the right type of chart using the following hints.

Hint 1: This chart is often used to visualize a trend in data over intervals of time.
Hint 2: The line in this type of chart is often drawn chronologically.
a. Line chart b. Bar chart
c. Pie chart d. Scatter plot
9. Read the statements given below. Identify the right option from the following for pie
chart.
Statement A: To make a pie chart with Matplotlib, we can use the plt.pie() function.
Statement B: The autopct parameter allows us to display the percentage value using
the Python string formatting.
a. Statement A is correct b. Statement B is correct
c. Both the statements are correct d. Both the statements are wrong

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Part - II

Answer the following questions (2 Marks)

1. What is Data Visualization?
2. List the general types of data visualization.
3. List the types of Visualizations in Matplotlib.
4. How will you install Matplotlib?
5. Write the difference between the following functions: plt.plot([1,2,3,4]), plt.
plot([1,2,3,4], [1,4,9,16]).

Part - III

Answer the following questions (3 Marks)

1. Draw the output for the following data visualization plot.
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
plt.bar([1,3,5,7,9],[5,2,7,8,2], label="Example one")
plt.bar([2,4,6,8,10],[8,6,2,5,6], label="Example two", color='g')
plt.legend()
plt.xlabel('bar number')
plt.ylabel('bar height')
plt.title('Epic Graph\nAnother Line! Whoa')
plt.show()
2. Write any three uses of data visualization.
3. Write the plot for the following pie chart output.

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Part - IV

Answer the following questions (5 Marks)

1. Explain in detail the types of pyplots using Matplotlib.
2. Explain the various buttons in a matplotlib window.
3. Explain the purpose of the following functions:
a. plt.xlabel
b. plt.ylabel
c. plt.title
d. plt.legend()
e. plt.show()

Reference
1. https://towards datascience.com / data - science - with - python - intro -to- data
-visualization-and-matplotlib-5f799b7c6d82.
2. https://heartbeat.fritz.ai/introduction-to-matplotlib-data-visualization-in-python-
d9143287ae39.
3. https://python programming.net / legends - titles - labels - matplotlib - tutorial/?
completed=/matplotlib-intro-tutorial/.
4. https://keydifferences.com/difference-between-histogram-and-bar-graph.html.

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GLOSSARY

Terminology Meaning
Access control security technique that regulates who or what can view
or use resources in a computing environment
Access modifiers Private , Protected and Public
Alternative One of two choices
append() Used to add an element in a list
Argument Argument is the actual value of this variable that gets
passed to function.
argv An array containing the values passed through
command line argument
Attribute Data items that makes up an object
Authorization Giving permission or access
Block Set of Statements
Boolean means Logical
break Exit the control
create a database connection to the SQLite database
‘test.db’. You can also supply the special name :memory:
c = sqlite3.connect('test. db') to create a database in RAM.
c.close() To release the connection of the database
c.commit() To save the changes made in the table
Executes all SQL commands .Accepts two kinds of
placeholders: question marks ? (“qmark style”) and
c.execute() named placeholders :name (“named style”).
Cartesian product Cartesian operation is helpful to merge columns from
two relations
cd cd command refers to change directory
Class Template of creating objects.
Class variable An ordinary variable declared inside a class
cls To clear the screen in command window
Comma(,) Comma is used to separate each data in a csv file

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Scans the entire program and translates it as a whole

into machine code. It generates the error message only
compiler after scanning the whole program. Hence debugging is
comparatively hard.
Conjunction Concurrence, coincidence
Constraint Restriction or limitation
Constructor A special function get execution automatically when
an object enter into scope.
continue To skip the remaining part and start with next iteration.
CRUD Create, Read, Update and Delete
csv.reader() The reader function is designed to take each line of the
file and make a list of all columns
csv.register_dialect() A dialect describes the format of the csv file that is to
be read
CsvQuote All If quoting is set to csvquote all, then writerow() will
quote all fields.
cur = c.cursor() Creating cursor object
cur.fetchall() method to get a list of the matching rows.
cur.fetchmany() method that returns the next number of rows (n) of the
result set
cur.fetchone() method to retrieve a single matching row
CWI Centrum Wiskunde & Informatica
DBA DataBase Adminstrator
DBMS Database Management System
def This keyword is used to define function.
Destructor A special function get execution automatically when
an object exit from its scope.
dict() It is used to print the data in dictionary format without
orderdict
Dictionary Collection of Key-Value pairs
Works by reading in the first line of the CSV and using
each column comma separated value in this line as a
DictReader() dictionary key.
Dictwriter() Write dictionary data into a CSV file
elif else…if
Embedded Firmly attached
Enter key Enter key or newline is used to create rows in a csv file

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eval() This function is used to evaluate the value of a string.

