BM3551 Embedded Systems and IoMT Lecture Notes 1

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GANESH COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, SALEM
BM3551-EMBEDDED SYSTEM AND IOMT NOTES
V- SEMESTER-BME (R-2021)
DEPARTMENT OF BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING
Prepared By
Mr.B.VINOD B.E.,M.E.,(Ph.D)
Assistant Professor & BME
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UNIT I: INTRODUCTION TO EMBEDDED SYSTEM DESIGN
1.1 Overview of Embedded Application Architecture
Embedded systems, an emerging area of computer technology, combine multiple

technologies, such as computers, semiconductors, microelectronics, and the Internet, and as a
result, are finding ever-increasing application in our modern world. With the rapid development
of computer and communications technologies and the growing use of the Internet, embedded
systems have brought immediate success and widespread application in the post-PC era,
especially as the core components of the Internet of Things. They penetrate into every corner of
modern life from the mundane, such as an automated home thermostat, to industrial production,
such as in robotic automation in manufacturing. Embedded systems can be found in military and
national defense, healthcare, science, education, and commercial services, and from mobile
phones, MP3 players, and PDAs to cars, planes, and missiles.
This chapter provides the concepts, structure, and other basic information about
embedded systems and lays a theoretical foundation for embedded application development, of
which application development for Android OS is becoming the top interest of developers.
1.2 Introduction to Embedded Systems
Since the advent of the first computer, the ENIAC, in 1946, the computer manufacturing
process has gone from vacuum tubes, transistors, integrated circuits, and large-scale integration
(LSI), to very-large-scale integration (VLSI), resulting in computers that are more compact,
powerful, and energy efficient but less expensive (per unit of computing power).
After the advent of microprocessors in the 1970s, the computer-using world witnessed
revolutionary change. Microprocessors are the basis of microcomputers, and personal computers
(PCs) made them more affordable and practical, allowing many private users to own them. At
this stage, computers met a variety of needs: they were sufficiently versatile to satisfy various
demands such as computing, entertainment, information sharing, and office automation. As the
adoption of microcomputers was occurring, more people wanted to embed them into specific
systems to intelligently control the environment. For example, microcomputers were used in
machine tools in factories. They were used to control signals and monitor the operating state
through the configuration of peripheral sensors. When microcomputers were embedded into such

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environments, they were prototypes of embedded systems.
As the technology advanced, more industries demanded special computer systems. As a

result, the development direction and goals of specialized computer systems for specific
environments and general-purpose computer systems grew apart. The technical requirement of
general-purpose computer systems is fast, massive, and diversified computing, whereas the goal
of technical development is faster computing speed and larger storage capacity. However, the
technical requirement of embedded computer systems is targeted more toward the intelligent
control of targets, whereas the goal of technical development is embedded performance, control,
and reliability closely related to the target system.
Embedded computing systems evolved in a completely different way. By emphasizing

the characteristics of a particular processor, they turned traditional electronic systems into
modern intelligent electronic systems. Figure 1-1 shows an embedded computer processor, the
Intel Atom N2600 processor, which is 2.2 × 2.2 cm, alongside a penny.
Figure 1.1: Comparison of an embedded computer chip to a US penny.
The emergence of embedded computer systems alongside general-purpose computer

systems is a milestone of modern computer technologies. The comparison of general-purpose
computers and embedded systems is shown in Table 1-1.
Today, embedded systems are an integral part of people's lives due to their mobility. As
mentioned earlier, they are used everywhere in modern life. Smartphones are a great example of
embedded systems.
Table 1-1. Comparison of General-Purpose Computers and Embedded Systems

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1.2.1 Mobile Phones
Mobile equipment, especially smartphones, is the fastest growing embedded sector in

recent years. Many new terms such as extensive embedded development and mobile development
have been derived from mobile software development. Mobile phones not only arepervasive but
also have powerful functions, affordable prices, and diversified applications. In addition to basic
telephone functions, they include, but are not limited to, integrated PDAs, digital cameras, game
consoles, music players, and wearables.
1.2.2 Consumer Electronics and Information Appliances
Consumer electronics and information appliances are additional big application sectors
for embedded systems. Devices that fall into this category include personal mobile devices and
home/entertainment/audiovisual devices. Personal mobile devices usually include smart
handsets such as PDAs, as well as wireless Internet access equipment like mobile Internet devices
(MIDs). In theory, smartphones are also in this class; but due to their large number, theyare listed
as a single sector.
Home/entertainment/audiovisual devices mainly include network television like

interactive television; digital imaging equipment such as digital cameras, digital photo frames,
and video players; digital audio and video devices such as MP3 players and other portable audio
players; and electronic entertainment devices such as handheld game consoles, PS2 consoles,
and so on. Tablet PCs (tablets), one of the newer types of embedded devices, have become
favorites of consumers since Apple released the iPad in 2010.
1.3 General Architecture of an Embedded System
Figure 1-2 shows a configuration diagram of a typical embedded system consisting of

two main parts: embedded hardware and embedded software. The embedded hardware primarily
includes the processor, memory, bus, peripheral devices, I/O ports, and various controllers. The
embedded software usually contains the embedded operating system and various applications.
Input and output are characteristics of any open system, and the embedded system is no
exception. In the embedded system, the hardware and software often collaborate to deal with
various input signals from the outside and output the processing results through some form.

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Figure 1.2: Basic architecture of an embedded system
The input signal may be an ergonomic device (such as a keyboard, mouse, or touch
screen) or the output of a sensor circuit in another embedded system. The output may be in the
form of sound, light, electricity, or another analog signal, or a record or file for a database.
The basic computer system components—microprocessor, memory, and input and output
modules are interconnected by a system bus in order for all the parts to communicate and execute
a program (see Figure 1-3).
Figure 1.3: Hardware architecture of Embedded System
In embedded systems, the microprocessor's role and function are usually the same as those of
the CPU in a general-purpose computer: control computer operation, execute instructions, and
process data. In many cases, the microprocessor in an embedded system is also called the CPU.
Memory is used to store instructions and data. I/O modules are responsible for the data exchange
between the processor, memory, and external devices.

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External devices include secondary storage devices (such as flash and hard disk),
communications equipment, and terminal equipment. The system bus provides data and controls
signal communication and transmission for the processor, memory, and I/O modules.
There are basically two types of architecture that apply to embedded systems: Von Neumann
architecture and Harvard architecture. In a Von-Neumann architecture, the same memory and
bus are used to store both data and instructions that run the program. Since you cannot access
program memory and data memory simultaneously, the Von Neumann architecture is susceptible
to bottlenecks and system performance is affected.
1.3.1 Von Neumann Architecture
Von Neumann architecture (also known as Princeton architecture) was first proposed by
John von Neumann. The most important feature of this architecture is that the software and data
use the same memory: that is, “The program is data, and the data is the program” (as shown in
Figure 1-4).
Figure 1.4: Von Neumann architecture

In the Von Neumann architecture, an instruction and data share the same bus. In this
architecture, the transmission of information becomes the bottleneck of computer performance
and affects the speed of data processing; so, it is often called the Von Neumann bottleneck. In
reality, cache and branch-prediction technology can effectively solve this issue.
1.3.2 Harvard Architecture
The Harvard architecture was first named after the Harvard Mark I computer. Compared
with the Von Neumann architecture, a Harvard architecture processor has two outstanding

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features. First, instructions and data are stored in two separate memory modules; instructions and
data do not coexist in the same module. Second, two independent buses are used as dedicated
communication paths between the CPU and memory; there is no connection between the two
buses. The Harvard architecture is shown in Figure 1-5.
To efficiently perform memory reads/writes, the processor is not directly connected to

the main memory, but to the cache. Commonly, the only difference between the Harvard
architecture and the Von Neumann architecture is single or dual L1 cache. In the Harvard
architecture, the L1 cache is often divided into an instruction cache (I cache) and a data cache (D
cache), but the Von-Neumann architecture has a single cache.
Figure 1.5: Harvard architecture
Because the Harvard architecture has separate program memory and data memory, it can
provide greater data-memory bandwidth, making it the ideal choice for digital signal processing.
Most systems designed for digital signal processing (DSP) adopt the Harvard architecture. The
Von Neumann architecture features simple hardware design and flexible program and data
storage and is usually the one chosen for general-purpose and most embedded systems.
1.4. Microprocessor Architecture for Embedded Systems
A microprocessor is the CPU of the computer fabricated on a single chip. The

microprocessor is the core in embedded systems. By installing a microprocessor into a special
circuit board and adding the necessary peripheral circuits and expansion circuits, a practical
embedded system can be created. The microprocessor architecture determines the instructions,

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supporting peripheral circuits, and expansion circuits. There are wide ranges of microprocessors:
8-bit, 16-bit, 32-bit and 64-bit, with clock performance from MHz to GHz, and ranging from a
few pins to thousands of pins.
In general, there are two types of embedded microprocessor architecture: reduced

instruction set computer (RISC) and complex instruction set computer (CISC). The RISC
Nprocessor uses a small, limited, simple instruction set. Each instruction uses a standard word
length and has a short execution time, which facilitates the optimization of the instruction
pipeline. To compensate for the command functions, the CPU is often equipped with a large
number of general-purpose registers. The CISC processor features a powerful instruction set and
different instruction lengths, which facilitates the pipelined execution of instructions.
Currently, microprocessors used in most embedded systems have five architectures:

RISC, CISC, MIPS, PowerPC, and SuperH. The details follow.
1.4.1 CISC Architecture
The CISC approach attempts to minimize the number of instructions per program,
sacrificing the number of cycles per instruction. Computers based on the CISC architecture are
designed to decrease the memory cost (figure 1.6).
Figure 1.6 CISC Architecture
Because, the large programs need more storage, thus increasing the memory cost and large
memory becomes more expensive. To solve these problems, the number of instructions per
program can be reduced by embedding the number of operations in a single instruction, thereby
making the instructions more complex.

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Characteristics of CISC processor
 MUL loads two values from the memory into separate registers in CISC.
 CISC uses minimum possible instructions by implementing hardware and
executes operations.
 Instruction-decoding logic will be Complex.
 One instruction is required to support multiple addressing modes.
 Less chip space is enough for general purpose registers for the instructions that
are operated directly on memory.
 Various CISC designs are set up two special registers for the stack pointer,
handling interrupts, etc.
 MUL is referred to as a “complex instruction” and requires the programmer for
storing functions.
Note: Instruction Set Architecture is a medium to permit communication between the

programmer and the hardware. Data execution part, copying of data, deleting or editing is
the user commands used in the microprocessor and with this microprocessor the
Instruction set architecture is operated.
Examples of CISC PROCESSORS
 IBM 370/168 – It was introduced in the year 1970. CISC design is a 32 bit processor and
four 64-bit floating point registers.
 VAX 11/780 – CISC design is a 32-bit processor and it supports many numbers of
addressing modes and machine instructions which is from Digital Equipment
Corporation.
 Intel 80486 – It was launched in the year 1989 and it is a CISC processor, which has
instructions varying lengths from 1 to 11 and it will have 235 instructions.
1.4.2 RISC Architecture
RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computer) processors take simple instructions and are executed
within a clock cycle. The first RISC projects came from IBM, Stanford, and UC-Berkeley in the
late 70s and early 80s. The IBM 801, Stanford MIPS, and Berkeley RISC 1 and 2 were all
designed with a similar philosophy which has become known as RISC. Certain design features
have been characteristic of most RISC processors:

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 one cycle execution time: RISC processors have a CPI (clock per instruction) of one
cycle. This is due to the optimization of each instruction on the CPU and a technique
called pipelining.
 pipelining: A techique that allows for simultaneous execution of parts, or stages, of

instructions to more efficiently process instructions;
 large number of registers: the RISC design philosophy generally incorporates a larger
number of registers to prevent in large amounts of interactions with memory
RISC is used in portable devices due to its power efficiency. For Example, Apple iPod and
Nintendo DS. RISC is a type of microprocessor architecture that uses highly-optimized set of
instructions. RISC does the opposite, reducing the cycles per instruction at the cost of the number
of instructions per program Pipelining is one of the unique feature of RISC. It is performed by
overlapping the execution of several instructions in a pipeline fashion. It has a high performance
advantage over CISC.
Figure 1.7: RISC Architecture
RISC Architecture Characteristics

 Simple Instructions are used in RISC architecture.
 RISC helps and supports few simple data types and synthesize complex data types.
 RISC utilizes simple addressing modes and fixed length instructions for pipelining.
 RISC permits any register to use in any context.

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 One Cycle Execution Time
 The amount of work that a computer can perform is reduced by separating “LOAD” and
“STORE” instructions.
 RISC contains Large Number of Registers in order to prevent various number of

interactions with memory.
 In RISC, Pipelining is easy as the execution of all instructions will be done in a uniform
interval of time i.e. one click.
 In RISC, more RAM is required to store assembly level instructions.
 Reduced instructions need a less number of transistors in RISC.
 RISC uses Harvard memory model means it is Harvard Architecture.
 A compiler is used to perform the conversion operation means to convert a high-level

language statement into the code of its form.
A comparison of RISC and CISC is given in Table 1-2.
Table 1-2. Comparison of RISC and CISC

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RISC and CISC have distinct characteristics and advantages, but the boundaries between
RISC and CISC begin to blur in the microprocessor sector. Many traditional CISCs absorb RISC
advantages and use a RISC-like design. Intel x86 processors are typical of them. They are
considered as CISC architecture. These processors translate x86 instructions into RISC-like
instructions through a decoder and comply with the RISC design and operation to obtain the
benefits of RISC architecture and improve internal operation efficiency.
1.5 System on Chip (SoC) Processor
With the development of integrated circuit design and manufacturing technology,

integrated circuit design has gone from transistor integration, to logic-gate integration, to the
current IP integration or system on chip (SoC). The SoC design technology integrates popular
circuit modules on a single chip. SoC usually contains a large number of peripheral function
modules such as microprocessor/microcontroller, memory, USB controller, universal
asynchronous receiver/transmitter (UART) controller, A/D and D/A conversion, I2C, and Serial
Peripheral Interface (SPI). Figure 1-8 is an example structure of SoC-based hardware for
embedded systems.
A System on Chip or an SoC is an integrated circuit that incorporates a majority of

components present on a computer. As the name suggests, it is an entire system fabricated on a
silicon chip. SoC also includes software and an interconnection structure for integration. The
hardware-software integration approach makes the SoC smaller in size, allows for less power
consumption, and more reliable than a standard multi-chip system.
1.5.1 Components of an SoC
SoCs can be identified as the following types: built around a microcontroller, build
around a microprocessor, built for specific applications, and programmable SoCs (PSoC). The
integral parts of an SoC include a processor, primary and secondary memory storage and
input/output ports. The other vital components include a graphics processor unit (GPU), a WiFi
module, Digital Signal Processor (DSP), and various peripherals such as USB, Ethernet, SPI
(Serial Peripheral Interface), ADC, DAC, and even FPGAs. Usually, it has multiple cores.
Depending on various deciding factors and preferences, the core can be a microcontroller,
microprocessor, DSP, or even an ASIP (Application Specific Instruction- set Processor). ASIPs
have instruction sets based on a particular application. Usually, SoCs use ARM architecture,
which is a family of RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computing), which requires less digital
design, thereby making it compatible for embedded system use. The ARM architecture is much
more power-efficient than processors like the 8051 because, in contrast to processors using the

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CISC architecture, processors with RISC architecture require fewer transistors. This also reduces
heat dissipation and the cost.
The following diagram shows an example of an SoC block diagram.
Figure 1.8: Example of an SoC block diagram.
1.5.2 Processor architecture/Models for SoC

At the heart of the SoC is its Processor. It usually has multiple processor cores. Multiple
cores allow different processes to run at the same time, which increases the speed of the system
as it enables your computer to perform multiple operations at the same time. The operating
system sees the multiple cores as multiple CPUs, which increases performance. As multiple cores
are fitted onto the same chip, there is less latency, which is because of faster communication
between the cores.
1.5.2.1 Simple Sequential Processor
Sequential processors directly implement the sequential execution model. These processors
process instructions sequentially from the instruction stream. The next instruction is not
processed until all execution for the current instruction is complete and its results have been
committed. The semantics of the instruction determines the sequence of actions that must be
performed to produce the specified result. These actions include
1. fetching the instruction into the instruction register (IF),
2. decoding the opcode of the instruction (ID),
3. generating the address in memory of any data item residing there (AG),

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4. fetching data operands into executable registers (DF),
5. executing the specified operation (EX), and
6. writing back the result to the register file (WB).
A simple sequential processor model is shown in Figure 1.9. During execution, a

sequential processor executes one or more operations per clock cycle from the instruction stream.
An instruction is a container that represents the smallest execution packet managed explicitly by
the processor. One or more operations are contained within an instruction. The distinction
between instructions and operations is crucial to distinguish between processor behaviors. Scalar
and superscalar processors consume one or more instructions per cycle, where each instruction
contains a single operation. Although conceptually simple, executing each instruction
sequentially has significant performance drawbacks: A considerable amount of time is spent on
overhead and not on actual execution. Thus, the simplicity of directly implementing the
sequential execution model has significant performance costs.
Figure1.9: Sequential Processor Model
1.5.2.2 Pipelined Processor
Pipelining is a straightforward approach to exploiting parallelism that is based on

concurrently performing different phases (instruction fetch, decode, execution, etc.) of
processing an instruction. Pipelining assumes that these phases are independent between
different operations and can be overlapped — when this condition does not hold, the processor
stalls the downstream phases to enforce the dependency. Thus, multiple operations can be
processed simultaneously with each operation at a different phase of its processing. Figure 1.10
illustrates the instruction timing in a pipelined processor, assuming that the instructions are
independent.

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For a simple pipelined machine, there is only one operation in each phase at any given
time; thus, one operation is being fetched (IF); one operation is being decoded (ID); one operation
is generating an address (AG); one operation is accessing operands (DF); one operation is in
execution (EX); and one operation is storing results (WB). Figure 1.10 illustrates the generalform
of a pipelined processor.
Figure 1.10: Instruction Execution in a Pipelined Processor
The most rigid form of a pipeline, sometimes called the static pipeline, requires the
processor to go through all stages or phases of the pipeline whether required by a particular
instruction or not. A dynamic pipeline allows the bypassing of one or more pipeline stages,
depending on the requirements of the instruction. The more complex dynamic pipelines allow
instructions to complete out of (sequential) order, or even to initiate out of order. The out - of -
order processors must ensure that the sequential consistency of the program is preserved.