Father of Relational Database Dr. Edgar Frank Codd
g++ compiler to compile c++ program
GIS Geographic Information System
global Scope A variable, with global scope can be used anywhere in
the program.
You do not write the complete application in the
language, but rather, you use the language to
orchestrate(organize) modules written in (possibly
many different) other languages, making them work
together to form the application. A glue language
makes it easy to do that (convenient syntax, good
Glue language support for inter-process communication and data
managing, no compilation step etc).
id () It returns the memory address of the given object.
IDLE Integrated Development Environment
immutable unchangeable
Implementation Implementation carries out the operation declared in
the interfac
Import in python is similar to #include header_file
in C++. Python modules can get access to code from
import another module by importing the file/function using
“import” statement.
Any function that changes the internal state of one of
its arguments or the value of some external variable is
Impure Functions an impure function.
Instantiation Process of creating an object
Integrity Whole and undivided
Interactive Mode A way of using the Python interpreter by typing
command and expressions at the prompt.
Interface Interface defines what an object can do, but doesn't
actually do it
Translates program one statement at a time. It
continues translating the program until the first error
interpreter is met, in which case it stops. Hence debugging is easy.
Intersection Intersection defines a relation consisting of a set of all
tuple that are in both A and B.
Key Data that is mapped to a value in a dictionary

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lambda Lambda function is mostly used for creating small and

one- time anonymous function.
LEGB rule Local → Enclosed → Global → Built-in scope
List Mutable ordered collection of values
local Scope A variable declared inside the function's body or in a
block is called local scope.
Looping Repetition
Mapping The process of binding a variable name with an object
Method A function declared and defined inside a class.
A module is a file containing Python definitions and
module statements. The file name is the module name with the
suffix .py appended. Within a module, the module’s
name (as a string) is available as the value of the global
variable name .
Namespaces containers for mapping names of variables to objects
Nested Block A block within a block is called nested block.
next() The next() function returns the next item from the
iterator. It can also be used to skip a row of the csv file
Object Collection of Data and Functions.
Object Oriented Computer Programming concept based on real world
Programming objects.
operator.itemgetter(col_ no) To sort by more than one column from a csv file
Used to execute system command and here in our
os.system() python program is used to compile the c++ program
using g++
Parameter Parameter is variable in the declaration of function
definition.
parse To split an input into pieces of data that can be easily
stored or manipulated.
pass Can be used as placeholder in functions and loops.
Projection ( π ) The projection eliminates all attributes of the input
relation but those mentioned in the projection list
Prompt Character (<<<) displayed by the interpreter to
indicate that it is ready to take input from the user.
Pure Functions Pure functions always returns the same result if the
same arguments are passed in
Python prompt >>>

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Queue is an abstract data structure, somewhat similar

to Stacks. Unlike stacks, a queue is open at both its
Queue ends. One end is always used to insert data(enqueue)
and the other is used to remove data(dequeue). Queue
follows First-In-First-Out methodology, i.e., the data
item stored first will be accessed first.
RDBMS Relational Database Management System
recursion When a function calls itself is known as recursion.
Redundant Duplication of data
Routines routines are otherwise called as functions or methods.
In Python it is also called as definition
Schema Structure or model
Visibility of variables, parameters and functions in
Scope one part of a program to another part of the same
program.
Script A Python program stored in a file.
Script Mode A way of using the Python interpreter by typing
command and expressions at the prompt.
Select ( σ ) The SELECT operation is used for selecting a subset of
the tuples according to a given selection condition
Selectors Functions that retrieve information from the data
type.
Sequential One after another
Set difference(-) (-) symbol denotes it. The result of A-B is a relation
which includes all tuples that are in A but not in B.
skipinitialspace=true When true, whitespace immediately following the
delimeter is ignored. The default is false
slicing cut
A stack (sometimes called a “push-down stack”) is an
ordered collection of items where the addition of new
Stack items and the removal of existing items always takes
place at the same end. This end is commonly referred
to as the “top.” The end opposite the top is known as
the “base.This ordering principle is sometimes called
LIFO, last- in first-out.
stride a long step
string sequence of letters, numbers or symbols
subscript an index number

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Syntax The structure of a program

Syntax Error An error in a program that makes it impossible to
parse.
Token One of the basic elements of the syntactic structure
of a program.
It is a sequence of immutable(not changeable) objects.
Tuple Tuples are sequences, just like lists.Tuples are defined
by having values between parentheses ( ).
Union operation(U) Union is symbolized by symbol. It includes all tuples
that are in tables A or in B.
variable Memory box to store values
writer ow() Method to write a single row of data in a file
writer ows() Method to write multiple rows of data in a file
FALSE Logical value 0
TRUE Logical value 1