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Figure 1.11 : Pipelined processor model.
Two architectures that exploit ILP (Instruction level parallelism) are superscalar and
VLIW processors. They use different techniques to achieve execution rates greater than one
operation per cycle. A superscalar processor dynamically examines the instruction stream to
determine which operations are independent and can be executed. A VLIW processor relies on
the compiler to analyze the available operations (OP) and to schedule independent operations
into wide instruction words, which then execute these operations in parallel with no further
analysis.
1.5.2.3 Superscalar Processors
Dynamic pipelined processors remain limited to executing a single operation per cycle
by virtue of their scalar nature. This limitation can be avoided with the addition of multiple
functional units and a dynamic scheduler to process more than one instruction per cycle (Figure
1.12 ). These superscalar processors can achieve execution rates of several instructions per cycle
(usually limited to two, but more is possible depending on the application). The most significant
advantage of a superscalar processor is that processing multiple instructions per cycle is done
transparently to the user, and that it can provide binary code compatibility while achieving better
performance.
Compared to a dynamic pipelined processor, a superscalar processor adds a scheduling

instruction window that analyses multiple instructions from the instruction stream in each cycle.
Although processed in parallel, these instructions are treated in the same manner as in a pipelined

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processor. Before an instruction is issued for execution, dependencies between the instruction
and its prior instructions must be checked by hardware.
Figure 1.12 Superscalar processor model.
Because of the complexity of the dynamic scheduling logic, high – performance

superscalar processors are limited to processing four to six instructions per cycle. Although
superscalar processors can exploit ILP from the dynamic instruction stream, exploiting higher
degrees of parallelism requires other approaches.
1.5.2.4 VLIW Processors
In contrast to dynamic analyses in hardware to determine which operations can be

executed in parallel, VLIW processors (Figure 1.13) rely on static analyses in the compiler.
VLIW processors are thus less complex than superscalar processors and have the potential for
higher performance. A VLIW processor executes operations from statically scheduled
instructions that contain multiple independent operations. Because the control complexity of a
VLIW processor is not significantly greater than that of a scalar processor, the improved
performance comes without the complexity penalties. VLIW processors rely on the static
analyses performed by the compiler and are unable to take advantage of any dynamic execution
characteristics. For applications that can be scheduled statically to use the processor resources

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effectively, a simple VLIW implementation results in high performance. Unfortunately, not all
applications can be effectively scheduled statically. In many applications, execution does not
proceed exactly along the path defined by the code scheduler in the compiler.
Figure 1.13 VLIW processor model.
Two classes of execution variations can arise and affect the scheduled execution behavior:
1. delayed results from operations whose latency differs from the
assumed latency scheduled by the compiler and
2. interruptions from exceptions or interrupts, which change the
executionpath to a completely different and unanticipated code schedule.
Although stalling the processor can control a delayed result, this solution can result in significant
performance penalties. The most common execution delay is a data cache miss. Many VLIW
processors avoid all situations that can result in a delay by avoiding data caches and by assuming
worst - case latencies for operations. However, when there is insufficient parallelism to hide the
exposed worst - case operation latency, the instruction schedule has many incompletely filled or
empty instructions, resulting in poor performance.
1.5.3 Digital Signal Processor (DSP)
Digital Signal Processor (DSP) is a chip optimized for operations for digital signal
processing. This includes operations for sensors, actuators, data processing, and data analysis. It
can be used for image decoding. The use of DSP saves CPU cycles for other processing tasks,

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which increases performance. Dedicated DSPs are more power-efficient, which makes them
befitting for use in SoCs. The instruction set used for DSP cores is SIMD (Single Instruction,
Multiple Data) and VLIW (Very Long Instruction Word). The use of this architecture allows for
parallel processing of instructions and superscalar execution. DSPs are used to perform
operations like Fast Fourier Transform, convolution, multiply-accumulate.
1.5.4 Memories on SoC
SoCs have memories based on the application. The memories are semiconductor memory blocks
for computation purposes. Semiconductor memory usually refers to Metal Oxide Semiconductor
memory cells, which are fabricated on a single silicon chip. The types of memories are:
 Volatile memories: Memories that lose data after power off. In other words, they
need a constant power source to retain information. Volatile memories are faster and
cheaper, which is why they are chosen frequently.
RAM is a type of volatile memory. The most common RAM used are SRAM (Static RAM)
and DRAM (Dynamic RAM). SRAM is made of memory cells which consist of either 1,3 or 6
transistors (MOSFETs). In contrast, DRAM has only one MOSFET and a capacitor which is
charged and discharged according to the state of the FET. However, DRAM is prone to capacitor
leakage currents. One significant advantage of DRAM is that its cheaper than SRAM. If an SoC
has a cache hierarchy, SRAM is used for cache and DRAM is used for the main memory. This
is because cache requires a faster type of memory as compared to the main memory.
There are RAM types designed for non-volatile function as well. These are FRAM
(Ferroelectric RAM), MRAM (Magneto-resistive random-access memory), which stores data in
magnetic states, PRAM (Parameter Random Access Memory), which is used in Macintosh
computers to store system settings including the display and time-zone settings. Other than these,
there is RRAM (Resistive Random Access Memory), which has a component called memristor.
A memristor is a resistor whose voltage varies as per the applied voltage.
 Non-volatile memories: Memories that retain information even in the absence of a power
source. ROM (Read Only Memory) is a kind of non-volatile memory. Types of ROM
include EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory), which is an array of
floating-gate transistors. UVROM (Ultra-Violet Erasable Programmable Read-Only
Memory), which is erased using UV light and reprogrammed with data, EEPROM
(Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM) and flash.
The type of memory selected depends upon the design specifications and application.

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Figure 1.14: Classification of semiconductor memories used SoC.
1.5.5 SYSTEM - LEVEL INTERCONNECTION
SOC technology typically relies on the interconnection of predesigned circuit modules

(known as intellectual property [IP] blocks) to form a complete system, which can be integrated
onto a single chip. In this way, the design task is raised from a circuit level to a system level.
Central to the system – level performance and the reliability of the finished product is the method
of interconnection used. A well - designed interconnection scheme should have vigorous and
efficient communication protocols, unambiguously defined as a published standard. This
facilitates interoperability between IP blocks designed by different people from different
organizations and encourages design reuse. It should provide efficient communication between
different modules maximizing the degree of parallelism achieved. SOC interconnect methods
can be classified into two main approaches:
 buses and
 network - on - chip
1.5.5.1 Bus - Based Approach

With the bus - based approach, IP blocks are designed to conform to published bus
standards such as ARM ’ s Advanced Microcontroller Bus Architecture (AMBA)

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Figure 1.15: System - level interconnection: bus - based approach.
or IBM’s CoreConnect. Communication between modules is achieved through the sharing of the
physical connections of address, data, and control bus signals. This is a common method used
for SOC system – level interconnect. Usually, two or more buses are employed in a system,
organized in a hierarchical fashion. To optimize system - level performance and cost, the bus
closest to the CPU has the highest bandwidth, and the bus farthest from the CPU has the lowest
bandwidth.
1.5.5.2 Network - on - Chip Approach
A network - on - chip system consists of an array of switches, either dynamically switched

as in a crossbar or statically switched as in a mesh. The crossbar approach uses asynchronous
channels to connect synchronous modules that can operate at different clock frequencies. This
approach has the advantage of higher throughput than a bus - based system while making
integration of a system with multiple clock domains easier. In a simple statically switched
network (Figure 1.16), each node contains processing logic forming the core, and its own routing
logic. The interconnect scheme is based on a two - dimensional mesh topology. All
communications between switches are conducted through data packets, routed through the router
interface circuit within each node. Since the interconnections between switches have a fixed
distance, interconnect - related problems such as wire delay and cross talk noise are much
reduced.

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Figure 1.16: SOC interconnection: Network - on - Chip approach.
The Network-On-Chip employs system-level network techniques for on-chip traffic

management. The NOC is a homogeneous, scalable switch fabric network that is used to
transport multi-purpose data packets. This architecture is layered in nature with user-defined
technology. The communication takes place over a three-layer communication scheme, namely
Transaction, Transport and Physical.
The aim of a NOC interconnect fabric is to reduce the wire routing congestion on-chip,
better timing closure, a standardized way to make changes various IPs to the SOC design. NOC
architectures have proven to be more power-efficient and can match throughput requirements.
1.5.6 External interfaces
SOC interfaces defer as per the intended application. The external interfaces are
commonly based on communication protocols such as WiFi, USB, Ethernet, I2C, SPI, HDMI. If
required, analog interfaces may be added for interfacing with sensors and actuators.
1.5.7 Other components
Other components necessary for a fully functioning SOC are timing sources like clocks,
timers, oscillators, phase lock loop systems, voltage regulators, and power management units.
1.5.6 Advantages & disadvantages of SoC

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The main aim of an SoC is to minimize external components. Hence, it has the following
advantages over a Single Board Computer:
 Size: The SoC is the size of a coin. Due to the rapidly decreasing size of MOS
technology, SOCs can be made very small while being able to perform complex
tasks. The size does not impact the features of the chip.
 Decreased power consumption: An SoC is optimized for low-power devices like

cell-phones. Low power consumption results in higher battery capacity in cell-
phones.
 Flexibility: SoCs are easily reprogrammable, which makes them flexible. They so
allow the reuse of IPs.
 Reliability: SoCs offer high circuit security and reduced design complexity.
 Cost Efficient: Mainly due to fewer physical components and design reuse
 Faster circuit
operation SoCs pose some
disadvantages as well:
1. Time Consuming: The entire process from design to fabrication can take between 6
months to 1 year. Hence, the time to market demand is very high.
2. Design Verification requirements are very high and consume 70% of the total time. DV is
tedious due to the increasing complexity of SoC design.
3. Availability and compatibility of IPs play a very significant role, which can add to the time
to market.
4. Exponentially increasing fabrication costs.
5. For low volume products, SoC may not be the best option.
1.5.7 Applications
The most common application of SOCs today is in mobile applications, including

smartphones, smartwatches, tablets. Other applications include signal speech processing, PC
interfaces, data communication. SoCs are being applied to personal computers as well due to the
integration of communication modules like LTE and wireless networks onto the chip.
The most popular SoCs in the market today are manufactured by Qualcomm
Technologies for smartphones, smartwatches, and the upcoming 5G network compatibility.
Other manufacturers include Intel Technology, Samsung Inc, Apple Inc., among many others.

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1.6 Software Development process for embedded system
Because machine code is the only language the hardware can directly execute, all other
languages need some type of mechanism to generate the corresponding machine code. This
mechanism usually includes one or some combination of preprocessing, translation, and
interpretation. Depending on the language, these mechanisms exist on the programmer’s host
system (typically a non-embedded development system, such as a PC), or the target system (the
embedded system being developed). See Figure 1.17.
Figure 1.17: Host and target system diagram
Preprocessing is an optional step that occurs before either the translation or interpretation
of source code, and whose functionality is commonly implemented by a preprocessor. The
preprocessor’s role is to organize and restructure the source code to make translation or
interpretation of this code easier. As an example, in languages like C and C++, it is a preprocessor
that allows the use of named code fragments, such as macros, that simplify code development
by allowing the use of the macro’s name in the code to replace fragments of code. The
preprocessor then replaces the macro name with the contents of the macro during preprocessing.
The preprocessor can exist as a separate entity, or can be integrated within the translation or
interpretation unit.
1.6.1 Compiler
Many languages convert source code, either directly or after having been preprocessed
through use of a compiler, a program that generates a particular target language such as machine

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code and Java byte code from the source language as depicted in Figure 1.18. A compiler
typically “translates” all of the source code to some target code at one time. As is usually the
case in embedded systems, compilers are located on the programmer’s host machine and generate
target code for hardware platforms that differ from the platform the compiler is actually running
on. These compilers are commonly referred to as cross-compilers. In the case of assembly
language, the compiler is simply a specialized cross-compiler referred to as an assembler, and it
always generates machine code. The language name plus the term “compiler, ”such as“ Java
compiler and C compiler, commonly refer to other high-level language compilers.
Figure 1.18 General functions of an Embedded software
High-level language compilers vary widely in terms of what is generated. Some generate
machine code, while others generate other high-level code, which then requires what is produced
to be run through at least one more compiler or interpreter, as discussed later in this section.
Other compilers generate assembly code, which then must be run through an assembler. After
all the compilation on the programmer’s host machine is completed, the remaining target code
file is commonly referred to as an object file, and can contain anything from machine code to
Java byte code (discussed later in this section), depending on the programming language used.
As shown in Figure 1.13, after linking this object file to any system libraries required, the object
file, commonly referred to as an executable, is then ready to be transferred to the target embedded
system’s memory.

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Figure 1.19: C Example compilation/linking steps and object file results
References
[1] F. Vahid and T. Givargis, “Embedded System Design: A Unified Hardware/Software

Introduction”, Wiley India Pvt. Ltd., 2002.
[2] Michael J. Flynn and Wayne Luk, “Computer System Design System-on-Chip”, Wiley
India Pvt. Ltd.
[3] Steve Furber, “ARM System on Chip Architecture “, 2nd Edition, 2000, Addison Wesley
Professional.AAAXZX
[4] Pascricha and N. Dutt, Morgan Kaufmann, On-Chip Communication Architectures,
System on Chip Interconnect, -Elsevier Publishers 2008

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Exercise Questions
1. List the important considerations when selecting a

processor for embedded systemdesign.
2. Categorize the different types of computing devices used to design
embedded systems.
3. List the merits and de-merits of Von Neumann processor architecture.
4. Mention the key characteristics of RISC processors.
5. Identify the scenarios that creates a bottleneck for pipelined instruction
execution.
6. Contrast superscalar and VLIW processor architectures with respect to
compiler design.
7. Outline the reasons for using CISC architecture based processors for
desktop computers.
8. Compare SoC processor and application specific integrated circuits.
9. Mention the reason for the widespread use of Dynamic
RAMs for main memory in spiteof being slower than
Static RAMs.
10. Distinguish scratch pads and cache memory.
11. Recall the two types of interconnect architectures used in SoC processors.
12. Give examples of commercial embedded processors with RISC
architectures.
13. Illustrate the key aspects of Von-Neumann and Harvard
architectures used in the designof computers.
14. Explain with suitable examples, the process of instruction
execution in CISC and RISCprocessors.
15. Illustrate the basic architecture of a System on Chip
processor and summarize the importance of each
functional unit.
16. Classify the types of on-chip memories used in SoC processors.
17. Demonstrate with suitable examples that a superscalar
processor can improve theefficiency of instruction level of
parallelism.
18. Examine the architecture of VLIW processor model and
give your opinion on how it leads to lower hardware
complexity compared to superscalar model.

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UNIT II
PERIPHERAL INTERFACING
WATCHDOGTIMERS
The main purpose of the watchdogtimer is to protect the system against failure of the
software,such as the program becoming trapped in an unintended ,infiniteloop.
Watchdogcountsupand resets the MSP430 when it reaches its limit. The code must
there for keep clearing the counter before the limit is reached to prevent a reset. The
operation of the watchdog is controlled by the 16-bitregister
WDTCTL
The watchdog counter is a 16-bit register WDTCNT, which is not visible to the user. It
is clocked from either SMCLK (default) or ACLK, according to the WDTSSEL bit.
The watchdog is always active after theMSP430 has been reset.
By default the clock is SMCLK, which is in turn derived from the DCO at
about1MHz.Thedefaultperiodofthewatchdogisthemaximum value of 32,768 counts,
which is therefore around 32ms. We must clear, stop, or reconfigure the watchdog
before this time has elapsed. If the watchdog is left running, the counter must be
repeatedly cleared to prevent it counting up as far as its limit. This is done by setting
the WDTCNTCL bit in WDTCTL.
Thewatchdogtimer sets
theWDTIFGflaginthespecialfunctionregisterIFG1.Thisisclearedbyapower-onresetbutits
valueispreservedduringaPUC.Thusaprogram
cancheckthisbittofindoutwhetheraresetarose fromthewatchdog.

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Applications of watchdog timer

Following are the applications of watchdog timer:
• An application in mobile phone is that display is off in case no GUI interaction takes place
within a watched time interval. This will save good amout of battery power.
• An application in temperature controller is that if controller takes no action to switch off the
current within preset watched time interval, the current is switched off and warning signal is
raised as indication of controller failure. Failure to switch off current may burst a boiler in which
water is heated.
• If Software hangs due to some bug/issue, it helps to reset the system automatically without any
human interactions.
Interfacing Protocols-SPI, I2C, USB, CAN, Ethernet/WiFi,Bluetooth

I2C (Inter Integrated Circuit) Bus:
Inter Integrated Circuit Bus (I2C - Pronounced „I square C‟) is a synchronous bi-directional half
duplex (one-directional communication at a given point of time) two wire serial interface
bus.The concept of I2C bus was developed by „Philips Semiconductors‟ in the early 1980‟s. The
original intention of I2C was to provide an easy way of connection between a
microprocessor/microcontroller system and the peripheral chips in Television sets.
The I2C bus is comprised of two bus lines, namely; Serial Clock – SCL and Serial Data – SDA.
SCL line is responsible for generating synchronization clock pulses and SDA is
responsible for transmitting the serial data across devices.I2C bus is a shared bus system to
which many number of I2C devices can be connected. Devices connected to the I2C bus can act
as either „Master‟ device or „Slave‟ device.
The „Master‟ device is responsible for controlling the communication by
initiating/terminating data transfer, sending data and generating necessary synchronization clock
pulses.

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Slave devices wait for the commands from the master and respond upon receiving the
commands. Master and „Slave‟ devices can act as either transmitter or receiver. Regardless
whether a master is acting as transmitter or receiver, the synchronization clock signal is
generated by the „Master‟ device only.I2C supports multi masters on the same bus.
The sequence of operation for communicating with an I2C slave device is:
1. Master device pulls the clock line (SCL) of the bus to „HIGH‟
2. Master device pulls the data line (SDA) „LOW‟, when the SCL line is at logic
„HIGH‟ (This is the „Start‟ condition for data transfer)
3. Master sends the address (7 bit or 10 bit wide) of the „Slave‟ device to which it wants
to communicate, over the SDA line.
4. Clock pulses are generated at the SCL line for synchronizing the bit reception by
the slave device.
5. The MSB of the data is always transmitted first.
6. The data in the bus is valid during the „HIGH‟ period of the clock signal
7. In normal data transfer, the data line only changes state when the clock is low.
8. Master waits for the acknowledgement bit from the slave device whose address is sent
on the bus along with the Read/Write operation command.

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9. Slave devices connected to the bus compares the address received with the
address assigned to them
10. The Slave device with the address requested by the master device responds by sending
an acknowledge bit (Bit value =1) over the SDA line
11. Upon receiving the acknowledge bit, master sends the 8bit data to the slave device over
SDA line, if the requested operation is „Write to device‟.
12. If the requested operation is „Read from device‟, the slave device sends data to
the master over the SDA line.
13. Master waits for the acknowledgement bit from the device upon byte transfer complete
for a write operation and sends an acknowledge bit to the slave device for a read operation
14. Master terminates the transfer by pulling the SDA line „HIGH‟ when the clock line
SCL is at logic „HIGH‟ (Indicating the „STOP‟ condition).

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1.2 Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI) Bus:

The Serial Peripheral Interface Bus (SPI) is a synchronous bi-directional full duplex four wire
serial interface bus. The concept of SPI is introduced by Motorola.SPI is a single master multi-
slave system.
It is possible to have a system where more than one SPI device can be master, provided
the condition only one master device is active at any given point of time, is satisfied.
SPI is used to send data between Microcontrollers and small peripherals such as
shift registers, sensors, and SD cards.
SPI requires four signal lines for communication. They are:

Master Out Slave In (MOSI): Signal line carrying the data from master to slave device. It
isalso known as Slave Input/Slave Data In (SI/SDI)
Master In Slave Out (MISO): Signal line carrying the data from slave to master device. It
isalso known as Slave Output (SO/SDO)

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Serial Clock (SCLK): Signal line carrying the clock signals

Slave Select (SS): Signal line for slave device select. It is an active low signal.
The master device is responsible for generating the clock signal.
Master device selects the required slave device by asserting the corresponding slave devices
slave select signal „LOW‟.
The data out line (MISO) of all the slave devices when not selected floats at high
impedancestate
The serial data transmission through SPI Bus is fully configurable.
SPI devices contain certain set of registers for holding these configurations.
The Serial Peripheral Control Register holds the various configuration parameters like
master/slave selection for the device, baudrate selection for communication, clock signal control
etc.
The status register holds the status of various conditions for transmission and reception.SPI
works on the principle of „Shift Register‟.
The master and slave devices contain a special shift register for the data to transmit or
receive.
The size of the shift register is device dependent. Normally it is a multiple of 8.
During transmission from the master to slave, the data in the master‟s shift register is
shifted out to the MOSI pin and it enters the shift register of the slave device through the MOSI
pin of the slave device.