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ANNEXURE - 1
List of Python Functions
I. Built-in Functions
Function Description
abs() returns absolute value of a number
all() returns true when all elements in iterable is true
any() Checks if any Element of an Iterable is True
ascii() Returns String Containing Printable Representation
bin() converts integer to binary string
bool() Converts a Value to Boolean
bytearray() returns array of given byte size
bytes() returns immutable bytes object
callable() Checks if the Object is Callable
chr() Returns a Character (a string) from an Integer
classmethod() returns class method for given function
compile() Returns a Python code object
complex() Creates a Complex Number
delattr() Deletes Attribute From the Object
dir() Tries to Return Attributes of Object
divmod() Returns a Tuple of Quotient and Remainder
enumerate() Returns an Enumerate Object
eval() Runs Python Code Within Program
exec() Executes Dynamically Created Program
filter() constructs iterator from elements which are true
float() returns floating point number from number, string
format() returns formatted representation of a value
getattr() returns value of named attribute of an object
globals() returns dictionary of current global symbol table
hasattr() returns whether object has named attribute
hash() returns hash value of an object
help() Invokes the built-in Help System
hex() Converts to Integer to Hexadecimal
id() Returns Identify of an Object
isinstance() Checks if a Object is an Instance of Class
issubclass() Checks if a Object is Subclass of a Class
iter() returns iterator for an object
len() Returns Length of an Object
locals() Returns dictionary of a current local symbol table
map() Applies Function and Returns a List
max() returns largest element
memoryview() returns memory view of an argument
min() returns smallest element
next() Retrieves Next Element from Iterator
object() Creates a Featureless Object
oct() converts integer to octal

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open() Returns a File object

ord() returns Unicode code point for Unicode character
pow() returns x to the power of y
print() Prints the Given Object
property() returns a property attribute
range() return sequence of integers between start and stop
repr() returns printable representation of an object
reversed() returns reversed iterator of a sequence
round() rounds a floating point number to ndigits places.
set() returns a Python set
setattr() sets value of an attribute of object
slice() creates a slice object specified by range()
sorted() returns sorted list from a given iterable
staticmethod() creates static method from a function
str() returns informal representation of an object
sum() Add items of an Iterable
super() Allow you to Refer Parent Class by super
type() Returns Type of an Object
vars() Returns __dict__ attribute of a class
__import__() Advanced Function Called by import

II. String Functions

Function Description
capitalize() Converts first character to Capital Letter
casefold() converts to casefolded strings
center() Pads string with specified character
count() returns occurrences of substring in string
encode() returns encoded string of given string
endswith() Checks if String Ends with the Specified Suffix
expandtabs() Replaces Tab character With Spaces
find() Returns the index of first occurrence of substring
format() formats string into nicer output
format_map() Formats the String Using Dictionary
index() Returns Index of Substring
input() reads and returns a line of string
int() returns integer from a number or string
isalnum() Checks Alphanumeric Character
isalpha() Checks if All Characters are Alphabets
isdecimal() Checks Decimal Characters
isdigit() Checks Digit Characters
isidentifier() Checks for Valid Identifier
islower() Checks if all Alphabets in a String are Lowercase
isnumeric() Checks Numeric Characters
isprintable() Checks Printable Character
isspace() Checks Whitespace Characters
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istitle() Checks for Titlecased String

isupper() returns if all characters are uppercase characters
join() Returns a Concatenated String
ljust() returns left-justified string of given width
lower() returns lowercased string
lstrip() Removes Leading Characters
maketrans() returns a translation table
partition() Returns a Tuple
replace() Replaces Substring Inside
rfind() Returns the Highest Index of Substring
rindex() Returns Highest Index of Substring
rjust() returns right-justified string of given width
rpartition() Returns a Tuple
rsplit() Splits String From Right
rstrip() Removes Trailing Characters
slice() creates a slice object specified by range()
split() Splits String from Left
splitlines() Splits String at Line Boundaries
startswith() Checks if String Starts with the Specified String
strip() Removes Both Leading and Trailing Characters
swapcase() swap uppercase characters to lowercase; vice versa
title() Returns a Title Cased String
translate() returns mapped charactered string
upper() returns uppercased string
zfill() Returns a Copy of The String Padded With Zeros

III. List Functions

Function Description
append() Add Single Element to The List
clear() Removes all Items from the List
copy() Returns Shallow Copy of a List
count() returns occurrences of element in a list
extend() Add Elements of a List to Another List
index() returns smallest index of element in list
insert() Inserts Element to The List
list() Function creates list in Python
pop() Removes Element at Given Index
remove() Removes Element from the List
reverse() Reverses a List
slice() creates a slice object specified by range()
sort() sorts elements of a list

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IV. Tuple Functions

Function Description
count() returns occurrences of element in a tuple
index() returns smallest index of element in tuple
slice() creates a slice object specified by range()
tuple() Function Creates a Tuple
zip() Returns an Iterator of Tuples

V. Set Functions
Function Description
add() adds element to a set
clear() remove all elements from a set
copy() Returns Shallow Copy of a Set
difference() Returns Difference of Two Sets
difference_update() Updates Calling Set With Intersection of Sets
discard() Removes an Element from The Set
frozenset() returns immutable frozenset object
intersection() Returns Intersection of Two or More Sets
intersection_update() Updates Calling Set With Intersection of Sets
isdisjoint() Checks Disjoint Sets
issubset() Checks if a Set is Subset of Another Set
issuperset() Checks if a Set is Superset of Another Set
pop() Removes an Arbitrary Element
remove() Removes Element from the Set
set() returns a Python set
symmetric_difference() Returns Symmetric Difference
symmetric_difference_update() Updates Set With Symmetric Difference
union() Returns Union of Sets
update() Add Elements to The Set.