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At the same time the shifted out data bit from the slave device’s shift register enters
the shift register of the master device through MISO pin
I2C V/S SPI:
USB (UNIVERSAL SERIAL BUS):
External Bus Standard.

Allows connection of peripheral devices.
Connects Devices such as keyboards, mice, scanners, printers, joysticks,
audio devices, disks.

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Facilitates transfers of data at 480 (USB 2.0 only), 12 or 1.5 Mb/s (mega-
bits/second).
Developed by a Special Interest Group including Intel, Microsoft, Compact,
DEC, IBM, Northern Telecom and NEC originally in 1994.
Low-Speed: 10 – 100 kb/s
1.5 Mb/s signaling bit rate
Full-Speed: 500 kb/s – 10 Mb/s 12 Mb/s signaling bit rate
High-Speed: 400 Mb/s
480 Mb/s signaling bit rate
NRZI with bit stuffing used
SYNC field present for every packet
There exist two pre-defined connectors in any USB system - Series “A” and Series “B”
Connectors.
Series “A” cable: Connects USB devices to a hub port.
Series “B” cable: Connects detachable devices (hot- swappable)
Bus Topology:
Connects computer to peripheral devices.

Ultimately intended to replace parallel and serial ports
Tiered Star Topology
All devices are linked to a common point referred to as the root hub.
Specification allows for up to 127 (27 -1) different devices.

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Four wire cable serves as interconnect of system - power, ground and two differential
signaling lines.
USB is a polled bus-all transactions are initiated by host.
USB HOST: Device that controls entire system usually a PC of some form. Processes
dataarriving to and from the USB port.
USB HUB: Tests for new devices and maintains status information of child devices.Serve as
repeaters, boosting strength of up and downstream signals. Electrically isolates devices from
one
another - allowing an expanded number of devices.
Wi-Fi:
Wi-Fi is the name of a popular wireless networking technology that uses radio waves
to provide wireless high-speed Internet and network connections
Wi-Fi follows the IEEE 802.11 standard
Wi-Fi is intended for network communication and it supports Internet Protocol (IP)
based communication
Wi-Fi based communications require an intermediate agent called Wi-Fi
router/Wireless Access point to manage the communications.
The Wi-Fi router is responsible for restricting the access to a network, assigning IP
address to devices on the network, routing data packets to the intended devices on the
network.
Wi-Fi enabled devices contain a wireless adaptor for transmitting and receiving data
in the form of radio signals through an antenna.

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Wi-Fi operates at 2.4GHZ or 5GHZ of radio spectrum and they co-exist with other
ISM band devices like Bluetooth.
A Wi-Fi network is identified with a Service Set Identifier (SSID). A Wi-Fi device
can connect to a network by selecting the SSID of the network and by providing the
credentials if the network is security enabled
Wi-Fi networks implements different security mechanisms for authentication and data
transfer.
Wireless Equivalency Protocol (WEP), Wireless Protected Access (WPA) etc are
some of the security mechanisms supported by Wi-Fi networks in data communication.
BLUETOOTH:
Bluetooth is a wireless technology standard for short distances (using short-wavelength

UHFband from 2.4 to 2.485 GHz)for exchanging data over radio waves in the ISM and
mobile devices, and building personal area networks (PANs).Invented by telecom vendor
Ericsson in1994, it was originally conceived as a wireless alternative to RS- 232 data cables
Bluetooth uses a radio technology called frequency- hopping spread spectrum.

Bluetooth divides transmitted data into packets, and transmits each packet on one of 79
designated Bluetooth channels. Each channel has a bandwidth of 1 MHz. It usually performs
800 hops per second, with Adaptive Frequency-Hopping (AFH) enabled
Originally, Gaussian frequency-shift keying (GFSK) modulation was the only

modulation scheme available. Since the introduction of Bluetooth 2.0+EDR, π/4-DQPSK
(Differential Quadrature Phase Shift Keying) and 8DPSK modulation may also be used
between compatible devices. Bluetooth is a packet-based protocol with a master- slave
structure. One master may communicate with up to seven slaves in a piconet. All devices
share the master's clock. Packet exchange is based on the basic clock, defined by the master,
which ticks at312.5 µs intervals.
A master BR/EDR Bluetooth device can communicate with a maximum of seven

devices in a piconet (an ad-hoc computer network using Bluetooth technology), though not
all devices reach this maximum. The devices can switch roles, by agreement, and the slave
can become the master (for example, a headset initiating a connection to a phone necessarily
begins as master— as initiator of the connection—but may subsequently operate as slave).

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Bluetooth network technology connects mobile devices wirelessly over a short-range to form
a personal area network (PAN). The Bluetooth architecture has its own independent model
with a stack of protocols, instead of following the standard OSI model or TCP/IP model.
The protocols in the Bluetooth standard can be loosely grouped into the physical layer, data
link layer, middleware layer, and application layer as shown in the following diagram −
Protocols in the Bluetooth Protocol Architecture

 Physical Layer − This includes Bluetooth radio and Baseband (also in the data link
layer.
o Radio − This is a physical layer equivalent protocol that lays down the physical
structure and specifications for transmission of radio waves. It defines air
interface, frequency bands, frequency hopping specifications, and modulation
techniques.
o Baseband − This protocol takes the services of radio protocol. It defines the
addressing scheme, packet frame format, timing, and power control algorithms.
 Data Link Layer − This includes Baseband, Link Manager Protocol (LMP), and
Logical Link Control and Adaptation Protocol (L2CAP).
o Link Manager Protocol (LMP) − LMP establishes logical links between
Bluetooth devices and maintains the links for enabling communications. The
other main functions of LMP are device authentication, message encryption,
and negotiation of packet sizes.

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o Logical Link Control and Adaptation Protocol (L2CAP) − L2CAP provides

adaption between upper layer frame and baseband layer frame format. L2CAP
provides support for both connection-oriented as well as connectionless
services.
 Middleware Layer − This includes Radio Frequency Communications (RFComm)
protocol, adopted protocols, SDP, and AT commands.
o RFComm − It is short for Radio Frontend Component. It provides a serial
interface with WAP.
o Adopted Protocols − These are the protocols that are adopted from standard
models. The commonly adopted protocols used in Bluetooth are Point-to-Point
Protocol (PPP), Internet Protocol (IP), User Datagram Protocol (UDP),
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), and Wireless Application Protocol
(WAP).
o Service Discovery Protocol (SDP)− SDP takes care of service-related queries
like device information so as to establish a connection between contending
Bluetooth devices.
o AT Commands − ATtention command set.
 Applications Layer − This includes the application profiles that allow the user to
interact with the Bluetooth applications.
Ethernet
Ethernet was developed at Xerox Palo Alto Research center in 1973. The pilot Ethernet was
the first high-speed local network. It lets computers to connect at a high speed and low error
rates and without switching delays. An Ethernet is a simple bus like connection line using a
transmission line and Hubs plus repeaters are helping to transmit the same signals across the
network. Linked ethernet appears as a single network to higher protocol networks. The ARP
protocol can resolve the IP address to the Ethernet addresses across the network.
There are several methods of communication in Ethernet networks.
Packet broadcasting
This method id broadcasting data on the transmission medium. Every station is listening to the
medium for the packets addressed to them. Data transmission proceeds to 10 Mbps or at
higher speeds are from 100 to 1000 Mbps. The address of the destination station is normally

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referred to as a single network interface. The Ethernet network protocol is implemented in the
Ethernet hardware interface; protocol software id required for the transport layer and above it.
Packet Collision
Even it is short time is taken to send messages there a probability to have a collision between
messages sent. If there is no check when sending messages the collision happens a lot. The
Ethernet has multiple mechanisms to deal with collisions.
First, is called (carrier sensing). In carrier sensing the interface, the hardware is listening to
the presence of the signal in the medium but the technique does not prevent all collisions due
to the finite time for a signal inserted at a point in a medium.
Another called (collision detection).
Whenever a packet transmitted through a hardware output port it also listens to its input port
and then two signals are compared. If they differ then a collision happened. If this occurs then
all stations stop transmission to detect the collision but is the packets that they transmit take
more time to broadcast then the collision will not be notified since each sending station will
not see the other packet transmitted until it finishes transmitting its own whereas the stations in
the middle will receive the packets causing a collision.
Ethernet is a way of connecting computers together and it was the most widely used method of
connecting.

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UNIT III
EMBEDDED SYSTEM SOFTWARE DESIGN
1. APPLICATION SOFTWARE
Application software is a computer program that performs specialized duties. Application

software can carry out a variety of tasks, including personal, professional, and academic ones.
Application software is frequently referred to as productivity software or end-user software.
Each piece of software is designed to help users with a certain productivity, efficiency, or
communication process.
Processing and spreadsheet programs like Microsoft Word and Excel, as well as web
browsers like Firefox and Google Chrome. Besides games like Candy Crush Saga and Ludo,
it also contains smartphone apps like WhatsApp and Telegram. Some applications connect
customers with their businesses and popular services that people use daily, including weather
or transportation information.
In contrast to System software, application software is focused on its functionality and
completes the goal for which it was created. Most of the apps we use on our smartphones are
examples of application software. Every piece of application software's main objective is to
make a task easier for users to complete.
Need of Application Software
Application software allows end users to carry out a variety of single and multiple actions.
Here are a few factors that make application software (App) necessary for your computer:
Assists the user in carrying out particular tasks: The end user should be kept in mind when
developing any application program. Users can create, edit, remove, and carry out other
Word document operations using Microsoft Word, a widely used application software. They
will primarily help the end-user by enabling them to carry out specific tasks in various fields,
including education, business, and entertainment.
Manages and modifies data: Organizations utilize application software to manage and modify
employee, customer, and other databases. Examples of application software include customer
relationship management and enterprise resource management systems.
Allows users to arrange information efficiently: Individual users can produce and manage
data with application software. For instance, Microsoft Excel is a widely popular program in
businesses and enables users to handle datasheets.
Functions of Application Software
These software or mobile applications enhance users' functions like creativity,
communication, productivity, efficiency, and amusement. Furthermore, they can help with
data analysis, calculation, and resource coordination. The range of utility for such programs
can be broad, with each one allowing end users to carry out particular tasks. Different apps
may simultaneously offer help for various tasks or in a few areas depending on their
functionality and nature
A few of the functions of application software include:

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management of information and data

data management and analysis
document management (document exchange systems)
creation of images and videos
Several choices include texting, conferencing over audio and video, and working together.
Accounting, financial, and payroll management
the management of resources (ERP and CRM systems)
managing a project
management over corporate operations
software for use in schools (LMS and e-learning systems)
software for use in healthcare
Types of Application Software
Every company sector needs application software because we live in a digital age. Every
industry, including banking, healthcare, education, retail, travel, logistics, etc., is heavily
utilizing the program. Choosing the best application software for your unique needs enhances
performance and effectiveness. You may cut costs, save time, and use fewer resources if you
are aware of the many kinds of application software. You can also increase productivity and
make better decisions. General applications, business applications, and specially developed
applications can all be broadly categorized as application software.
Types of Application Software are divided into two categories:
General Application Software
Customized Application Software
1. General Application Software
Numerous fundamental tasks can be accomplished by general software. They finish all of the
standard tasks a user must carry out on the system. The user must complete several
applications. This category includes a wide range of frequently used applications. These
software programs can be purchased alone or as a suite of related programs.
Further divisions of general application software include:
Word Processing Software
Text can be edited and formatted; documents, including memos, letters, faxes, and
documents, are created using word processing software. The text is formatted and made
beautiful using processing software. Software for word processors enables the creation,
enhancement, and manipulation of text. They offer a wide range of capabilities that enable
efficient text consolidation and editing. The user can input, edit, format, and output text with
the aid of this software. There is a list of features provided.

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Additionally, by giving users access to a thesaurus, synonyms, and other tools, this kind of
software creates an amazing visual experience. The software also features font sizes, colors,
and styles. For instance, Corel WordPerfect, Lotus Word Pro, Word pad, and Microsoft
Word.
Business Application Software
This business application software was created to automate corporate processes and meet
users' demands for increased operational efficiency and accuracy. The business application
software's output is expected to increase productivity and profitability. Business application
software is divided into different categories based on its unique requirements.
Database Software
A program called a database management system, or DBMS, is designed for retrieving,
storing, and searching data from a single database. This program, also called database
management software, aids in efficient data management. This program makes it simple to
organize data and access it. Software development services automatically create and save
data when they create an application.
The database management system (DBMS) helps the program get the necessary data and
store it after it has been finished using it. This program modifies data to gain access to it
while searching DBMS. A few database management solutions assist in managing the
system's diverse data, including email addresses, phone numbers, catalogs, etc. MS Access,
Oracle, and MySQL are a few DBMS types.
Presentation Software
Presentation software lets you present your thoughts and ideas as visual data. After that, you
can use slides to display the information. You may add videos, words, charts, graphs, and
photographs to your presentations to make them more engaging and educational.
Key components of presentation software include:
Text editor: The text editor feature of presentation software allows users to input and design
their text.
Multimedia files: The ability to add and animate graphics, texts, multimedia, and movies is
provided by presentation software.
Slideshow: Presentation software can also assist in creating a slideshow for the presentation.
Web Browsers
These sorts of application software help consumers browse websites and conduct research.
They support users' information retrieval and web exploration. Internet Explorer, Chrome,
Firefox, MS Edge, Safari, and more popular web browsers are available. Users with these
browsers can utilize search engines like Google, Bing, Yahoo, and others to explore the web
and conduct searches.
Web browsers are software programs that make it simple to browse the internet. These can be
used to find information on the web quickly.

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Education Software
Education software refers to any program that improves the educational process. In classroom
settings, teachers use this software to transfer knowledge to students. Education software, for
instance, makes it simpler to deliver lectures with visual and aural experiences to make
learning enjoyable and simple. ProProfs, Schoology, Google Classroom, TalentLMS, Litmos,
and other industry standards for educational software are available.
Graphic Design Software
Graphics software is used to make changes to visual data, images, and animation. It includes
various editorial software. Digital photos or films can be quickly edited using graphic design
software. This software includes tools for creating and altering images. Software for graphic
design includes Adobe Photoshop, Clip Studio, and Adobe Illustrator, to name a few.
Simulation Software
System behavior can be predicted using simulation software. Using simulation software, you
may assess new designs, identify issues with old designs, and test a system in challenging
environments like an orbiting satellite. This is mostly useful in video games or training
exercises for the workplace. Software development businesses can create simulation software
to acquaint learners with the surroundings before handling the actual machinery when using
genuine machinery is only possible with training. Examples of simulation software include
SOLIDWORKS and Teamcenter.
2. Customized Application Software
Software specifically tailored for a given user group or organization is created with business
challenges in mind. Either an internal development team or an outside company creates
custom solutions. However, the technique and development process is the same as other
software development. Take a look at Uber, a popular on-demand service that uses
specialized software to offer drivers and passengers a seamless experience.
This application software is nowhere to be found online. Therefore, we are unable to
download directly from anywhere. Additionally, if you employ software developers to create
a computer application, they must deliver it to you under specific conditions. As a result, it's
also known as a bespoke application or tailor-made software. This category includes things
like the salon's computer application or application software.
Office Software
Microsoft Word: Microsoft Word is one of the most widely used word-processing
applications. This program, a component of the Microsoft Office Suite, was created by
Microsoft. This tool can also be used to create visuals. Even though it lacks the strength of a
graphic tool, most people with little to no experience in graphic design find it simple to use.
Microsoft Word includes a text editor, paragraph and font formatting, grammar and spell-
checking HTML support, and picture support.
Microsoft Excel: Microsoft Excel is an additional application software from the company.
Utilize this spreadsheet application to perform computations. Time, date, text, and numeric
fields are all defined by different cells in MS Excel. You can carry out your computations and

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supply the formulas and functions. Additionally, you can create analyses and visuals with this
program.
Microsoft PowerPoint: Microsoft PowerPoint is a presentation application software that
allows you to graphically present your thoughts to your audience. You can present
information in slide format with this application. It has built-in templates, clip art, audio, and
video capabilities to improve your presentations. You can use MS PowerPoint as part of the
Microsoft Office Suite for personal and professional purposes.
2) Graphics and Design Software
Adobe Photoshop: Adobe Photoshop is a software tool for graphic design and picture
manipulation. You can edit videos, produce, modify, and organize digital images and graphic
work, develop designs and take photographs. You may create any concept art using this
program from the comfort of your computer.
AutoCAD: AutoCAD is the most popular CAD drawing application program. With this
program, you can document your workflow more effectively and easily. It also performs
quite well. Its built-in tools may connect with computer-aided manufacturing software to
create machine tool settings for various daily tasks. Both Mac and Windows operating
systems are compatible.
3) Open-Source Software
MySQL: The open-source database management application software MySQL is very
popular. This utility anchors the back end of various applications because of its strong
capabilities. This software's broad compatibility is its best feature. It integrates seamlessly
with cPanel and other server management interfaces. Compatibility with shared data from
other databases is another feature it offers.
4) Communication and Multimedia Software
Skype: You can make video conversations using the software program Skype with your
friends, coworkers, family, business partners, clients, and more. You can talk with folks to
discuss projects or other topics if you don't want to video call. Skype makes it easier for
people and gadgets to communicate with one another.
Spotify: Spotify is an audio player application for Windows 10. You can use the tool to find
the podcasts or music you're looking for. There are several different tracks and episodes
included. The program lets you choose your preferred music filter and share your podcast and
music. Windows, Mac, Linux, and iOS are all supported.
5) Document Viewer Software
Windows Photo Viewer: Another application software for seeing photographs is Windows
Photo Viewer. It has become simple to capture several images thanks to the development of
webcams, smartphone cameras, and other digital cameras. Slideshows of your photos can be
played, and favorites can be noted, and more.
6) Enterprise Software

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Salesforce: Businesses utilize the application software Salesforce to keep up with customer
interactions. Your company needs to keep open lines of communication between the
executives, departments, staff, and clients. This tool streamlines procedures by drawing on
prior knowledge and user comments.
Forecast: Forecast is a whole suite of application software for companies that provide
professional services. The forecasting process aims to make projects more profitable and
predictable. Utilizing project automation aids in resource planning and financial and
operational tuning.
7) Other Popular Application Software
Google Chrome: Google Chrome is application software that also allows you to access social
media networks and send/receive emails. You can search on any subject with this browser,
including technology, travel, politics, medicine, and a wide range of other subjects. You can
retrieve data from across the web with Google Chrome.
WinZip: WinZip is a file compression and management program. Using this program, you
may compress files, including folders, PDFs, MP3s, videos, and more. Unzipping directories
also allow you to decompress them. Additionally, you can extract various files from Zip files
and repair them.
2.SYSTEM SOFTWARE
System software is a category of computer software designed to manage and control the
hardware and provide a platform for running application software. It serves as an
intermediary between the hardware components of a computer system and the user-facing
application software. System software includes a variety of essential components that enable
the computer system to function properly and efficiently. Here are some key components of
system software:
1. Operating System (OS):

The operating system is a crucial piece of system software that manages hardware
resources, provides a user interface, and facilitates communication between hardware and
application software. Popular operating systems include Microsoft Windows, macOS, Linux,
and various flavors of Unix.