VI. Dictionary Functions

Function Description
clear() Removes all Items
copy() Returns Shallow Copy of a Dictionary
dict() Creates a Dictionary
fromkeys() creates dictionary from given sequence
get() Returns Value of The Key
items() returns view of dictionary's (key, value) pair
keys() Returns View Object of All Keys
pop() removes and returns element having given key
popitem() Returns & Removes Element From Dictionary
setdefault() Inserts Key With a Value if Key is not Present
update() Updates the Dictionary
values() returns view of all values in dictionary

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PRACTICAL EXERCISES

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Computer Science

PRACTICAL PROGRAMS WITH SOLUTION

Practical Guide

Instructions:

1. Eight exercises from Python and two exercises from MySQL are practiced in the
practical classes

2. One question from Python with internal choice

3. Distribution of Marks

I. Internal Assessment: 5 Marks

Record Book 5 Marks

II. External Assessment: 15 Marks

(a) Python Program coding 10 Marks

(b) Execution & Output 5 Marks

Total 20 Marks

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INDEX

Question Page
S No Program Name
Number Number

(a) Calculate Factorial

1 PY1 334
(b) Sum of Series

(a) Odd or Even

2 PY2 335
(b) Reverse the String

3 PY3 Generate values and remove odd numbers 336

Generate prime numbers and set

4 PY4 337
operations

5 PY5 Display a string elements - using class 338

6 DB6 MySQL - Employee table 340

7 DB7 MySQL - Student table 344

8 PY8 Python with CSV 349

9 PY9 Python with SQL 351

10 PY10 Python Graphics with PIP 353

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PY1(a) – Calculate Factorial

Write a program to calculate the factorial of the given number using for loop (Don’t
1(a)
use built-in function factorial).

Aim: To calculate the factorial of the given number using for loop.

Coding:

num = int(input('Enter a Number: '))

fact = 1
for i in range(1,num+1):
fact = fact * i
print("Factorial of ", num, " is ", fact)
Output:

Enter a Number: 5
Factorial of 5 is 120
Result:
Thus the Python program to calculate factorial has been done and the output is verified.

PY1 (b) - Sum of Series

1(b) Write a program to sum the series 11 /1 + 22/2 + 33/3 + ……. nn/n

Aim
To calculate the sum of the series : 11 /1 + 22/2 + 33/3 + ……. nn/n
Coding:

n = int(input("Enter a value of n: "))

s=0
for i in range(1,n+1):
a= (i**i)/i
s=s+a
print("The sum of the series is ", s)
Output:

Enter a value of n: 4
The sum of the series is 76

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PY2(a) – Odd or Even

2(a) Write a program using functions to check whether a number is even or odd.

Aim: To check whether a number is even or odd using user defined function.

Coding:

def oddeven(a):
if (a%2==0):
return "Even"
else:
return "Odd"
num = int(input("Enter a number: "))
print("The given number is ", oddeven(num))
Output:

Enter a number: 7
The given number is Odd
Enter a number: 6
The given number is Even

Result:

Thus the Python program to check whether a number is odd or even has been done and the
output is verified.
PY2(b) – Reverse the string

Write a program to create reverse of the given string. For example,

2(b)
“wel” = “lew“. (Don’t use string slice with stride operation)

Aim: To create a reverse of the given string

Coding:

def reverse(str1):
str2=''
for i in str1:
str2 = i + str2
return str2
word = input("\n Enter a String: ")
print("\n The reverse of the given string is: ", reverse(word))

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Output:

Enter a String: school

The reverse of the given string is: loohcs
Result:

Thus the Python program to reverse the string has been done and the output is verified.

PY3 – Generate values and remove odd numbers

Write a program to generate values from 1 to 10 and then remove all the odd
3 numbers from the list.

Aim: To generate values from 1 to 10 and then remove all the odd numbers from the list.

Coding:

num = list(range(1,11))
print("Numbers from 1 to 10.....\n",num)
for i in num:
if(i%2 == 1):
num.remove(i)
print("The values after removing odd numbers.....\n",num)

Output:

Numbers from 1 to 10.....

[1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10]
The values after removed odd numbers.....

[2, 4, 6, 8, 10]
Result:

Thus the Python program to generate values from 1 to 10 and then remove all the odd numbers
from the list has been done and the output is verified.

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PY4 – Generate prime numbers and set operations

Write a Program that generate a set of prime numbers and another set of odd
4. numbers. Display the result of union, intersection, difference and symmetric
difference operations.

Aim:  To generate a set of prime numbers and another set of odd numbers, and to display
the result of union, intersection, difference and symmetric difference operations.
Coding:
odd = set(range (1,10,2))
prime=set()
for i in range(2,10):
for j in range (2,i):
if (i%j==0):
break
else:
prime.add(i)
print("Odd Numbers: ", odd)
print("Prime Numbers: ", prime)
print("Union: ", odd.union(prime))
print("Intersection: ", odd.intersection(prime))
print("Difference: ", odd.difference(prime))

print("Symmetric Difference: ", odd.symmetric_difference(prime))

Output:

Odd Numbers: {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}

Prime Numbers: {2, 3, 5, 7}
Union: {1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 9}
Intersection: {3, 5, 7}
Difference: {1, 9}
Symmetric Difference: {1, 2, 9}
Result:

Thus the Python program to generate prime numbers and set operations has been done and
the output is verified.

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PY5 – Display a string elements – using class

Write a program to accept a string and print the number of uppercase,

5. lowercase, vowels, consonants and spaces in the given string using Class.

Aim:  o accept a string and print the number of uppercase, lowercase, vowels, consonants
T
and spaces in the given string using Class.
Coding:
class String:
def __init__(self):
self.upper=0
self.lower=0
self.vowel=0
self.consonant=0
self.space=0
self.string=""
def getstr(self):
self.string=str(input("Enter a String: "))
def count(self):
for ch in self.string:
if (ch.isupper()):
self.uppercase+=1
if (ch.islower()):
self.lowercase+=1
if (ch in ('AEIOUaeiou')):
self.vowel+=1
if (ch==""):
self.spaces+=1
self.consonant=self.upper+self.lower-self.vowel
def display(self):
print("The given string contains...")
print("%d Uppercase letters"%self.upper)
print("%d Lowercase letters"%self.lower)
print("%d Vowels"%self.vowel)
print("%d Consonants"%self.consonant)
print("%d Spaces"%self.space)

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S = String()
S.getstr()
S.execute()
S.display()
Output:

Enter a String: Welcome to Computer Science

The given string contains...
3 Uppercase letters
21 Lowercase letters
10 Vowels
14 Consonants
3 Spaces
Result:

Thus the Python program to display a string elements – using class has been done and the
output is verified.

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DB6 – MySQL – Employee table

Create an Employee Table with the fields Empno, Empname, Desig, Dept, Age
6. and Place. Enter five records into the table.
Add two more records to the table.
● Modify the table structure by adding one more field namely date of joining.
● Check for Null value in doj of any record.
● List the employees who joined after 01/01/2018.
Aim:

(1) To Create employee table with Empno, Empname, Desig, Dept, Age and Place fields.
(2) Insert five records
(3) Add two more records
(4) Modify table structure
(5) Check for NULL values
(6) List required subset of records
SQL QUERIES AND OUTPUT:
(i) Creating Table Employee

mysql> Create table Employee (Empno integer(4) primary key,

Empname varchar(20), Desig varchar(10), Dept varchar(10),

Age integer(2), Place varchar(10));

(ii) View Table Structure:

mysql> Desc Employee;

Field Type Null Key Default Extra

Empno int(4) NO PRI NULL

Empname varchar(20) YES NULL

Desig varchar(10) YES NULL

Dept varchar(10) YES NULL

Age int(2) YES NULL

Place varchar(10) YES NULL

6 rows in set (0.00 sec)

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(iii) Inserting Data into Table:

mysql> Insert into employee values(1221, 'Sidharth', 'Officer', 'Accounts', 45, 'Salem');

mysql> Insert into employee values(1222, 'Naveen', 'Manager', 'Admin', 32, 'Erode');

mysql> Insert into employee values(1223, 'Ramesh', 'Clerk', 'Accounts', 33, 'Ambathur');

mysql> Insert into employee values(1224, 'Abinaya', 'Manager', 'Admin', 28, 'Anna Nagar');

mysql> Insert into employee values(1225, 'Rahul', 'Officer', 'Accounts', 31, 'Anna Nagar');

(iv) Select all the record:

mysql> select * from Employee;

Empno Empname Desig Dept Age Place

1221 Sidharth Officer Accounts 45 Salem
1222 Naveen Manager Admin 32 Erode
1223 Ramesh Clerk Accounts 33 Ambathur
1224 Abinaya Manager Admin 28 Anna Nagar
1225 Rahul Officer Accounts 31 Anna Nagar
5 rows in set (0.00 sec)