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2. Device Drivers:
Device drivers are software modules that enable communication between the operating
system and hardware devices, such as printers, graphics cards, network adapters, and storage
devices. They allow the OS and application software to control and utilize hardware
resources effectively.
3. Firmware:
Firmware is a type of software that is embedded in hardware devices. It provides low-level
control and initialization routines for hardware components, ensuring they operate correctly
and consistently. Examples include BIOS (Basic Input/Output System) and firmware in
embedded systems like routers and embedded controllers.
4. Utility Software:
Utility software includes tools designed to perform specific system-related tasks, such as
system optimization, data backup, antivirus scanning, disk maintenance, and file
management. Examples include disk defragmentation tools, backup software, and antivirus
programs.
5. Language Translators:
Compilers, interpreters, and assemblers are language translators that convert high-level
programming code into machine code that the computer's hardware can execute. Compilers
are used for languages like C and C++, while interpreters are used for languages like Python
and JavaScript.
6. System Libraries:
System libraries are collections of pre-written code that provide essential functions and
services to application software. Programmers can use these libraries to simplify and speed
up software development by leveraging existing code.
7. Virtualization Software:
Virtualization software allows multiple operating systems to run on a single physical
machine. This technology is used to create virtual environments that can host multiple virtual
machines (VMs), each running its own operating system and applications.
8. Middleware:
Middleware is software that acts as an intermediary between different software applications
or components. It facilitates communication, data exchange, and integration between
different software systems.
9. System Tools:
System tools are software applications that help users manage and configure their computer
systems. These tools include task managers, performance monitors, system information
utilities, and network configuration tools.
10. Boot Loaders:

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Boot loaders are programs that initiate the computer's boot process. They load the
operating system into memory and start its execution. GRUB (Grand Unified Bootloader) is
an example of a boot loader commonly used with Linux.
3. MODEL-BASED SYSTEM ENGINEERING (MBSE)
MBSE in a digital-modeling environment provides advantages that document-based systems

engineering cannot provide. For example, in a document-based approach, many documents
are generated by different authors to capture the system's design from various stakeholder
views, such as system behavior, software, hardware, safety, security, or other disciplines.
Using a digital-modeling approach, a single source of truth for the system is built in which
discipline-specific views of the system are created using the same model elements.
A digital-modeling environment also creates a common standards-based approach to

documenting the system that can be programmatically validated to remove inconsistencies
within the models and enforce the use of a standard by all stakeholders. This common
modeling environment improves the analysis of the system and reduces the number of defects
that are commonly injected in a traditional document-based approach. The availability of
digitalized system data for analysis across disciplines provides consistent propagation of
corrections and incorporation of new information and design decisions (i.e., state it once and
automatically propagate to various views of the data) to all stakeholders. When MBSE is
done properly, the result is an overall reduction of development risks.
MBSE brings together three concepts: model, systems thinking, and systems engineering:
 A model is a simplified version of something--a graphical, mathematical, or physical

representation that abstracts reality to eliminate some complexity. This definition
implies formality or rules in simplifying, representing, or abstracting. To model a
system, a systems architect must represent the system with less detail so that its
structure and behavior are apparent and its complexity is manageable. In other
words, models should sufficiently represent the system, and the system should
confirm the models.
 Systems thinking is a way of looking at a system under consideration not as a self-
sufficient entity, but as part of a larger system. Systems thinking is not the same as a
systematic adherence to following good plans, collecting statistics, or being
methodical. The systems engineer observes the system from a distance; explores its
boundaries, context, and lifecycle; notes its behavior; and identifies patterns. This
method can help the engineer to identify issues (e.g., missing interaction, a missing
step in a process, duplication of effort, missed opportunity for automation) and
manage a system's complexity. Although systems engineers must break down and
analyze the system in the beginning--identify parts and describe connections between
them--with systems thinking, they later synthesize the parts back into a coherent
whole. Parts are not just connected to other parts, they depend on each other to work
properly. Systems thinking emphasizes this interconnectedness. The behavior of the
system emerges from the activities of the system's subparts. Observing the system's
interconnections, the systems engineer identifies feedback loops and causality
patterns that may not be apparent at first. Systems thinking can help make issues more
apparent and easier to identify, balance the system, and manage the system's
complexity.

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 Systems engineering is a transdisciplinary and integrative approach to enable the

successful realization, use, and retirement of engineered systems, using systems
principles and concepts, and scientific, technological, and management methods. It
brings together a number of techniques to make sure that all requirements are satisfied
by the designed system. It concentrates on architecture, implementation, integration,
analysis, and management of a system during its lifecycle. It also considers software,
hardware, personnel, processes, and procedural aspects of the system.
If an organization has decided to adopt MBSE as an internal systems-engineering approach

and chosen one of the four or five existing products for digital modeling that are on the
market, the organization's systems engineers should consider whether it is going to follow
any architectural frameworks. Although a comprehensive discussion of this topic is beyond
the scope for this blog post, the choice of a particular architectural framework will provide
additional guidance and structure to the modeling activities, especially if the systems
engineers are already familiar with the framework.
MBSE is a multidisciplinary and multifaceted endeavor. It requires its own actors, processes,
environment, and information flows. To create a successful model of a complex system
or system of systems, an organization must support the modeling process. The support
needed is not much different from what is required for an organization to successfully
develop and deliver a complex system or system of systems. MBSE can be effectively
integrated into a development process, but the organization must commit to the effort that
will be required to model the system.
Applying systems thinking, we can recognize that there are three systems involved in the
modeling process: the designed system, the designed system's context, and the modeling
organization for the designed system. The designed system operates in the context of a larger
system, and the modeling organization must understand both the designed system and the
designed system's context. The organization must also be aware of its own behavior,
successes, and failures.
Modeling
We have all seen, used, or created models throughout our lives, ranging from toys that
represent cars or planes to mathematical formulas that describe and explain physical
phenomena such as thermodynamics or gravity. While fundamentally different, those models
all connect an idea to a reality and provide sufficient abstraction for the purpose. When
modeling a system, the systems engineer decides what aspects of the production system are
most important, such as structure, energy or matter flow, internal communication, or safety
and security. Those types of aspects will become the focus of the model. The top objective of
the modeling activity is to model the salient aspects on which the model is focused as closely
to the real system as is possible and feasible.
Modeling as a technique uses four instruments:
 language
 structure
 argumentation
 presentation

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A modeling language is a common terminology for clearly communicating an abstract idea

that the model captures. The modeling language can be formal, with strict syntax and rules. A
few system-modeling languages exist, including general-purpose languages such as
the Systems Modeling Language (SysML) and Unified Modeling Language (UML), as well
as specialized languages such as Architecture Analysis Design Language (AADL). Although
SysML and UML are not mathematically formal, a valid model requires that the modeling
language's rules for entities and relationships be followed. SysML has strict syntax and rules
for relationships and connections between elements, which helps to avoid ambiguity. If a
model is well built, several types of standard SysML diagrams can be dynamically simulated,
and at least one type of SysML diagram can be mathematically simulated. UML is semi-
formal; SysML is similar to UML, but more formal.
A model must have a structure. A well-structured model can make the model understandable,
usable, and maintainable, which is particularly important for complex systems. The goal of a
model is to show stakeholders that the presented design satisfies the system's requirements.
The model should demonstrate, in an easily comprehensible way, how the system must be
built to be successful. Visualization is a key way to ensure comprehensibility. Visualizing
abstract ideas enables people to take the leap of imagination that is needed to "see" the
system.
Modeling Domains
Even though MBSE does not dictate any specific process, essentially any process chosen
should cover four systems-engineering domains:
 requirements/capabilities
 behavior
 architecture/structure
 verification and validation
Descriptions of these domains are well documented and discussed by, among others, Defense
Acquisition University (DAU), NASA, and Avi Sharma. The difference that MBSE makes is
that these fundamental systems-engineering domains are defined not as a set of documents,
but in the model itself, i.e., in a formal way using a modeling language. The model represents
an argument for how the system must be designed for it to be successful.
MBSE also fosters communication among stakeholders, systems engineers, and developers.
Since system design is performed in the integrated modeling environment, all systems
engineers, managers, and other stakeholders can have access to the generated information--
such as requirements, behavior flows, and architecture--as soon as necessary.
The most common modeling activity is the creation of diagrams representing some part of the
system--a view. This activity is so common that some engineers mistakenly equate creating a
view with creating a model. This mistake is so pervasive that there is even an emerging term
for it: zombie model. This term refers to a model that is full of diagrams, but with no
interconnectivity and dependencies identified among the elements.
Anyone who is about to start modeling must realize that a set of views is not a model.
Although a view or even a set of views can represent a part of the system's design and can be
useful for documenting and communicating some aspects of the system, views are only facets

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or portions of the true system model. A real model can produce many views and matrices,
perform analyses, and run simulations.
Language of System Modeling
While a system-modeling language such as SysML is a formal syntactic language, it is still

based on elements of human language. Its formality adds clarity and discipline that are
critical for describing the design of a system. Such a language is easy to read and
understand. Terms of MBSE's language simply map to parts of speech:
 noun: actors, blocks, components, requirements

 verb: operational activities, functions, use cases
 adjective: attributes
 adverb: relationships, needlines, exchanges, interfaces
This view of the modeling language helps its users to mentally map real-life concepts to
abstract ideas, and eases the formalization of the modeling process.
Four Quadrants of the MBSE Model
Now that I have described the basics of a model's language and domains, I will describe the
modeling approach. A model must describe both a problem that the designed system solves,
and the designed system itself (the solution). The model must have these two sides, the
problem side and the solution side. These are sometimes referred to as
the operational and system points of view.
The operational point of view is the perspective of users, operators, and business people. It
should represent business processes, objectives, organizational structure, use cases, and
information flows. The operational side of the model can contain the description of "the
world as-is" and the future state.
The system point of view is the solution, the architecture of the system that solves the
problem posed in the operational side of the model. It should describe the behavior of the
system, its structure, dataflows between components, and allocation of functionality. It
should describe how the system will be deployed in the real world. It can contain solution
alternatives and analyses of them.
Each of these points of view has two parts, logical and physical. Separating logical and
physical aspects of the model is a way to manage a system's complexity. Logical parts of the
model usually change little over time, while physical changes are often initiated by
technology advances.
If the model is built properly, all four quadrants should be tightly connected, as shown in
Figure 1 below. Statements of the problem should be traced to elements of the solution, and
logical elements allocated to physical structures. The user of the model should be able to see
clearly how the top-level concepts and components decompose to the lower level features.
Users should be able to perform system analysis, create dependency matrices, run
simulations, and produce a view of the system for every stakeholder. If the physical part of

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the system must change, the logical side of the model identifies exactly what functionality
will be affected. If a requirement or business process must be changed, the model will easily
discover the impact on the solutions.
Components Of a Model
4. Use of High-Level Languages- embedded C / C++ Programming

Use of High-Level Languages- embedded C
Embedded C is a variant of the C programming language that is specifically tailored for
developing software for embedded systems. It retains many features of the standard C
language but includes certain extensions and conventions to accommodate the unique
characteristics of embedded systems. Here's how Embedded C is used in the context of
embedded systems development:
1. Low-Level Hardware Interaction:Embedded C allows developers to interact directly with
hardware peripherals, such as timers, GPIO pins, and communication interfaces (SPI, I2C,
UART), using memory-mapped registers. This level of control is essential for configuring
and controlling hardware components efficiently.
2. Memory Management:Embedded C gives developers the ability to manage memory
manually, which is crucial in resource-constrained environments. They can allocate memory

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dynamically using functions like `malloc` and free it with `free`, though careful management
is needed to avoid memory leaks and fragmentation.
3. Efficient Code Execution:Since embedded systems often have limited processing power
and memory, Embedded C allows developers to write efficient code that maximizes
performance. Developers can control aspects like loop unrolling, inline assembly, and
compiler optimizations to squeeze the most out of the hardware.
4. Real-Time Applications:Embedded C is well-suited for real-time applications where
timing constraints are critical. Developers can write time-sensitive code and manage
interrupts effectively to meet real-time requirements.
5. Interrupt Handling:Embedded C enables developers to write interrupt service routines
(ISRs) that respond quickly and accurately to hardware-generated interrupts. This is essential
for handling events like button presses, sensor readings, and communication events.
6. Custom Data Structures:Embedded C supports the creation of custom data structures,
which allows developers to organize and manage data efficiently. This is especially important
when dealing with complex sensor data or communication protocols.
7. Efficient Algorithms:Developing efficient algorithms is important in embedded systems
due to limited processing power. Embedded C enables developers to implement algorithms
that are tailored to the hardware's capabilities.
8. Portability:While not as portable as higher-level languages, Embedded C still offers a
degree of portability across architectures. Developers can often reuse and adapt code for
different microcontrollers with minimal changes.
9. Compiler-Specific Features:Different microcontroller manufacturers often provide their
own compilers and toolchains with specific extensions. Embedded C allows developers to
utilize these extensions to interact with the hardware in a more optimized manner.
10. Custom Hardware Control:Embedded C allows developers to create custom device
drivers to control specific hardware components. This level of control is necessary when
dealing with unique peripherals or communication interfaces.
11. Small Memory Footprint:Embedded C code can be optimized to minimize the memory
footprint, which is crucial in devices with limited memory. This includes techniques like
using bitfields to save memory space.
12.Bare-Metal Programming:Embedded C allows developers to write code that runs directly
on the hardware without the overhead of an operating system. This is common in resource-
constrained embedded systems.
Overall, Embedded C strikes a balance between low-level control and higher-level

programming, making it a versatile choice for developing software for a wide range of
embedded systems, from microcontrollers in consumer electronics to automotive control
units and industrial automation systems.

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4.1 Use of High-Level Languages- embedded C++ Programming

Embedded C++ programming combines the features of the C++ programming language with
the demands of embedded systems development. This approach allows developers to harness
the power of object-oriented programming and modern C++ features while addressing the
constraints of resource-constrained embedded environments. Here's how embedded C++
programming is used:
1. Object-Oriented Programming (OOP):C++ supports object-oriented programming,
allowing developers to create modular and reusable code through classes and objects. This is
particularly valuable for building complex embedded systems with multiple components and
interactions.
2. Abstraction and Encapsulation: Embedded C++ encourages the use of abstraction and
encapsulation, which helps isolate hardware-specific details from higher-level application
logic. This promotes code maintainability and simplifies future updates.
3. Code Reusability: In embedded C++, developers can create libraries and classes that
abstract common functionalities, making it easier to reuse code across different projects and
platforms. This enhances development efficiency.
4. Resource Management: Embedded C++ offers features like constructors and destructors,
which can be used to manage resources efficiently. Smart pointers and RAII (Resource
Acquisition Is Initialization) can help prevent resource leaks in complex applications.
5. Template Metaprogramming: While careful usage is necessary due to potential code bloat,
template metaprogramming in C++ can lead to code optimization through compile-time
computations. This is beneficial in embedded systems where runtime efficiency is crucial.
6. STL and Data Structures: The C++ Standard Template Library (STL) provides a range of
data structures and algorithms. These can be particularly useful for managing data and
optimizing code for various embedded applications.
7. Real-Time and Multithreading: C++ supports multithreading and real-time applications,
allowing developers to create responsive systems with multiple concurrent tasks. The
`<thread>` and `<mutex>` libraries can help manage parallel execution.
8. Operator Overloading: Embedded C++ enables developers to overload operators to work
with custom data types. This can simplify complex calculations and data manipulations,
making code more readable.
9. Hardware Abstraction: Embedded C++ allows developers to create hardware abstraction
layers (HALs) using classes and functions. This makes it easier to adapt code to different
hardware platforms without rewriting the entire application.
10. Low-Level Access: Embedded C++ supports low-level operations, such as direct memory
access and pointer manipulation, which can be essential when interfacing with hardware
peripherals.
11. Custom Memory Management: Developers can implement custom memory management
strategies using C++ features like operator overloading, placement `new`, and memory pools.
This is useful for optimizing memory usage in resource-constrained systems.

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12. Compiler and Toolchain Support:Many modern embedded systems toolchains provide
support for C++ programming. Developers can take advantage of compiler optimizations and
extensions for better performance.
13. Safety and Reliability:With proper usage, C++ features like exceptions and the type
system can enhance code safety and reliability. However, careful consideration is needed to
ensure minimal impact on performance and memory usage.
14. Mixed-Language Development: In some cases, developers might use a mix of C and C++
in an embedded project, combining the strengths of both languages. This can be particularly
useful when interfacing with legacy code or hardware-specific code.
5. INTEGRATED DEVELOPMENT ENVIRONMENT TOOLS
Embedded C++ programming is suitable for a range of applications, from consumer
electronics to automotive systems, medical devices, and industrial automation. However,
developers must be mindful of code size, runtime efficiency, and memory consumption to
ensure optimal performance in resource-limited environments.
Certainly, let's break down the key components and tools commonly found in an Integrated
Development Environment (IDE) for embedded systems development:
1. Editor:
The code editor is where you write and edit your source code. It often includes features like
syntax highlighting, code completion, code folding, and code navigation to help you write
code more efficiently.
2. Compiler:
The compiler translates your source code written in high-level programming languages
(like C or C++) into machine code that can be executed by the target microcontroller or
processor. It checks for syntax errors and performs various optimizations to generate efficient
code.
3. Linker:
The linker takes the output of the compiler (object files) and combines them into a single
executable file. It resolves references between different parts of the code and generates the
final binary image that can be loaded onto the target hardware.
4. Automatic Code Generators:
Some IDEs provide tools that generate code automatically based on specific configurations
or requirements. These generators can help create initialization code, drivers, or application
frameworks based on user inputs.
5. Debugger:
The debugger is a crucial tool for identifying and fixing issues in your code. It allows you
to set breakpoints, step through code execution, inspect variables, and track program flow.
Embedded debuggers might also support features like real-time memory inspection and
peripheral register visualization.

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6. Board Support Library (BSL):

A Board Support Library is a collection of code and drivers specific to a particular
development board or hardware platform. It provides an abstraction layer that simplifies
interacting with the board's peripherals and hardware features.
7. Chip Support Library (CSL):
A Chip Support Library provides a collection of low-level drivers and APIs for a specific
microcontroller or processor family. It offers an interface to interact with the
microcontroller's hardware features, such as GPIO, timers, UARTs, and more.
8. IDE-Specific Tools:
Many IDEs offer additional tools and features to enhance development:
- Version Control Integration:Integration with version control systems like Git allows teams
to collaborate on projects more effectively.
- Project Management:Tools for organizing and managing project files, configurations, and
build settings.
- Code Generation Tools: Some IDEs include code generators for specific tasks, like
generating state machines or communication protocols.
- Simulators and Emulators:Simulators and emulators allow you to test your code on the
development machine before deploying it to the target hardware.
- Profiling and Optimization:Tools for analyzing code performance and optimizing it for
memory and execution speed.
These components work together to provide a unified environment for developing, testing,
and debugging embedded systems software. When choosing an IDE, it's important to
consider factors such as hardware compatibility, toolchain support, available libraries,
debugging capabilities, and personal preferences.
6. Analysis and Optimization-Execution Time- Energy & Power
In embedded systems development, analysis and optimization of execution time, energy

consumption, and power usage are critical to creating efficient and reliable software for
resource-constrained environments. Here's how these factors are addressed:
1. Execution Time Analysis and Optimization:
- Profiling: Profiling tools help identify which parts of your code consume the most
execution time. This information allows you to focus your optimization efforts on critical
sections.
- Loop Optimization: Optimizing loops by reducing iterations, minimizing branching, and
using efficient algorithms can significantly improve execution time.
- Compiler Optimization Flags:Modern compilers offer various optimization levels and
flags that can improve code execution speed. These include options for loop unrolling,
inlining functions, and optimizing for size or speed.

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- Parallelism and Multithreading: If the hardware supports it, using multiple cores or
threads can help distribute tasks and improve overall execution speed.
- Cache Optimization: Optimizing memory access patterns to take advantage of cache
hierarchies can significantly reduce memory access latency.
- Reducing Code Size:Smaller code requires less time to fetch from memory, leading to
faster execution. Removing dead code and using smaller data types can help in this aspect.
2. Energy and Power Analysis and Optimization:
- Power Profiling:Tools can measure the energy consumption of different parts of the
system. This profiling helps identify power-hungry components and optimize their usage.
- Clock and Voltage Scaling:Many processors and microcontrollers offer clock and voltage
scaling options that allow you to adjust the CPU frequency and voltage levels based on
workload, saving power during periods of lower demand.
- Idle Modes: Utilizing low-power modes during periods of inactivity can significantly
reduce energy consumption.
- Peripheral Management: Turning off or reducing the frequency of unused or less critical
peripherals can lead to substantial power savings.
- Efficient Algorithms: Choosing algorithms that require fewer calculations or memory
accesses can reduce CPU usage and subsequently lower energy consumption.
- Duty Cycling:For wireless communication, duty cycling involves turning off the radio
module when it's not actively transmitting or receiving data.
- Dynamic Voltage and Frequency Scaling (DVFS): Adjusting the CPU's voltage and
frequency in real-time based on workload can lead to energy savings.
- Power Gating:Power gating involves completely shutting down certain parts of the chip
when they're not needed, further reducing power consumption.
3. Trade-offs and Considerations:
- Real-Time Requirements:Optimizations should not compromise real-time performance if
the system has time-sensitive tasks.
- Hardware Limitations:Different hardware platforms might have different power-saving
mechanisms and limitations. Optimizations should consider the capabilities of the target
hardware.
- Accuracy vs. Efficiency: Energy and power measurement tools might introduce overhead,
impacting accuracy. Striking a balance between accuracy and overall efficiency is important.
Effective analysis and optimization of execution time, energy consumption, and power usage
require a deep understanding of the hardware, software, and the specific requirements of the
embedded system. It's a careful balancing act to achieve the desired performance and energy
efficiency without sacrificing reliability or functionality.

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UNIT 4
DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF IoT
4.1 INTRODUCTION
The Internet of Things (IoT) describes the network of physical objects—“things”—that are
embedded with sensors, software, and other technologies for the purpose of connecting and exchanging
data with other devices and systems over the internet.
Internet of Things (IoT) is the networking of physical objects that contain electronics embedded
within their architecture in order to communicate and sense interactions amongst each other or with
respect to the external environment. In the upcoming years, IoT-based technology will offer advanced
levels of services and practically change the way people lead their daily lives. Advancements in medicine,
power, gene therapies, agriculture, smart cities, and smart homes are just a very few of the categorical
examples where IoT is strongly established.
IoT is network of interconnected computing devices which are embedded in everyday objects, enabling
them to send and receive data.
4.2 DEFINITION
A dynamic global network infrastructure with self-configuring capabilities based on standard and
interoperable communication protocols where physical and virtual "things" have identities, physical
attributes, and virtual personalities and use intelligent interfaces, and are seamlessly integrated into the
information network, often communicate data associated with users and their environments.
4.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF IoT
➢ Dynamic & Self-Adapting: IoT devices and systems may have the capability to dynamically adapt
with the changing contexts and take actions based on their operating conditions, user's context, or
sensed environment. For example, consider a surveillance system comprising of a number of
surveillance cameras. The surveillance cameras can adapt their modes (to normal or infra-red night
modes) based on whether it is day or night. Cameras could switch from lower resolution to higher
resolution modes when any motion is detected and alert nearby cameras to do the same. In this
example, the surveillance system is adapting itself based on the context and changing (e.g.. dynamic)
conditions.
➢ Self-Configuring: IoT devices may have self-configuring capability, allowing a large number of
devices to work together to provide certain functionality (such as weather monitoring). These
devices have the ability configure themselves (in association with the IoT infrastructure), setup the
networking, and fetch latest software upgrades with minimal manual or user intervention.
➢ Interoperable Communication Protocols: IoT devices may support a number of interoperable
communication protocols and can communicate with other devices and also with the infrastructure.
We describe some of the commonly used communication protocols and models in later sections.
➢ Unique Identity: Each IoT device has a unique identity and a unique identifier (such as an IP
address or a URI). IoT systems may have intelligent interfaces which adapt based on the context,
allow communicating with users and the environmental contexts. IoT device interfaces allow users
to query the devices, monitor their status, and control them remotely, in association with the control,
configuration and management infrastructure.
➢ Integrated into Information Network: IoT devices are usually integrated into the information
network that allows them to communicate and exchange data with other devices and systems. IoT
devices can be dynamically discovered in the network, by other devices and/or the network, and
have the capability to describe themselves (and their characteristics) to other devices or user
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applications. For example, a weather monitoring node can describe its monitoring capabilities to
another connected node so that they can communicate and exchange data. Integration into the
information network helps in making loT systems "smarter" due to the collective intelligence of the
individual devices in collaboration with the infrastructure. Thus, the data from a large number of
connected weather monitoring loT nodes can be aggregated and analyzed to predict the weather.
4.4 TECHNICAL BUILDING BLOCKS OF IOT
The Internet of Things denotes the connection of devices, machines, and sensors to the Internet. An IoT
system comprises four basic building blocks: sensors, processors, gateways, and applications. This article
will thoroughly discuss what each component of the IoT architecture represents.
The architecture of IoT components:

1. Sensors convert a non-electrical input to an electrical signal. Sensors are classified into two types:
active and passive sensors. Whereas active sensors use and emit their own energy to collect real-
time data (ex.: GPS, X-ray, radars), passive sensors use energy from external sources (ex:
cameras). Additionally, sensors differentiate themselves by position, occupancy, and motion,
velocity and acceleration, force, pressure, flow, humidity, light, radiation, temperature, etc.
2. Processors are the brain, the main part of the IoT system. They process the raw data captured by
the sensors and extract valuable information. Examples of processors are microcontrollers and
microcomputers.
3. Gateways are the combination of hardware and software used to connect one network to another.
Gateways are responsible for bridging sensor nodes with the external Internet or World Wide
Web. The figure below depicts how using gateways works.
4. Applications provide a user interface and effective utilization of the data collected.
The figure above illustrates some examples of IoT applications.

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4.5 COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES

Several Communication Protocols and Technology used in the internet of Things. Some of the major
IoT technology and protocol (IoT Communication Protocols) are Bluetooth, Wifi, Radio Protocols, LTE-
A, and WiFi-Direct.
These IoT communication protocols cater to and meet the specific functional requirement of an IoT system.
There are 6 IoT Communication Protocols/ Technology, let us ook each one of them.
a. Bluetooth
An important short-range IoT communications Protocols / Technology. Bluetooth, which has
become very important in computing and many consumer product markets. It is expected to be key for
wearable products in particular, again connecting to the IoT albeit probably via a smartphone in many cases.
The new Bluetooth Low-Energy (BLE) – or Bluetooth Smart, as it is now branded – is a significant
protocol for IoT applications. Importantly, while it offers a similar range to Bluetooth it has been designed
to offer significantly reduced power consumption.

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Iot Technology – Bluetooth

b. Zigbee
ZigBee is similar to Bluetooth and is majorly used in industrial settings. It has some significant
advantages in complex systems offering low-power operation, high security, robustness and high and is
well positioned to take advantage of wireless control and sensor networks in IoT applications.
The latest version of ZigBee is the recently launched 3.0, which is essentially the unification of the
various ZigBee wireless standards into a single standard.
Iot Technology – ZigBee

c. Z-Wave
Z-Wave is a low-power RF communications IoT technology that primarily design for home
automation for products such as lamp controllers and sensors among many other devices.
A Z-Wave uses a simpler protocol than some others, which can enable faster and simpler development, but
the only maker of chips is Sigma Designs compared to multiple sources for other wireless technologies such
as ZigBee and others.

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Iot Technology – Z-Wave

d. Wi-Fi
WiFi connectivity is one of the most popular IoT communication protocol, often an obvious choice
for many developers, especially given the availability of WiFi within the home environment within
LANs.There is a wide existing infrastructure as well as offering fast data transfer and the ability to handle
high quantities of data.
Currently, the most common WiFi standard used in homes and many businesses is 802.11n, which
offers range of hundreds of megabit per second, which is fine for file transfers but may be too power-
consuming for many IoT applications.
e. Cellular
Any IoT application that requires operation over longer distances can take advantage of
GSM/3G/4G cellular communication capabilities. While cellular is clearly capable of sending high
quantities of data, especially for 4G, the cost and also power consumption will be too high for many
applications.But it can be ideal for sensor-based low-bandwidth-data projects that will send very low
amounts of data over the Internet.
IoT Communication Protocols – Cellular

f. NFC
NFC (Near Field Communication) is an IoT technology. It enables simple and safe communications
between electronic devices, and specifically for smartphones, allowing consumers to perform transactions
in which one does not have to be physically present.It helps the user to access digital content and connect
electronic devices. Essentially it extends the capability of contactless card technology and enables devices
to share information at a distance that is less than 4cm.

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IoT Communication Protocols – NFC

g. LoRaWAN
LoRaWAN is one of popular IoT Technology, targets wide-area network (WAN) applications. The
LoRaWAN design to provide low-power WANs with features specifically needed to support low-cost
mobile secure communication in IoT, smart city, and industrial applications.Specifically meets
requirements for low-power consumption and supports large networks with millions and millions of
devices, data rates range from 0.3 kbps to 50 kbps.
Iot Technology – LoRaWAN

So, this was all about IoT Technology Tutorial. Hope you like our explanation of IoT Communication
Protocols.
4.6 PHYSICAL DESIGN OF AN IOT
The physical design of an IoT system is referred to as the Things/Devices and protocols that
are used to build an IoT system. All these things/Devices are called Node Devices and every device
has a unique identity that performs remote sensing, actuating, and monitoring work. and the protocols
that are used to establish communication between the Node devices and servers over the internet.
Physical Design of IoT

Things/Devices
Things/Devices are used to build a connection, process data, provide interfaces, provide storage,
and provide graphics interfaces in an IoT system. All these generate data in a form that can be analyzed by
an analytical system and program to perform operations
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for example temperature sensor that is used to analyze the temperature generates the data from a
location and is then determined by algorithms.
devices in IoT(Internet of things)
Connectivity
Devices like USB hosts and ETHERNET are used for connectivity between the devices and the server.
Processor
A processor like a CPU and other units are used to process the data. these data are further used to improve
the decision quality of an IoT system.
Audio/Video Interfaces
An interface like HDMI and RCA devices is used to record audio and videos in a system.
Input/Output interface
To give input and output signals to sensors, and actuators we use things like UART, SPI, CAN, etc.
Storage Interfaces
Things like SD, MMC, and SDIO are used to store the data generated from an IoT device.Other things
like DDR and GPU are used to control the activity of an IoT system.
IoT Protocols
These protocols are used to establish communication between a node device and a server over the
internet. it helps to send commands to an IoT device and receive data from an IoT device over the
internet. we use different types of protocols that are present on both the server and client side and these
protocols are managed by network layers like application, transport, network, and link layer.

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IoT(Internet of Things) protocols
Application Layer protocol

In this layer, protocols define how the data can be sent over the network with the lower layer protocols
using the application interface. these protocols include HTTP, WebSocket, XMPP, MQTT, DDS, and
AMQP protocols.
HTTP
Hypertext transfer protocol is a protocol that presents an application layer for transmitting media
documents. it is used to communicate between web browsers and servers. it makes a request to a server and
then waits till it receives a response and in between the request server does not keep any data between the
two requests.
WebSocket
This protocol enables two-way communication between a client and a host that can be run on an untrusted
code in a controlled environment. This protocol is commonly used by web browsers.
MQTT
It is a machine-to-machine connectivity protocol that was designed as a publish/subscribe messaging
transport. and it is used for remote locations where a small code footprint is required.
Transport Layer
This layer is used to control the flow of data segments and handle error control. also, these layer protocols
provide end-to-end message transfer capability independent of the underlying network.
TCP
The transmission control protocol is a protocol that defines how to establish and maintain a network that
can exchange data in a proper manner using the internet protocol.

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UDP
a user datagram protocol is part of an internet protocol called the connectionless protocol. this protocol is
not required to establish the connection to transfer data.
Network Layer
This layer is used to send datagrams from the source network to the destination network. we use IPv4 and
IPv6 protocols as host identification that transfers data in packets.
IPv4
This is a protocol address that is a unique and numerical label assigned to each device connected to the
network. an IP address performs two main functions host and location addressing. IPv4 is an IP address that
is 32-bit long.
IPv6
It is a successor of IPv4 that uses 128 bits for an IP address. it is developed by the IETF task force to deal
with long-anticipated problems.
Link Layer
Link-layer protocols are used to send data over the network’s physical layer. it also determines how the
packets are coded and signaled by the devices.
Ethernet
It is a set of technologies and protocols that are used primarily in LANs. it defines the physical layer and
the medium access control for wired ethernet networks.
WiFi
It is a set of LAN protocols and specifies the set of media access control and physical layer protocols for
implementing wireless local area networks.
4.7 IOT SOFTWARE BUILDING BLOCKS

Software is the set of programs that facilitates the data collection, processing, storage, and evaluation
instructions based on the processed data from the IoT Software. Operating Systems, firmware, applications,
and middleware are some of the examples that fall into this category.
1. Data Collection: Data collection includes a core of the data collection aspects ranging from sensing
the data, filtering it, measuring it, aggregating it, and in the end managing 2/ the security of the
collected data. It can be performed from various sources, and once done is distributed over devices
and then to a central data repository.
2. Device Integration: In this category, all components within the IoT system are integrated. It
manages all the limitations, protocols, and applications are handled properly to ensure proper
communication among the devices.
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3. Real-Time Analytics: Over the collected data and the processing that is done over this data, there
can be automated tasks that could run and analyze this data for specific patterns.
4. Application and Process Extension: This ensures that the data collection process can be
accentuated to get the most out of it, from all possible sources, These are more like the enhancers
over the existing data collection infrastructure.
We can understand this through the example. The basic architecture of IoT is shown in the diagram.
Building blocks of iot(Internet of things)
4.8 SENSORS AND SENSOR NODE AND INTERFACING USING ANY

EMBEDDED TARGET BOARDS
(RASPBERRY PI / INTEL GALILEO/ARM CORTEX/ ARDUINO)
Industrial IoT requires a robust infrastructure comprised of sensor nodes, energy -efficient
communication networks, and gateways that connect to the Internet and cloud. The datasets generated
by the sensors pass through many phases before becoming valuable for businesses. This article
introduces the concept of sensor nodes, low-power networks, and IoT Gateways used in industrial
scenarios. We will use Arduino, XBee, Raspberry Pi 2 and open source software for prototyping an
end-to-end solution.
The latest Raspberry Pi 2 packs a lot more punch than its predecessor. Powered by a 900 MHz
quad-core ARM Cortex-A7 processor and 1GB RAM, Raspberry Pi 2 Model B can be used for a
variety of scenarios. We will use an open source software stack to aggregate, store and visualize sensor
data in real-time.
What is an IoT Gateway?

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In an industrial IoT scenario, there are many sensors and actuators that interact with the
machinery. Each machine would typically have multiple sensors tracking its health and monitoring the
key parameters related to the production. Each sensor and actuator is attached to a microcontroller that
is responsible for acquiring the data or controlling a switch through a pre-defined instruction set. The
microcontroller — along with the sensors, power and a radio — is called a sensor node. It is a self-
contained, deployable unit that captures the data generated by sensors. The sensor node doesn’t have
enough processing power, memory, and storage to deal with the data locally. It uses a low-energy
radio communication network to send the data to a central location. The communication link between
the sensors’ nodes and the central hub is based on ZigBee, Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE), or Power
over Ethernet (PoE). The hub that acts as an aggregator of multiple raw datasets generated by the
sensor nodes is called an IoT gateway.
The second role of an IoT gateway is protocol transformation. Since the sensor nodes cannot
use power hungry Wi-Fi or ethernet, they use low-powered communication networks. A gateway
supports multiple communication protocols for accepting the inbound data sent by the sensor nodes.
It uses a variety of protocols for the outbound communication, which typically connects the gateway
to a process running in the cloud. Some of the popular outbound protocols used in the context of IoT
are REST, MQTT, CoAP, STOMP and even SMS. In some scenarios, the gateway may also process
the data and raise alerts in real time. But this is best left to the powerful stream processing pipelines
running in the cloud.
The diagram below represents the deployment architecture of an IoT gateway.

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Gateways act as an edge device, obscuring the sensor nodes from the public internet. Though
the sensor nodes can make outbound connections to the internet and cloud through the gateway, they
cannot be accessed directly. Thus, gateways play the dual role of routers and firewall securing the
sensor nodes and internal network.Sensor nodes that are capable of connecting to the Internet still need
a gateway for data aggregation and transformation. They connect to an appliance running in the cloud
called a cloud gateway. The local edge device running on-premises is often referred to as a field
gateway.
Arduino as a the Sensor Node and Raspberry Pi as the Gateway

Since the objective of this tutorial is to build a working prototype, we will keep the sensor node
configuration simple. We will use an inexpensive DHT22 sensor that captures the ambient humidity
and temperature and sends it to the gateway.
We use the following components:
Sensor Node
• Arduino Uno R3
• DHT 22 humidity / temperature sensor
• XBee breakout board
• XBee series 2
IoT Gateway
• Raspberry Pi 2
• XBee series 2
• Wi-Fi Dongle

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A Short Introduction to XBee

XBee modules make it easy to create a wireless point-to-point or mesh network. They are
configured with the standard AT commands. With built-in error correction, XBee modules offer a
reliable wireless link. They come in multiple flavors, with support for proto cols like ZigBee,
Bluetooth, and even Wi-Fi. The XBee modules can be configured to operate either in a transparent
data mode or in application programming interface (API) mode.
In the transparent mode, data coming into the Data IN (DIN) pin is directly transmitted over-
the-air to the intended receiving radios without any modification. This feature is what makes XBee a
drop-in replacement for an RS–232 cable. Incoming packets can either be directly addressed to one
target (point-to-point) or broadcast to multiple targets (star). We will use XBees configured in
transparent mode for connecting the sensor node to the gateway.
ZigBee is a specification for a high-level communication protocol mainly used for personal
area networking based on small, low-power digital radios. ZigBee is based on an IEEE 802.15.4
standard. Its low power consumption confines the transmission range from 10 to 100 meters line -of-
sight, depending on power output and environmental characteristics. ZigBee devices are capable of
transmitting data over long distances by passing through a mesh network of intermediate devices to
reach more distant ones.
ZigBee is typically used in low data rate applications that require long battery life and secure
networking. ZigBee networks are secured by 128-bit symmetric encryption keys. Some of the use
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cases of ZigBee include wireless light switches, electrical meters with in -home-displays, traffic
management systems, and other consumer and industrial equipment that requires short-range, low-rate
wireless data transfer.
The technology defined by the ZigBee specification is intended to be simpler and less expensive
than other wireless personal area networks (WPANs), such as Bluetooth or Wi-Fi. Philips Hue bulbs
use ZigBee as the communication protocol between the hub and the lightbulbs. We will use ZigBee as
the radio link between the sensor node and the IoT gateway.
The XBee radio connected to the sensor node will act as a router, while the one connected to
the gateway will act as the coordinator. Multiple routers can talk to the coordinator. For advanced
scenarios, it is recommended to use XBee in API configuration mode. For a detailed walkthrough of
configuring the XBee radio modules in the router mode and coordinator mode, please refer to
an excellent tutorial by SparkFun.
EMBEDDED TARGET BOARDS
Open Source Embedded Development Boards

Returning to the main focus of this column, there are dozens of development boards available in the market; ten of the
more popular offerings are as follows:
1.Raspberry Pi 3 B+
The Raspberry Pi development board is a small pocket-sized computer running the Raspbian operating system,
which is a variant of Debian Linux
Raspberry Pi features a Broadcom processor. It is a low-cost embedded board with high reliability. It supports various
on-board peripherals like I2C, SPI, an HDMI interface, a Camera interface, a UART interface, and SDIO (Secure digital
input output) for a SD card interface.