(v) Adding two more records:

mysql> Insert into employee values(3226, 'Sona', 'Manager', 'Accounts', 42, 'Erode');

mysql> Insert into employee values(3227, 'Rekha', 'Officer', 'Admin', 34, 'Salem');

mysql> select * from Employee;

Empno Empname Desig Dept Age Place

1221 Sidharth Officer Accounts 45 Salem
1222 Naveen Manager Admin 32 Erode
1223 Ramesh Clerk Accounts 33 Ambathur
1224 Abinaya Manager Admin 28 Anna Nagar
1225 Rahul Officer Accounts 31 Anna Nagar
3226 Sona Manager Accounts 42 Erode
3227 Rekha Officer Admin 34 Salem
7 rows in set (0.00 sec)

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(vi) Adding one more Field:

mysql> Alter table employee add(doj date);

mysql> desc employee;

Field Type Null Key Default Extra
Empno int(4) NO PRI NULL
Empname varchar(20) YES NULL
Desig varchar(10) YES NULL
Dept varchar(10) YES NULL

Age int(2) YES NULL

Place varchar(10) YES NULL
doj date YES NULL
7 rows in set (0.00 sec)
(vii) Inserting date of joining to each employee:

mysql> update employee set doj = '21-03-2010' where empno=1221;

mysql> update employee set doj = '13-05-2012' where empno=1222;

mysql> update employee set doj = '25-10-2017' where empno=1223;

mysql> update employee set doj = '17-06-2018' where empno=1224;

mysql> update employee set doj = '02-01-2018' where empno=1225;

mysql> update employee set doj = '31-12-2017' where empno=3226;

mysql> update employee set doj = '16-08-2015' where empno=3227;

mysql> select * from Employee;

Empno Empname Desig Dept Age Place doj

1221 Sidharth Officer Accounts 45 Salem 2010-03-21
1222 Naveen Manager Admin 32 Erode 2012-05-13
1223 Ramesh Clerk Accounts 33 Ambathur 2017-10-25
1224 Abinaya Manager Admin 28 Anna Nagar 2018-06-17
1225 Rahul Officer Accounts 31 Anna Nagar 2018-01-02
3226 Sona Manager Accounts 42 Erode 2017-12-31
3227 Rekha Officer Admin 34 Salem 2015-08-16
7 rows in set (0.00 sec)

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(viii) Checking null value in doj

mysql> select * from emp where empno is null;

Empty set (0.00 sec)

(ix) List the employees who joined after 01/01/2018.

mysql> Select * from emp where doj > '01-01-2018';

Empno Empname Desig Dept Age Place doj

1224 Abinaya Manager Admin 28 Anna Nagar 2018-06-17
1225 Rahul Officer Accounts 31 Anna Nagar 2018-01-02

2 rows in set (0.00 sec)

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DB7 - MySQL – Student table

7 Create a table with following fields and enter data as given in the table below.

Field Name Type Size

Reg_No char 5

Sname varchar 15

Age int 2

Dept varchar 10

Class char 3

Data to be entered :

Reg_No Sname Age Dept Class

M1001 Harish 19 ME ME1

M1002 Akash 20 ME ME2

C1001 Sneha 20 CSE CS1

C1002 Lithya 19 CSE CS2

E1001 Ravi 20 ECE EC1

E1002 Leena 21 EEE EE1

E1003 Rose 20 ECE EC2

Then, query the followings :

(i) List the students whose department is “Computer Science”.
(ii) List all the students of age 20 and more in Mechanical department.
(iii) List the students department wise.
(iv) Modify the class M2 to M1.
(v) Check for the uniqueness of Register no.

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SQL QUERIES AND OUTPUT

(1) Creating Table - Student

mysql> Create table Student(Reg_Nochar(5), Sname varchar(20), Age integer(2),

Dept varchar(10), Class char(3));

Query OK, 0 rows affected (0.51 sec)

View table structure:

mysql> desc Student;

Field Type Null Key Default Extra

Reg_No char(5) YES NULL

Sname varchar(20) YES NULL

Age int(2) YES NULL

Dept varchar(10) YES NULL

Class char(3) YES NULL

5 rows in set (0.02 sec)

(2) Inserting Data into table:

mysql> Insert into Student values ('M1001', 'Harish', 19, 'ME', 'ME1');

mysql> Insert into Student values ('M1002', 'Akash', 20, 'ME', 'ME2');

mysql> Insert into Student values ('C1001', 'Sneha', 20, 'CSE', 'CS1');

mysql> Insert into Student values ('C1002', 'Lithya', 19, 'CSE', 'CS2');

mysql> Insert into Student values ('E1001', 'Ravi', 20, 'ECE', 'EC1');

mysql> Insert into Student values ('E1002', 'Leena', 21, 'EEE', 'EE1');

mysql> Insert into Student values ('E1003', 'Rose', 20, 'ECE', 'EC2');