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Block Diagram
The board comes up with software APIs and routines for application programming. It also has OTG (On the Go
programming) for USB applications.
There are various raspberry pi models. The latest one being the Raspberry Pi 3 B+.
2.Qualcomm Snapdragon
This is single board computer (SBC) that uses the powerful Snapdragon processor from Qualcomm. It supports
various interfaces like Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and Global Positioning System (GPS). It is well suited for Internet of Things
(Iot), medical, and robotic applications.
You can connect a keyboard, mouse, and USB interfaces. As you may know, some smartphones are coming equipped
with this processor.

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Block Diagram
3.BeagleBone Black
The BeagleBone Black uses a Texas Instruments (TI) Sitara processor running on ARM Cortex-A8 core. The
system clock frequency is 1GHz, which supports various operating systems like Windows, Linux, Android, QNX,
Embedded CE, and ThreadX.
This development board supports an Ethernet interface, a micro SD card interface, a UART, a Flash interface, and an
HDMI interface for audio and video. The weight of the system is around 40 grams, making portable and easy to carry.

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Block Diagram
There’s a USB option for downloading the stored data from the flash and also for updating the firmware.
4.PandaBoard
The PandaBoard is a low-power, low-cost development board based on TI’s OMAP4460 (Open media
application platform). This board supports operating systems like Windows, Linux, Window CE, Palm OS, and Symbian.
Boasting a Cortex-M3 processor running at 1.2GHz clock frequency, this board is well suited for image processing
applications. The processor is accompanied by a 384MHz GPU (graphics processing unit). The board has two USB ports
and supports Ethernet and Wireless connectivity using Bluetooth. The programming can be performed via the USB OTG
port.

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Block Diagram
The video processing capability of the PandaBoard makes it a good for 1080 High Definition (HD) applications. This
SBC is well-suited for entertainment applications; however, it is quite expensive when compared with other SBCs.
5.Intel Galileo Gen 2

The Galileo development board comes from Intel and features an Intel Quark SoC X1000 processor. It is
designed using Pentium technology. The advantage of this board is it is compatible with shields for the Arduino Uno R3.
In addition to 8Mb Flash, the Galileo has various interfaces like USB, SD card, UART, and Ethernet. The Galileo also
has a rich set of software libraries for developing applications. Due to its software compatibility and ease of interface, it
is well suited for students and electronic hobbyists.

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Block Diagram
6.Arduino Mega 2560
Arduino is an open source hardware and software platform family with thousands of active users and
contributors. It is one of the best platforms for making electronic projects. If you are a beginner, you can quickly develop
applications with less effort than with other platforms.
The board features an 8-bit ATmega2560 microcontroller running at 16MHz. It has 54 digital Input/output pins and 16
analog inputs. The board has four UARTs and can be programmed using the Arduino IDE. It is also compatible with
other variants of Arduino shields.

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Block Diagram
7.Banana Pi M2+
The Banana Pi M2+ is a portable SBC that supports various interfaces like Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, and Ethernet. It
offers great computing performance with its quad-core ARM Cortex-A7 processor running at 1.2GHz.
There are various versions of the Banana Pi M2+ named as H3, H2+, EDU, and H5. For example, the Banana EDU is
well-suited for students and engineers to learn the functionality of small embedded applications, but it has no Wi-Fi or
Bluetooth on-board.
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8.CubieBoard6
CubieBoard6 is an SBC that runs operating systems like Linux. It also supports the Android OS. The Cubie is
empowered with a quad core Cortex-A9 processor. The board can also be powered using a LiPo (lithium polymer)
battery.
It comes with an infrared (IR) sensor and Real Time Clock (RTC) module. Moreover, it has Wi-Fi and Bluetooth support
that enables network connection. The Cubie has an audio input and output via a 3.5mm jack or an HDMI cable.

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Block Diagram
9.Odroid-C2
The ODROID-C2 is a 64-bit quad-core (SBC) that is suitable for applications like multimedia, gaming, and
consumer electronics. It can also work as a standalone computer with available open source software packages.
The ODROID-C2 is powered by an Amlogic S950 processor, which is based on an ARM Cortex-A53, making it a
resource for wearable applications. In addition to a built-in temperature sensor, this board has four USB ports, and two
UART and I2C interfaces. The ODROID-C2 also boasts 2GB 32-bit DDR3 RAM and 40 GPIO pins for connecting
external peripherals.
Block Diagram
10.HummingBoard Gate
The HummingBoard Gate has been described as: ” The device you’ve been waiting for to fulfil all of your IoT
needs.”

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Based on an NXP quad-core processor, this SBC comes with an integrated mikroBUS socket that is suitable for
MikroElektronika development boards and external peripheral modules.
The HummingBoard Gate supports 2GB of DDR3 RAM and is useful for building modular projects and providing proof-
of-concept.
Block Diagram
4.10 Benefits of the Internet of Medical Things (IoMT)
1. Improved Patient Outcomes:

The real-time monitoring provided by the IoMT enables healthcare providers to detect health problems early and
take prompt action, leading to improved patient outcomes.
2. Cost Reduction:
By monitoring patients in real time, the IoMT can reduce the need for frequent hospital visits and other medical
procedures, leading to reduced costs.
3. Increased Efficiency:
The IoMT can streamline healthcare operations by reducing the amount of manual data entry and enabling
healthcare providers to access patient data more easily.

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4. Improved Patient Engagement:

The IoMT can improve patient engagement by providing patients with easy access to their health data and enabling
them to track their progress over time.
5. Better Decision Making:

The data collected by the IoMT can be used to make more informed decisions about patient care, leading to
improved patient outcomes and reduced costs.
4.11 IMPACT OF IoMT
IoMT refers to a system of interconnected sensors and medical equipment that can gather and send
real-time patient data to healthcare providers. This technology can potentially enhance patient outcomes
and save healthcare costs by enabling remote monitoring, individualised care, and preventive
interventions.
The six challenges we have to face when IoMT is implemented:
1. Cyber Security
2. Interoperability
3. Device Mobility
4. Licensing and Regulations
5. Improving Adoption Scale
6. Need for Advanced Analytics
4.12 CYBERSECURITY
Cyber security refers to every aspect of protecting an organization and its employees and assets
against cyber threats. As cyberattacks become more common and sophisticated and corporate networks
grow more complex, a variety of cyber security solutions are required to mitigate corporate cyber risk.
4.12.1 VULNERABILITY
Any flaw in an organization’s internal controls, system procedures, or information systems is a

vulnerability in cyber security. Cybercriminals and Hackers may target these vulnerabilities and exploit
them through the points of vulnerability.These hackers can enter the networks without authorization and
seriously harm data privacy. Data being a gold mine in this modern world is something that has to be
secured preciously. As a result, it is crucial to constantly check for cybersecurity vulnerabilities because
flaws in a network could lead to a complete compromise of an organization’s systems.
Examples of Cyber Security Vulnerabilities
Here are a few examples of cybersecurity vulnerabilities
• Missing data encryption

• Lack of security cameras
• Unlocked doors at businesses
• Unrestricted upload of dangerous files
• Code downloads without integrity checks
• Using broken algorithms
• URL Redirection to untrustworthy websites
• Weak and unchanged passwords
• Website without Downloaded
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Types of Cyber Security Vulnerabilities

Here are a few common types of cybersecurity vulnerabilities:
1.System Misconfigurations
Network assets can cause system mistakes with incompatible security settings or restrictions.
Networks are frequently searched for system errors and vulnerable spots by cybercriminals. Network
misconfigurations are increasing as a result of the quick digital revolution. Working with knowledgeable
security professionals is crucial when implementing new technology. Cybercriminals frequently search
networks for vulnerabilities and misconfigurations in the system that they can exploit.
2.Out-of-date or Unpatched Software
Hackers frequently scour networks for vulnerable, unpatched systems that are prime targets, just as
system configuration errors do. Attackers may use these unpatched vulnerabilities to steal confidential data,
which is a huge threat to any organization. Establishing a patch management strategy that ensures all the
most recent system updates are applied as soon as they are issued is crucial for reducing these types of
threats.
3.Missing or Weak Authorization Credentials
Attackers frequently utilize brute force methods, such as guessing employee passwords, to gain
access to systems and networks. Therefore, they must therefore train employees on cybersecurity best
practices to prevent the easy exploitation of their login credentials. An endpoint system security will be a
great addition to all laptop or desktop devices.
4.Malicious Insider Threats
Employees with access to vital systems may occasionally share data that enables hackers to infiltrate
the network, knowingly or unknowingly. Because all acts seem genuine, insider threats can be challenging
to identify. Consider purchasing network access control tools and segmenting your network according to
employee seniority and experience to counter these risks.
5.Missing or Poor Data Encryption
If a network has weak or nonexistent encryption, it will be simpler for attackers to intercept system
communications and compromise them. Cyber adversaries can harvest crucial information and introduce
misleading information onto a server when there is weak or unencrypted data. This may result in regulatory
body fines and adversely jeopardize an organization’s efforts to comply with cyber security regulations.
6.Zero-day Vulnerabilities
Zero-day vulnerabilities are specific software flaws that the attackers are aware of but that a
company or user has not yet identified.Since the vulnerability has not yet been identified or reported by the
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system manufacturer, there are no known remedies or workarounds in these situations. These are
particularly risky because there is no protection against them before an attack occurs. Exercising caution
and checking systems for vulnerabilities is crucial to reducing the risk of zero-day attacks
Causes of Cyber Security Vulnerabilities
There are many causes of cyber security vulnerabilities. A few of them are as follows:
1. Complexity: The likelihood of errors, defects, or unauthorized access increases with complex
systems.
2. Familiarity: Attackers may already be acquainted with common code, operating systems,
hardware, and software that result in well-known vulnerabilities.
3. Connectivity: Vulnerabilities are more likely to exist in connected devices. It is better to avoid
connecting to multiple devices unnecessarily.
4. Poor Password Management: This can cause several data breaches because of weak or repeated
passwords. It is important to change passwords using strong password generators regularly.
5. Internet: Spyware and adware that can be loaded on computers automatically are abundant on the
internet.
6. Operating System Flaws: Operating systems can also be flawed. Operating systems that aren’t
safe by default might provide users unrestricted access and serve as a haven for malware and
viruses.
7. Software Bugs: Sometimes, programmers may unintentionally introduce a vulnerability that can
exploit.
8. Unchecked User Input: If software or a website presumes that all user input is secure, SQL
injection may be executed without the user’s knowledge.
9. People: For most organizations, social engineering poses the biggest concern. Therefore, one of
the main sources of vulnerability can be people.
Vulnerability Management
The process of identifying, classifying, resolving, and mitigating security vulnerabilities is known
as vulnerability management. Vulnerability management consists of three key components:
1. Vulnerability detection
2. Vulnerability assessment
3. Addressing Vulnerabilities
Vulnerability Detection
The process of vulnerability detection has the following three methods:
• Vulnerability scanning
• Penetration testing
• Google hacking
4.12.2 PENETRATION

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A penetration test, also known as a pen test, is a simulated cyber attack against your computer system to
check for exploitable vulnerabilities. In the context of web application security, penetration testing is
commonly used to augment a web application firewall (WAF).Pen testing can involve the attempted
breaching of any number of application systems, (e.g., application protocol interfaces (APIs),
frontend/backend servers) to uncover vulnerabilities, such as unsanitized inputs that are susceptible to code
injection attacks.Insights provided by the penetration test can be used to fine-tune your WAF security
policies and patch detected vulnerabilities.
Penetration testing stages
The pen testing process can be broken down into five stages.
1. Planning and reconnaissance

The first stage involves:
• Defining the scope and goals of a test, including the systems to be addressed and the testing
methods to be used.
• Gathering intelligence (e.g., network and domain names, mail server) to better understand how a
target works and its potential vulnerabilities.
2. Scanning
The next step is to understand how the target application will respond to various intrusion attempts. This
is typically done using:
• Static analysis – Inspecting an application’s code to estimate the way it behaves while running.
These tools can scan the entirety of the code in a single pass.
• Dynamic analysis – Inspecting an application’s code in a running state. This is a more practical
way of scanning, as it provides a real-time view into an application’s performance.
3. Gaining Access
This stage uses web application attacks, such as cross-site scripting, SQL injection and backdoors, to
uncover a target’s vulnerabilities. Testers then try and exploit these vulnerabilities, typically by escalating
privileges, stealing data, intercepting traffic, etc., to understand the damage they can cause.

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4. Maintaining access
The goal of this stage is to see if the vulnerability can be used to achieve a persistent presence in the
exploited system— long enough for a bad actor to gain in-depth access. The idea is to imitate advanced
persistent threats, which often remain in a system for months in order to steal an organization’s most
sensitive data.
5. Analysis
The results of the penetration test are then compiled into a report detailing:
• Specific vulnerabilities that were exploited

• Sensitive data that was accessed
• The amount of time the pen tester was able to remain in the system undetected
This information is analyzed by security personnel to help configure an enterprise’s WAF settings and
other application security solutions to patch vulnerabilities and protect against future attacks.
PENETRATION TESTING METHODS
External testing
External penetration tests target the assets of a company that are visible on the internet, e.g., the web
application itself, the company website, and email and domain name servers (DNS). The goal is to gain
access and extract valuable data.
Internal testing
In an internal test, a tester with access to an application behind its firewall simulates an attack by
a malicious insider. This isn’t necessarily simulating a rogue employee. A common starting scenario can
be an employee whose credentials were stolen due to a phishing attack
.
Blind testing
In a blind test, a tester is only given the name of the enterprise that’s being targeted. This gives security
personnel a real-time look into how an actual application assault would take place.
Double-blind testing
In a double blind test, security personnel have no prior knowledge of the simulated attack. As in the real
world, they won’t have any time to shore up their defenses before an attempted breach.
Targeted testing
In this scenario, both the tester and security personnel work together and keep each other appraised of
their movements. This is a valuable training exercise that provides a security team with real-time feedback
from a hacker’s point of view.
4.12.3 ENCRYPTION TECHNOLOGIES

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Types of encryption
• Bring your own encryption (BYOE) is a cloud computing security model that enables cloud
service customers to use their own encryption software and manage their own encryption keys.
BYOE may also be referred to as bring your own key (BYOK). BYOE works by enabling
customers to deploy a virtualized instance of their own encryption software alongside the
business application they are hosting in the cloud.
• Cloud storage encryption is a service offered by cloud storage providers whereby data or text
is transformed using encryption algorithms and is then placed in cloud storage. Cloud
encryption is almost identical to in-house encryption with one important difference: The cloud
customer must take time to learn about the provider's policies and procedures for encryption
and encryption key management in order to match encryption with the level of sensitivity of
the data being stored.
• Column-level encryption is an approach to database encryption in which the information in

every cell in a particular column has the same password for access, reading and writing
purposes.
• Deniable encryption is a type of cryptography that enables an encrypted text to be decrypted

in two or more ways, depending on which decryption key is used. Deniable encryption is
sometimes used for misinformation purposes when the sender anticipates, or even encourages,
interception of a communication.
• Encryption as a Service (EaaS) is a subscription model that enables cloud service customers
to take advantage of the security that encryption offers. This approach provides customers who
lack the resources to manage encryption themselves with a way to address regulatory
compliance concerns and protect data in a multi-tenant environment. Cloud encryption
offerings typically include full-disk encryption (FDE), database encryption or file encryption.
• End-to-end encryption (E2EE) guarantees data being sent between two parties cannot be
viewed by an attacker that intercepts the communication channel. Use of an encrypted
communication circuit, as provided by Transport Layer Security (TLS) between web client and
web server software, is not always enough to ensure E2EE; typically, the actual content being
transmitted is encrypted by client software before being passed to a web client and decrypted
only by the recipient. Messaging apps that provide E2EE include Facebook's WhatsApp and
Open Whisper Systems' Signal. Facebook Messenger users may also get E2EE messaging with
the Secret Conversations option.
• Field-level encryption is the ability to encrypt data in specific fields on a webpage. Examples
of fields that can be encrypted are credit card numbers, Social Security numbers, bank account
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numbers, health-related information, wages and financial data. Once a field is chosen, all the
data in that field will automatically be encrypted.
• FDE is encryption at the hardware level. FDE works by automatically converting data on a
hard drive into a form that cannot be understood by anyone who doesn't have the key to undo
the conversion. Without the proper authentication key, even if the hard drive is removed and
placed in another machine, the data remains inaccessible. FDE can be installed on a computing
device at the time of manufacturing, or it can be added later on by installing a special software
driver.
• Homomorphic encryption is the conversion of data into ciphertext that can be analyzed and
worked with as if it were still in its original form. This approach to encryption enables
complex mathematical operations to be performed on encrypted data without compromising
the encryption.
• HTTPS enables website encryption by running HTTP over the TLS protocol. To enable a web
server to encrypt all content that it sends, a public key certificate must be installed.
• Link-level encryption encrypts data when it leaves the host, decrypts it at the next link, which
may be a host or a relay point, and then reencrypts it before sending it to the next link. Each
link may use a different key or even a different algorithm for data encryption, and the process
is repeated until the data reaches the recipient.
• Network-level encryption applies cryptoservices at the network transfer layer -- above the
data link level but below the application level. Network encryption is implemented through
Internet Protocol Security (IPsec), a set of open Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)
standards that, when used in conjunction, create a framework for private communication over
IP networks.
• Quantum cryptography depends on the quantum mechanical properties of particles to protect

data. In particular, the Heisenberg uncertainty principle posits that the two identifying
properties of a particle -- its location and its momentum -- cannot be measured without
changing the values of those properties. As a result, quantum-encoded data cannot be copied
because any attempt to access the encoded data will change the data. Likewise, any attempt to
copy or access the data will cause a change in the data, thus notifying the authorized parties to
the encryption that an attack has occurred.

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UNIT 5
INTERNET OF MEDICAL THINGS
Enhancing the Performance of Decision Tree Using NSUM Technique for Diabetes Patients
Diabetesisacommondiseaseamongchildrentoadultinthisera.Topreventthediseasesisveryimportantbecause it
saves the human lives. Data mining technique helps to solve the problem of predicting
diabetes.Ithasstepsofprocessestopredicttheillness.Featureselectionisanimportantphaseindataminingprocess.I
n feature selection when dimension of the data increases, the quantity of data required to deliver
adependable analysis raises exponentially. Numerous different feature selection and feature
extractiontechniques are present, and they are widely used filter-based feature selection method is
proposed whichtakes advantage of the wrapper, Embedded, hybrid methods by evaluating with a lower
cost and improves the performance of a classification algorithm like a decision tree, support vector
machine, logistic regression and soon. To predict whether the patient has diabetes or not, we introduce an
ovel filter method ranking technique called Novel Symmetrical Uncertainty Measure (NSUM). NSUM
technique experimentally shows that compared to the other algorithms in filter method, wrapper method,
embedded method and hybrid method it proves more efficient in terms of Performance, Accuracy, Less
computational complexity. The existing technique of symmetric uncertainty measure shows less
computational power and high performance, but it lacks in accuracy. The aim of the NSUM method is to
overcome the drawback ofthe filter method, i.e., less accuracy compared to other methods. NSUM
technique results show highperformance, improved accuracy, and less computational complexity. NSUM
method runs in 0.03 s with89.12%asaccuracy by usingWekatool.
SmartCityHealthcareCyberPhysicalSystem:Characteristics,Technologiesand Challenges
The recent pandemic has demanded a strong and smart healthcare system which can monitor the
patientsefficiently and handle the situation that arises from the outbreak of the disease. Smart healthcare
cyberphysical systems are the future systems as they integrate the physical and cyber world for
efficientfunctioning of medical processes and treatment through external monitoring and control of
patients,medicaldevicesandequipmentforcontinuouscommunicationandinformationexchangeofphysiologic
aldata.Technologieslike InternetofThings,MachinelearningandArtificialIntelligencehave givenbirthto
smart cyber physical systems like Smart Healthcare Systems, Smart Homes, Smart Vehicular Systemsand
Smart Grid. Such systems are interdisciplinary in nature with multitude of technologies contributingto its
effective working. This paper presents a case study on healthcare cyber physical systems presentingits
characteristics, role of various technologies in its growth and major challenges in
successfulimplementationofcyber physicalmedication systems.
Keywords:Artificialintelligence,Healthcarecyberphysicalsystems,Symbioticcyberphysicalsystems,Security
Introduction
In the current pandemic, a strong healthcare system is a backbone for any smart city. Effective
andefficientmonitoringofpatientstogetherwithregularsupplyofnecessarymedicinesandtreatmentwithaid of
medical devices is possible when a system can meet the demand and supply situation. Such ascenario is
possible with a predictive mechanism which forecasts the healthcare situation and workssmartlyfor
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handling themedicalemergency.
Smart Healthcare Cyber Physical Systems (SHCPS) are the future systems capable of supporting
themedical fraternity in handling the pandemic situation effectively. Such systems comprise of
physicalworldofpatients,medicaldevicesandequipment;
externallycontrolledandmonitoredmedicaltreatment,connected with cyber world through communication
networks for data transfer and information exchangeof physiological data which are analysed for
feedback and control signals. Such systems improve thequalityofmedicalcareby providingefficientand
smartservices[1].
Thedesignanddevelopmentofhealthcarecyberphysicalsystems havebroughtsomeopenissues fordiscussion

like autonomy level, security and reliability which are vital for healthcare cyber physicalsystems.
Autonomy Level
Cyber physical systems can be classified from low to high level of autonomy based on the
tasksperformedbythehumansintheloop.Technologieslikemachinelearningandartificialintelligenceplayamaj
orroleinshifting thecontrolfromhumantomachineandartificialdistributed networks [2].
Variousfactorsthatarecrucialindefiningtheautonomylevelinhealthcarecyberphysicalsystems(HCPS)arebro
adly categorizedintotwo domains.
Equipment based Factors like the medical device type, interaction type and duration with the
patient
aredecidingfactorsforautonomylevel.Medicalrobotsforservingfoodandmedicinestocoronaviruspatie
ntscanworkautonomouslyforassistingtheMedicaresystems.TheteamofresearchersfromHongKongha
vecreatedahumanoidrobotcalled‘Grace’forinteractingwithisolatedcoronaviruspatientsandprovides
services like temperature recording and responsiveness through the thermal camera fitted in the
chest.Therobotwillalsosociallyinteractwiththecoronaviruspatientsinordertopreventthestressarisingfr
omisolation[3].
PatientrelatedPatientrelatedfactorsincludethediseasetypeandpatientrisklevel.Communicable
diseaseslikecoronavirusnecessitatehighlevelofautonomousMedicarecyberphysicalsystemswhereas
high patient risk level require continuous medical expert support along with the autonomous
Medicaresystems.
SecurityMechanisms
A number of technologies play a vital role in the cyber physical system which can be classified
intodistinctiveareasrangingfromdatacollectionwithsensortechnologyandIOT;handlingbigdataanditsstorage
withCloudcomputing;dataanalytics anddecisionmakingusingartificialintelligence;
control andcoordination signals to smart machines and actuators thus leading to the commencement ofnew
era termed by Industry 4.0 [4] and specifically Healthcare 4 for medical applications. Acomprehensive
security mechanism for authenticated, confidential and secure communication
betweencyberandphysicalworldforms an integralpartofframeworkduring thedesignanddevelopmentof
cyberphysical systems. The criticality of healthcare applications with high levels of autonomy demands
apreventive approach for defence against cyber-attacks [5] and thus the Healthcare Cyber physical
systemsmustincorporatethefollowingin their securitymechanism:
Identificationofcyber-attacksonsensors.
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Lightweightcryptographyfortransmittingphysiologicaldata.
EncryptionmechanismsandBlockchaintechnologyforsecurestorageoncloud-basedsystems.
Encryptedfeedbacksignalstoactuators.
The data transmitted from patients to medical expert is vulnerable to attacks and hence
requiresencryption techniques at the client end. Many cryptographic techniques exist in literature,
the broadclassification is symmetric cryptography and asymmetric cryptography. Biological
cryptographicapproachbasedonaminoacidcodes [6]is usedfortransmittingthedatafrompatients
tohealthcareexperts in telemonitoring healthcaresystem.
Reliability
Reliability is an important metric for cyber physical systems and of utmost significance to
healthcareindustry.Figure1showsthereliabilityofhealthcarecyberphysicalsystems(HCPS)whichisdependen
ton hardware units like health sensors and actuators, software reliability on software systems
computingpatient’s health status, and network reliability determined by communication networks for
transfer ofpatientdata.
Fig.1
Thecommencementofcyberphysicalsystemsrequiresoptimizationofresourcesandself-
adaptivebehaviourforefficient,reliableandimprovedservices[7].Theautonomoussystemsmustbeabletoidentif
ythe failure of different components in the closed loop system and take corrective measures in terms
ofhandlingthetasks.Self-
adaptivecomponentsofcyberphysicalsystemslearnfromthepastdataandbehaveinthecurrentscenario.Smartma
chineslikehealthcarerobotscanself-organizetodynamicenvironmenttomeetthechallengeof servicequality.
Thispaperhighlightsthefollowing:
 (i)Characteristicsofhealthcarecyberphysicalsystems
 (ii) Amalgamation of technologies that have contributed to the growth and implementation
ofhealthcarecyber physicalsystems.
 (iii)Realtimechallengeswhichprompttheresearchers,healthcareandmanufacturingsectortoretrosp
ect and consider during design and effective execution of healthcare cyber physicalsystems.
CyberPhysicalSystems
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The need for continuous communication, control and collaboration for efficient and effective systems
forquality of service has brought a new era called Industry 4.0 that introduces cyber physical systems.
ThetermcyberphysicalsystemwasfirstcoinedbyHelenGillatNSFinUSintheyear2006.Acyberphysicalsystemi
ntegratescyberandphysicalworldwithsensors,whichactlikedatacollectorstogatherinformationliketemperatur
e,pressureorspeed/activitytimefortransmissiontocyberworldforstorageinservers.Thisdataisfurtherprocessed
andanalysedtoactasstimuliforcontrolandcoordinationsignalstoactuatorsthusformingaclosed loop
systemasshownin Fig.2.
Fig.2
The systematic design and modelling of cyber physical systems play a key role in defining the
architectureofthesystemwithvarioussoftwareandhardwarecomponents,thefunctionalrolesofeachcomponent;
andthe communication and control mechanism between cyber and physical space. Thereafter, the
simulationofthedesignwithwelltestedandvalidationstrategiesareappliedforfinaladoptionofthemodelinthereal
time setup [8]. Unlike the conventional approach to design and deployment, the authors in [9] suggest
ashift from design to runtime and implementation phase for critical decisions, which depend on real
timeinputsandenvironment.Table
Table11presentsthevariousCPSsimulationsoftwareandtheircharacteristics, which can be used to test
various concepts of modularity, scalability and complexity ofcyberphysicalsystemsin theapplication
domain.

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Somesystemshaveasymbioticrelationshipbetweenphysicalworldandvirtualworldgivingrisetoanewterm
“symbiotic cyber physical systems” [14]. The term symbiotic relationship has arisen from biologywhere
two organisms benefit from each other and such a relationship is symbiotic in nature. Smart Grid isa
perfect example of symbiotic cyber physical system where technology drives to generate energy
smartlyand the energy is the source of power for the technology elements in the cyber physical system.
The smarthealthcare cyber physical systems are symbiotic to various autonomous systems as shown in
Fig. 3. Smartgrid, smart home, smart vehicular systems, smart hospitals and smart manufacturing units
provide servicesfor a smart city healthcare system. In turn, the smart city healthcare system provides
healthcare to itsinhabitants. These inhabitants or humans are working in various organizations and
manufacturing
units,thusprovidingtheirserviceorroleinvariousautonomousunits.Todefinethepreciseroleofhumansintheauto
nomousCPSsystemsisabigandchallengingtask.Aneffectiveapproachinthisdirectionistoidentifythe control
strategies and interactions of humans in the closed loop CPS at early stages of
softwaredevelopmentandthereafter, validatethrough fastprototyping techniques[15].

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Thecyberphysicalsystemsdifferintermsoftheircharacteristicslikeautonomylevelwhichdeterminethetaskscon
trolledandoperatedbyhumans,scalewhichdependsonthenumberofdevicesconnected andriskmanagement
which depends on the critical environment of the system. Table Table22presents the variousapplications
areas, characteristic features, technologies and services provided by the CPS in differentdomains in faceof
thevarioussecurity risksand challenges.
Applicatio
Characteristics Technologies Services Security/risks/challenges
narea
Telemedicine,
Wearabl The accuracy of sensors
Healthcare4.0 edevices Dataanalyticso Roboti andother monitoring
, npatient’sdata csurger devices is
[4] y, abigchallengeasitdetermine
IOT of sthemedicationlevel
medicaldevic Mobilehealth
es
Autonomou
smachines Delaysabovesomethreshol
Manufacturin Smart inproductio dvalue lead to disruption
gunit machinesliker Machinetomachin nprocess, ofmanufacturingcycle
obots, ecommunication
[4,16–18] Self- Malfunctioningofnodes
Smartproduct organizingcap
ability
ofsmart
machines,
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Applicatio
narea
Detection
andmanageme
nt
ofindustrialha
zards,
Node
failuredete
ctionthroug
hsimilarity
iepatternm
atching
Reduce
powerconsu
Cameras,te
mption, Attackonprivacyofresidents
mperatures
Smart ensors by gathering data like
Remotecontrollingo Detect userinitiatedanddeviceactio
Smart fhomedevices andclassify ns
home[19– safetyhazard
televisions,smar
t locks,smart s, Local network attacks
lights,smart bybringing devices
21]
switchesandsma Remote close tovicinityof
rtmeters healthmanage home
mentand
emergencyser
vices
Sensingtechnologyfor
obstacledetection, Stable
Navigationtrajector vehiclemove
Smartvehicles mentwithcon
yundercontrolof
Cameras, tinuousmonit Softwaredefects
software,Prediction
sensors, mechanism oring
Autonomous ofvehicleheal
Vehiclestates todeterminemotion Difficulty in integration
th, ofdiagnostictoolsinframew
[22,23] ofothervehicles,
Proactivemechanisms ork
Lane
forfaultdetectionand
detectionand
management
emissioncont
rolmechanis
ms
Vulnerabletocyberattacks
Powerline, Reliabledeliv affecting public life due
Smartgrid Remote control
ery ofpower todependency on power
andmonitoringofele
Communicatio withenergy forrunning of appliances at
[24] ctrical
nline, storageatlarge homeandequipmentinprofes
componentsingrid,
scale, sional
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sector
Applicatio
narea
Sensors,Act Distributed Energycons

energyresources act ervationwit
asmicrogenerationun h
uators,Smart its, reducedloss
andgreenho
meters Distributed useemission
renewableenergygen s
eration
Big data analytics

onpower generated
andusage,
Predictionand
recommendationusin
gmachine learning
techniques
CharacteristicsofSmartCityHealthcareCyberPhysicalSystem
HealthcareCyberPhysicalSystemscanbedividedintovariouslevels:
UnitlevelHCPS
IntegrationlevelHCPS
SystemlevelHCPS
AcceptancelevelHCPS
EvolutionarylevelHCPS
Unit level HCPS are basic or the first level of healthcare cyber physical systems which
providemonitoring and control of patients in intensive care units or at the hospital level. At this level
itcontinuously monitors the physiological parameters like temperature, pressure, heart rate etc. of
thepatients and feed the data to the intelligent systems which analyse and control the health
actuatorsconnectedtothepatient.Also,thehealthstaffis
intheHCPSloopforsupportandinformationtohealthexperts for immediatehealthcareaidtothepatients.
Integration level HCPS are the second stage of HCPS where the hospitals integrate with smart homes
toprovide remote monitoring and remote healthcare service to the patients. In case of transfer of high-
riskpatients in ambulances to hospitals, the latter can integrate with smart ambulances to
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continuouslymonitorthepatient’shealthstatusandmakenecessaryemergencyservicesinhospital like
availabilityofbed,ventilator supportetc.
SystemlevelHCPS arethethirdstageofHCPS wheredifferentautonomoussystems supporttheHCPS toform a

Smart City Healthcare Cyber Physical System. The smart grid, the powerhouse of energy andbackbone for
various cyber physical system together with smart home, smart ambulances, smart hospitalmanufacturing
units and smart hospitals form a healthcare ecosystem providing quality of healthcareservicetothepatients.
Acceptance level HCPS is the level of HCPS where the researchers, technologists, engineers,
healthexperts,academicianscoordinatetomakethehealthcaresystemeffectivewithpoliciesandstandardsorient
edtowards successfulimplementationof thehealthcareecosystem.
Evolutionary level HCPS is the ideal future HCPS systems which have properties of self-adaptability
andself-management. Self-adaptive components of cyber physical systems learn from the past data
andbehaveinthecurrentscenario.Hence,theroleofevolutionarybehaviouriscriticalandofsignificanceforthedy
namicenvironmentof cyber physicalsystems.
The Cyber Physical System has physical components and processes which can be represented by a
statediagram and different states: healthy, unhealthy, critical and non-working state as shown in Fig.
4. Theoverall health of the CPS depends on the working conditions of different components in the closed
loopsystem[25].
Fig.4
The nature of devices in CPS is heterogeneous which range from sensors, actuators to physical
machinescontrolled by external inputs like mobile devices at dew layer and systems at cyber level. The
input
andoutputofdataofvariousdevicesdifferinthedataformats,whichmaybestructured/unstructuredinnature,whic
hnecessitatethe conversionofformatsthroughinterfaces[16].Thehealthcarecyberphysicalsystemsare
application domain where time is a critical factor in determining the performance and reliability of
thesystem. A delay in seconds or microseconds in medication to patients can reduce the effectiveness
anddependabilityofthesystem.
Cyber physical systems are monitored and controlled continuously for effective operation and hence
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thisgives rise to a new term called health-monitoring system (HMS) for CPS [25]. HMS can perform
dualfunction:tocheckthestatusofeachphysicalcomponentinCPSandtoapplypre-emptiveapproachin

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determining probabilistic health of CPS. Study of behavioural models of physical components is a

passivemonitoring approach where as a stimulus-based response is an active strategy to determine for
anomalydetection[25].
Basedontheabovecharacteristics,theunitandtheintegrationlevelofHCPSareanalysedintermsofcharacteristics
of CPSin TableTable33.
Table3
CharacteristicsofunitandintegratedlevelofHCPS
Characteristics
Level
ofhealth Seamlessm
CPS Statetransition&sta Heterogeneousde
tediagram vices/dataformats Timecriticalapplicati onitoring
ons &control
Healthy working state

ofall sensors and
actuators insmart Regular
hospitals as Medical Timecriticalandrequir monitoring
patientsareinriskzone applicationinterface esefficientdecisionma andcontrolinS
Unitleve stodealwithheterog king marthospitals
l eneousdata
Therefore,
earlyreplacement
of
faultymedicaldevi
ces
Healthy state depicts

goodworkingcondition
,
differentautonomous
Smart
systems Audio, image and
ambulancesperiodica
forhealthyworkingsta video(behavioural)anal Homemonit
lly checked
te, ysis, oringisnotti
forworking condition
Integratio me critical
of itsmedical devices
nlevel[26 andconnectivity, whereasmo
Requires Different
] autonomoussystems
continuousmonitorin nitoringofp
gforfailure connectedrequire atients
Coordination
medical API’s todeal duringtransitfr
andcommunicationfo
with omhometohosp
rintegration of
heterogeneousdatasets italinsmartamb
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ulanceisti Monitoring
mecritical andcontrol
ofelderlypatients
Remindersyst
ems
Wearablesens
ors

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Characteristics
Level
ofhealth
Seamlessm
CPS
Statetransition&state Heterogeneous onitoring
Timecriticalapplicatio &control
diagram devices/dataformats
ns
detection of nodes
andlinks
Section 4, presents the role of various technologies in seamless monitoring the time critical domain
withheterogeneous devices in cyber physical systems where each state is defined by a set of variables.
Thetechnologies playacrucialrolein definingthehealthofthesystem.
TechnologiesinHealthcareCyberPhysicalSystems
The recent pandemic has put an unprecedented pressure on the healthcare system of any city in the
worldand long working hours of medical experts and health workers. Hence, the future healthcare
systemsdemand Smart City Healthcare Cyber Physical Systems where technology plays a significant role
in itssuccessful implementation. Cyber Physical Systems is an application domain where there is
integration
ofplethoraoftechnologiesforsmartandefficientworkingofinterconnecteddevices.Internetisthebackbonefor
communication in cyber physical systems and is primarily the most crucial technology and enabler
forother technologies like IOT, cloud computing and blockchain [4]. This section presents the role of
varioustechnologies like digital twin, IOT, big data, cloud computing, blockchain, artificial intelligence,
machinelearningandrobotics inthefieldof healthcarecyberphysicalsystems as shownin Fig.5.