View all records :

mysql> select * from Student;

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Reg_No Sname Age Dept Class

M1001 Harish 19 ME ME1

M1002 Akash 20 ME ME2

C1001 Sneha 20 CSE CS1

C1002 Lithya 19 CSE CS2

E1001 Ravi 20 ECE EC1

E1002 Leena 21 EEE EE1

E1003 Rose 20 ECE EC2

7 rows in set (0.00 sec)

(3) Other Queries:

(i) List the students whose department is “CSE”:

mysql> Select * from Student where Dept='CSE';

Reg_No Sname Age Dept Class

C1001 Sneha 20 CSE CS1

C1002 Lithya 19 CSE CS2

2 rows in set (0.03 sec)

(ii) List all the students of age 20 and more in ME department:

mysql> Select * from Student where Age >=20 and Dept='ME';

Reg_No Sname Age Dept Class

M1002 Akash 20 ME ME2

1 row in set (0.02 sec)

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(iii) List the students department wise:

mysql> Select * from Student Group by Dept Order by Sname;

Reg_No Sname Age Dept Class

M1001 Harish 19 ME ME1

E1002 Leena 21 CSE EE1

E1001 Ravi 20 ECE EC1

C1001 Sneha 20 EEE CS1

4 rows in set (0.00 sec)

(iv) Modify the class M2 to M1:

mysql> Update Student set Class='ME1' where Class='ME2';

Query OK, 1 row affected (0.11 sec)
Rows matched: 1 Changed: 1 Warnings: 0

mysql> select * from Student;

Reg_No Sname Age Dept Class

M1001 Harish 19 ME ME1

M1002 Akash 20 ME ME2

C1001 Sneha 20 CSE CS1

C1002 Lithya 19 CSE CS2

E1001 Ravi 20 ECE EC1

E1002 Leena 21 EEE EE1

E1003 Rose 20 ECE EC2

7 rows in set (0.00 sec)

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(v) Check for the uniqueness of Register no.

mysql> Select Distinct Reg_No from Student;

Reg_No

M1001

M1002

C1001

C1002

E1001

E1002

E1003

7 rows in set (0.02 sec)

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PY8 – Python with CSV

8 Write a program using python to get 10 players name and their score. Write the
input in a csv file. Accept a player name using python. Read the csv file to
display the name and the score. If the player name is not found give an appropriate
message.

Aim:  To get 10 players name and their score. Write the input in a csv file. Accept a player
name using python. Read the csv file to display the name and the score. If the player
name is not found give an appropriate message.

Coding:

import csv
with open('c:\\pyprg\\player.csv', 'w', newline=’’ ) as f:
w = csv.writer(f)
n=1
while (n<=10):
name = input("Player Name?:" )
score = int(input("Score: "))
w.writerow([name,score])
n+=1
print("Player File created")
f.close()
searchname=input("Enter the name to be searched ")
f=open('c:\\pyprg\\player.csv','r')
reader =csv.reader(f)
lst=[]
for row in reader:
lst.append(row)
q=0
for row in lst:
if searchname in row:

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print(row)
q+=1
if(q==0):
print("string not found")
f.close()
f.close()
Output:

Player Name?:Rohit Sharma

Score: 264
Player Name?:VirenderSehwag
Score: 219
Player Name?:Sachin Tendulkar
Score: 200
Player Name?:Dhoni
Score: 190
Player Name?:Sachin Tendulkar
Score: 250
Player Name?:ViratKohli
Score: 148
Player Name?:Ganguly
Score: 158
Player Name?:KapilDev
Score: 175
Player Name?:Amarnath
Score: 148
Player Name?:SunilGavaskar
Score: 200
Player File created
Enter the name to be searched Sachin Tendulkar
['Sachin Tendulkar', '200']
['Sachin Tendulkar', '250']

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PY9 – Python with SQL

9 Create a sql table using python and accept 10 names and age .sort in descending
order of age and display.

Aim:  o create a sql table using python and accept 10 names and age. sort in descending
T
order of age and display.

Coding:

import sqlite3

connection = sqlite3.connect("info.db")

cursor = connection.cursor()

cursor.execute("create table student(name, age)")

print("Enter 10 students names and their ages respectively:")

for i in range(10):

who =[input("Enter Name:")]

age =[int(input("Enter Age:"))]

n =len(who)

for i in range(n):

cursor.execute("insert into student values (?, ?)", (who[i],age[i]))

cursor.execute("select * from student order by age desc")

print("Displaying All the Records From student Table in Descending order of age")

print (*cursor.fetchall(),sep='\n' )

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Output:

Enter 10 students names and their ages respectively:

Enter Name:Annamalai
Enter Age:17
Enter Name:Aashik Mathew
Enter Age:23
Enter Name:Kumaran
Enter Age:30
Enter Name:Sivasakthiya
Enter Age:28
Enter Name:Leena
Enter Age:45
Enter Name:Meena
Enter Age:65
Enter Name:Kamalakannan
Enter Age:35
Enter Name:Sowmyaa
Enter Age:20
Enter Name:Ramaa
Enter Age:70
Enter Name:Melvin
Enter Age:35
Displaying All the Records From student Table in Descending order of age
('Ramaa', 70)
('Meena', 65)
('Leena', 45)
('Kamalakannan', 35)
('Melvin', 35)
('Kumaran', 30)
('Sivasakthiya', 28)
('Aashik Mathew', 23)
('Sowmyaa', 20)
('Annamalai', 17)

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PY10 – Python Graphics with Pip

10 Write a program to get five marks using list and display the marks in pie chart.

Aim: To get five marks using list and display the marks in pie chart using matplot.

Coding:

importmatplotlib.pyplot as plt
marks=[]
i=0
subjects = ["Tamil", "English", "Maths", "Science", "Social"]
while i<5:
marks.append(int(input("Enter Mark = ")))
i+=1
for j in range(len(marks)):
print("{}.{} Mark = {}".format(j+1, subjects[j],marks[j]))

plt.pie (marks, labels = subjects, autopct = "%.2f ")

plt.show()
Output:
English
Enter Mark = 67
Tamil
Enter Mark = 31 10.16
21.97
Enter Mark = 45
Maths 14.75
Enter Mark = 89
23.93
Enter Mark = 73 29.18 Social

1.Tamil Mark = 67
Science
2.English Mark = 31
3.Maths Mark = 45
4.Science Mark = 89
5.Social Mark = 73

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COMPUTER SCIENCE – XII

List of Authors and Reviewers

Domain Expert Authors

Dr. T.V.Gopal Mr. Kannan K
Professor, Dept of Computer Science and Technology, Post Graduate Teacher, Chennai Girls Hr Sec School,
College of Engineering, Guindy, Anna University, Chennai. Rotler street , Chennai

Mr. Ramakrishnan V G
Reviewers Post Graduate Teacher, Karnataka Sangha Hr Sec School,
Dr. Ranjani Parthasarathi T Nagar, Chennai
Professor, Dept of Info Sci and Tech, College of Engineering, Guindy, Mrs. Dr. Vidhya H
Anna University, Chennai Post Graduate Teacher,
DAV Boys Senior Secondary School,
Content Expert Gopalapuram, Chennai.

Mr. Malaiarasu P Mr. Sreenivasan R

Associate Professor, Dept of Computer Science, Post Graduate Teacher, Santhome Hr Sec School, Mylapore, Chennai
Govt. Arts College, Perumpakkam, Chennai
Mr. Gowrisankar N.V
Dr. Ramesh Kumar M Post Graduate Teacher, Chennai Girls Hr Sec School,
Assistent Professor and Head of the Department, Nungambakkam, Chennai
Dept of Computer Science,
Govt. Arts College, Nandhanam, Chennai Mr. Lenin K
Post Graduate Teacher, Chennai Girls Hr Sec School, Saidapet, Chennai
Dr. Radha P
Assistant Professor, Dept of Information Technology, Mrs. Bindhu Mohandas
Govt. Arts & Science College (A), Coimbatore Post Graduate Teacher, Vijayanta Model Hr Sec School,
H.V.F Estate , Avadi, Chennai
Dr. Nester Jeyakumar M
Associate Professor and Head of the Department, Mrs. Gajalakshmi R
Dept of Computer Science, Loyola College, Chennai Post Graduate Teacher, Jaigopal Garodia Hindu Vidyalaya Hr Sec School,
West Mambalam, Chennai

Experts Co-ordinator Dr. Valarmathi K E

Post Graduate Teacher, Velammal Vidhyashram, Surapet, Chennai
Mr. Ravikumar Arumugam
Principal, District Institute of Education and Training,
Mayannur, Karur Dt.

EMIS Technology Team

Academic Coordinators
R.M. Satheesh
Mrs. Tamil Selvi R State Coordinator Technical,
B.T. Assistant, TN EMIS, Samagra Shiksha.
Government High School, Poonampalayam, Trichy District
K.P. Sathya Narayana
IT Consultant,
TN EMIS, Samagra Shikaha

R. Arun Maruthi Selvan

Art and Design Team Technical Project Consultant,

TN EMIS, Samagra Shiksha

Layout
THY designers and computers
Chennai
Typist
In-House
Mrs. Meena T
SCERT, Chennai.
QC - Rajesh Thangapan
- Mathan Raj R
- Balasubramani. R
- Wrapper Design - Kathir Arumugam

Co-ordination
Ramesh Munisamy
This book has been printed on 80 G.S.M.
Elegant Maplitho paper.

Printed by offset at:

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