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Fig.5
DigitalTwin
Digital twin as shown in Fig. Fig.66is a virtual twin for a physical object or a process. In smart
healthcaresystems,thedigitaltwincreatesvirtualassetsincyberspacesothatthedigitalinformationofresourcesca
nbeusedforplanning,controlandcoordination[27].DigitaltwinforSHCPSisbasicallyasimulationmodelfor
medical devices and equipment, and for behavioural analysis of patient treatment process to assist
thehealthcareexpertstostudy, analyseand predictthehealthstatusofpatients.
Downloaded
Fig.6 from EnggTree.com
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The digital twin maintains a resource graph for various medical equipment which is stored as a three-
tuplevector represented by {resource id, allocation status, patient id}. The allocation status be busy or idle
andexpectedreallocationmaydependuponthepatienthealth.Thepatienttreatmentprocesscanberepresentedby a
graph where the nodes represent the health status at different intervals of time and the edges
representthetransitionbasedonchangeinphysiologicalparameters.Thesegraphscanbeusedformachinelearning
forcomputation andclassification of patient’s healthstatus.
InternetofThings(IOT)
TheInternetofThingsbroughtaneweraofmachine-to-
machinecommunication[4]whichcanbethroughwirelessnetworks,BluetoothandothertechnologieslikeNearFi
eldCommunication,radiocommunicationetc.TheIOTenablesinintegrationlevelsmarthealthcarecyberphysica
lsystemswherethesensornetworksgenerate high volumes of data which are then transmitted to remote
servers for analysis and controloperations. Since some devices in Medical IOT are resource constrained in
terms of processing power andmemory therefore lightweight authentication and lightweight cryptographic
schemes are essential forintegrity and confidentiality of data and information exchange. The Medical IOT
has helped in recentpandemic in remote monitoring of patients [28, 29] through smart wearables like
smart watch and
smartbandtocollectpatientsheartrateandbloodpressure;andsmartthermometerstomeasurebodytemperature.T
hesedevicesareconnectedtosmartphones,which ultimatelysend thedatatothecloudserversforhealthanalytics.
BigDataAnalytics
In healthcare cyber physical systems with IOT of Medical devices, machine to machine
communicationamong heterogeneous nodes and sensors capturing data continuously lead to large data
sets which may bestructured, unstructured or semi structured and hence require storage, processing and
analysis for medicaladvice. The big challenge is to deal with unstructured data, complexity and veracity
issues. The newcomputing paradigms with high processing power and big data technologies enable to
extract hiddenpatterns and relationships in large amount of data which are gathered from various sources
in healthcarecyberphysicalsystems.
Thepandemichasledtoregularcheck-upofphysiologicalparametersliketemperature,pressure,heartrateso that
the symptoms could be easily predicted. The different type of data generated related to coronavirusare the
human physiological parameters like temperature, pressure, heart rate; the hospital data
whichincludecurrentcoronapatientintake,patienthealthstatus,facilitiesavailablelikenumberofbeds,ventilator
s;thecitydatalikethenumberofresidentscurrentlycoronainfected,numberofpatientshealthy,number of corona
deaths, number of residents vaccinated. The researchers and analysts are interested insurvey of spread and
predictive analysis for future effect. High end computing devices and deep learningmodels enable to work
on large datasets and identify these hidden patterns. These hidden patterns can beunlockedusing
statistical,machinelearning and deeplearningtechniques.
The complexity and uncertainty of real world data generated in real time systems like healthcare CPS
canalso be dealt by methodology based on computational intelligence which includes fuzzy logic
approachbased on approximation techniques and fuzzy rules for decision making and inferences;
evolutionaryalgorithms like genetic programming and swarm intelligence for natural selection; and
artificial neuralnetworks which have many hidden layers with neurons, mimic human brain and trained on
large data setstosetthelearningparameters forpatternrecognition,predictionandclassificationofdatasets [30].

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CloudComputing
Healthcare data silos are medical information of patients at discrete locations which may be redundant
ornon-
coherentbasedondatamanagementstrategies.Cloudcomputingisacomputingparadigmthatprovidesinfrastruct
ure,resourcesandservicestoendusersonpayperusebasiswherethecloudserversprovidedatastorageandcomputi
ngpowertousers.Inhealthcarecyberphysicalsystems,theElectronicHealthRecordscan be digitally stored in
encrypted format at the cloud server so that it can be shared and accessed by
thedifferententitieslikepatients,hospitalmanagement,
insurancecompaniesandbanks[31].Thechallengingissueistoensuresafetyofpatientrecordswhichdependsonth
esecurityframeworkadoptedforsafeguardingthekeygenerationcentrethatmaintainsprivatekeys of
allauthenticusers[31].
Besides the storage of encrypted data in cloud servers, industry 4.0 standards have defined new
servicemodels for cloud manufacturing like control as a service, machinery as a service and industry
automationas a service [4]. These new cloud-based models can be applied for hard real tasks with fog
computingresulting in service closed to end users with efficient real time communication in information
transfer andcontrolbetween thehealthcarelevelandcontrollers.
DewComputing
The cloud architecture provides services which can be enhanced by edge/fog computing paradigm,
adistributed service architecture which improves the efficiency of cyber physical systems by reducing
thetransmission delay of services provided by cloud model. Dew computing further reduces the delay
andprovides energy efficiency by introducing another level with smart interfaces or smart devices closer
innetworktoIOTdevicesascomparedtoedgedevices.Thesesmartsystemsprovideprocessingcapabilities,work
on data from physical components, control the actuators and have additional technology benefits
ofscalabilityandresilience[32].TheDewcomputinglayerisveryusefulforprovidingservicesinhealthcaredomai
n [33] where the patients can be monitored more effectively by providing processing and
analyticservicesclosetomonitoredarea.
AdewcomputingarchitecturewithIOTdevices;sensorsandactuatorsinfirst layer; smart devices like smart
phones and tablets in second layer called the dew computing layer;storage systems and network
equipment in edge device layer; cloudlets and servers at fourth layer callededge server layer which
represents the edge or fog computing distributed service and finally the fifth layerwith cloud servers
providing various infrastructure and software based services[32]; can be very
timeefficientforhealthcaredomains.ThelightweightapplicationsontabletsandsmartphonesinDewcomputingp
aradigmscansharepatientinformationandareinteroperablewhichhelpsincollaborationwithothersystemstobea
partof healthcarecyber physicalsystemof systems.
Blockchain
Blockchaintechnologyprovidesadecentralisedand
distributeddatabaseforsecureandauthenticaccesstoelectronichealthrecordsmaintainedbycloudservers[31].It
providesadecentralisedplatformformaintaining untampered records of events [4] for various medical
transactions that may be at device
levelorvaccines;andeventsatpatientlevel.Theblockchainisdefinedbyachainofblocks,each withanumberof
transactions or communications which are hashed and structured by a Merkle tree. Each block isidentified
by a hash value and contains the hash of previous block with the exception that the first block iscalled
genesis and has no parent hash value stored in it. Such a link with parent block gives an
immutablestructurewhichcannotbetampered.
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Suchimmutablestructurescanstorethetransactionsof differentmedicaldevices andvaccines; andinformation

related to patients. Hence, this technology can have different blockchains for healthcare:Blockchain of
medical devices, Blockchain of coronavirus infected patients, Blockchain of vaccines in
ahospital.TheIBMblockchain[34]helpsintransparentdistributionofcoronavirusvaccine,bymaintainingthe
transactions safe and traceable. QuillTrace [35] is a blockchain based technology that helps in
trackingmedicinesinsupplychainandidentificationoffakemedicineswithhelpofQRcodeonmedicines.
ArtificialIntelligenceandMachineLearning
AI and machine learning can be applied at various aspects of healthcare which include medicines,
medicalequipment,patientanddisease.Theresearchers,academiciansandhealthcareexpertsareworkingtogethe
rtoextractusefulinformation,thehiddenpatternsfromlargedatabasesofpatientdata.Theselargedatabasesarealso
usedtotrainmachinelearningmodelswhichareusedtoclassifythepatientsandhelpinautomaticdisease detection
and thus support medical experts. The recent pandemic has seen the urgent need of
studyofdrugdiscoveryforcoronavirus,thehighdemandofventilatorswhichhavebecomethelifesavingdevicefor
thehigh-
riskcoronaviruspatients,thestudyofpatientswithhighrisklevelsandtheeffectofdiseaseonotherorgansof
thebody.
Basedontherisklevel,thecoronaviruspatientscanbedividedintolowrisklevelandhighrisklevel.Atthefirst stage
the patients can be isolated intheir homes and the various physiological parameters like theirtemperature,
pressure and heart rate at discrete time points can be sent to medical experts for predictingsymptoms
based on machine learning techniques and healthcare can be provided through telemonitoring.The next
stage demands hospitalization of patients with continuous medical support, care and monitoring.AI and
machine learning algorithms have been used to predict the mortality rate of high-risk patients [36]by
training the model with balanced dataset; and features are chosen based on wrapper and filter-
basedapproaches.Thesefeaturesincludesymptoms,pre-
healthstatusanddemographicfactorswhichsignificantlycontributeto thediseasestatusof thepatient.
Robots
Robots are autonomous machines which are programmed to perform a particular task with precision
andaccuracy. They are cognitive models based on artificial intelligence with capabilities to
continuouslycapture the environment data with sensors to work in complex environments and perform
pre-definedactions with high frequency. Robots have a vast role to play in cyber physical systems like
medical
robotstoassistinsurgeryandpatientcare,industrialrobotstoperformmanufacturingtasksandsurveillancerobotsf
orsecurity and safety.
The recent pandemic has seen rising number of coronavirus cases which resulted in patient overload
inhospitals.Thehealthcarerobotshavefoundakeyroleinpatientcareprovidingservicesfrompatienttestingtopati
entservicebydeliveringregularmedicines,foodetc.RobotslikeMoxiperformvariousserviceslikedelivering
PPE kits, covid 19 tests and provides pick/drop service to patients [37]. The robot Mitra assistshealth staff
by taking temperature readings of patients and helps patients in connecting with their
relativesthroughvideo conferencing [38].
Industrialrobotshelpinmanufacturingproductslike covidtestingkitsandventilatorswithhighfrequencyand
precision; and short development life cycle. Industrial cyber physical working environments withhuman
robot collaboration aim for agile product development and demand for context awareness in robotswhich
identify human working zones and adjust their area and speed [39]. Unlike machines,
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humanbehaviourisflexibleandrequiresconstantremindersintheformofaudio-visualmessagesformaintaining
asafedistanceduringcollaborativeworkwithhigh-
speedautonomousmachines.Therefore,highprecisionalgorithms are required for depth estimation to send
control signals to robots and other autonomousmachines toavoidaccidentsduetoerroneouscomputations
andmovements.
Securityrobotscanhelpindetectingadherencetocovidprotocolslikewearingofmasks,socialdistancingetc.They
captureimages,identifyobjects,generatesreportsandcommunicateusingmultimodaltechnologies through
audio, videoandtextualdata.
Figure Figure77presents the various technologies at various domains and the benefits which helps
inautomation, resource control and intelligence-based decision making based on big data analytics.
Though,various technologies have contributed to the growth of modern cyber physical systems which
have led toan evolutionary process resulting in smart, self-aware and self-healing systems but still the
present
daycyberphysicalsystemsfacemanychallengeswhichhaveanadverseimpactonthehealthofcyberphysicalsyste
ms affecting its devices, their communication and collaboration resulting in human intervention
forreinstatingtheworking stateof system.
Fig.7
Section5,presentssomechallengesforasmartcityhealthcarecyberphysicalsystemlikeenergyflowinCPS,
integration of diverse devices/levels, the delay or latency which can affect the closed loop
systemandthecyber-attacks whichhavesurfacedforinformationtheftanddisruptionofdevices.
ChallengesinSmartCityHealthcareCyberPhysicalSystem
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a successful implementation of HCPS like energy
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flow,integrationofheterogeneousdevicesandatvariouslevelsofHCPS,minimumacceptabledelayfortimecrit
icaloperationsandsecurityrisksinhealthcarecyberphysicalsystemsasshowninFig.8.
Fig.8
EnergyFlowinCyberPhysicalComponents
Theautonomyofcyberphysicalsystemsandtheirapplicationsincriticaldomainlikehealthcaredemandacontinuo
us flow of energy either from high-powered batteries or from direct power supply. During
thesystemdesignandmodellingofHCPSitbecomesimperativetoestimatethevariouscomponentsandtheirenerg
y requirement so that a continuous flow of energy is maintained for smooth functioning of thehealthcare
cyber physical system. Resource constraint devices with limited battery power is a challengingissue and
various energy saving mechanisms exist to manage energy efficiently like the smart sensors
[20]withinthesedevicesadapttotheneedofenvironmentandchangetheworkingmodeaccordinglybutgivesaripp
leeffectonenergyqualitytrade-
off.ThesuccessfulimplementationofCPSanditsintegrationtoformasmartcityhealthcareCPSdependsprimarily
ontheSmartGridwhichisabackboneofenergytothecyberphysicalsystems.Thesmarthome,smarthospitalsands
martmanufacturingunitscanaidtheSmartgridbyinstalling solar panels and contribute as energy production
units in order to meet the energy requirementswhichhaveincreased exponentiallyincyber physicalsystems.
IntegrationofHeterogeneousDevices/LevelsofHCPS
The smart city healthcare ecosystem requires the integration of cyber physical systems which depends
onthirdpartyserviceprovidersforcommunicationserviceandthird-
partycloudserviceprovidersforsafedatastorage which can be accessed by medical experts, insurance
companies, patients and researchers. At theinternal level, each cyber physical system has heterogeneous
nature of devices with different data formatswhich requires integration and encapsulation of the devices
for efficient and effective environment. Themajor challenge in a heterogeneous environment will be the
need of interfaces to communicating deviceswith different technology level in terms of hardware and
software resources. The integration and higherlevels of HCPS require data sharing and collaborative
functionality which demands system level planning,designand prototypetesting [26].

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Delay/Latency
Lowlatencyisacriticalrequirementforrealtimeapplicationslikehealthcare.Thedelaysaboveathresholdvalue in
transmission of patient data are unacceptable and lead to disrupting the telemonitoring cycle ofcyber
physical systems affecting timely medication and care to the patients. Also, it is significant in realtime
applications like healthcare that the fault latency which is a measure of time delay between theoccurrence
of fault and its recognition must be a small value so that its timely management could
enhancethereliability ofthesystem[23].
Security
Security of healthcare cyber physical systems is a critical issue and needs to be addressed in view of
thedifferent types of attacks like denial of service, replay, false data injection and deception attacks.
Theauthors in [40] have proposed a tree-based attack model for cyber physical systems where the
branchescategorisetheattacksinvarioussubdomainslikefaultsignalinjectionandhardwaretamperingofsensors,
packetreplayattackandinformationtheftincommunicationchannelsofclosedloopwithsensors,controllers and
actuators; equipment failure and software malfunctioning in computing resources. Criticalinfrastructures
like smart healthcare systems require cyber security systems, which monitor continuouslyfor identifying
fault injections in system that lead to incorrect working of equipment and faulty readings[24].
Smarthealthcarecyberphysicalsystemsarefuturedigitalsystemswhichmustbeforensicreadytodealandcounter
with cyber security attacks [19, 41]. Artificial intelligence or machine intelligence have wide rolein
autonomous systems performing tasks like abnormal behaviour detection due to faults or cyber-
attacks[42]. Malware detection is an important task for smooth and efficient working of cyber physical
systems.Manymachinelearningapproachesbasedonsystemcalls,operationcodesandenergyconsumptionpatter
nsareused to identifythemalwares[43].
Along with challenges related to digital world, the healthcare systems are facing the major
physicalchallenge of smart waste management. The hospitals are generating the waste at an alarming rate
whichneeds effective management strategies includingits collection at generationsites,transportation
andhandling techniques for maintaining the health of city environment. The recent pandemic has seen the
riseofPPEkits and useofdisposablemasks which needssmartwastemanagementplan.
The Healthcare Cyber Physical systems are currently working at unit or integration level, with
continuousgrowth of technologies they will evolve into higher level CPS. Smart manufacturing systems
that producevaccines or medical equipment are advanced level CPS with subsystems having
characteristics of self-awareness and self-management, and can set to self-configuration mode to optimize
the various real timeproductionprocesses[20].
Conclusion
The pandemic has taught us that healthcare systems are the lungs of every society and a smart
healthcarecyber physical system provides an ecosystem which merges the two wheels cyber world and the
physicalworld connected by a closed loop and steered by various technologies like digital twin, IOT,
cloudcomputing, artificial intelligence, machine learning and big data analytics which play a major role in
itseffective functioning. The working and implementation in physical world controlled by cyber space
facemanychallengeslike heterogeneousnature ofphysical components,incompatibledata formatsexchanged

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between components, resource constraint devices and vulnerability of devices to attacks. Apart from
thedigital challenges, the physical challenge of waste management still holds its critical place. Though,
thebirth of new technologies contributes to smart interconnected systems but the challenges of physical
andvirtualworldmustbeaddressed foritsgrowth, efficiencyand effectiveness.
AnIntelligentIoTBasedHealthcareSystemUsingFuzzyNeuralNetworks
Healthcare facilities in modern age are key challenge especially in developing countries where
remote areas face lack of high-quality hospitals and medical experts. As artificial intelligence
has revolutionized various fields of life, health has also benefitedfrom it. The existing
architecture of store-and-forward method of conventional telemedicine is facing some
problems, some ofwhich are the need for a local health center with dedicated staff, need for
medical equipment to prepare patient reports, timeconstraint of 24–48 hours in receiving
diagnosis and medication details from a medical expert in a main hospital, cost of
localhealthcenters,andneedforWi-
Ficonnection.Inthispaper,weintroduceanovelandintelligenthealthcaresystemthatisbasedonmodern
technologieslikeInternetofthings(IoT)andmachinelearning.Thissystemisintelligentenoughtosense
andprocessapatient’sdatathroughamedicaldecisionsupportsystem.Thissystemislow-
costsolutionforthepeopleofremoteareas;theycanuseittofindoutwhethertheyaresufferingfromaserio
ushealthissueandcureitaccordinglybycontactingnearhospitals.Theresultsoftheexperimentsalsosho
wthattheproposedsystemisefficientandintelligentenoughtoprovidehealthfacilities.Theresultsprese
ntedinthispaperaretheproofoftheconcept.
1. Introduction
Internet of things (IoT) is a network in which many devicesare connected, and these devices can
communicate by
computernetwork[1].Bythisworldwidenetwork,wecangetinformationthroughsensorswhichrelatetoit.Byusi
ngcomputernetwork,wecanaccessthisinformationanywhereinthisworld.Internetofthingscanconnectphysic
alobjectstoInternetandcanprovideopportunityofbuildingsystemswhicharebasedonvarioustechnologiessuc
hasnearfieldcommunication(NFC)andwirelesssensornetwork
(WSN).Inwirelesssensornetwork,sensorssensethe environmentandsendinformationtobasestation.
IoT has different methodologies such as smart dustbin, monitoring environment, IoT based irrigation
system, smarthealthcare system, and traffic control. In healthcare system, IoT brings gadget for
monitoring health [2]. Health data can beaccessed with the help of IoT by using sensors. Healthcareis a
system which is used to improve health and help in treatingdiseases[3].

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Health related issues/complications are increasing day by day, among which lung- and heart-related
issues are top-listed.Health can be monitored by wireless technology,which is a modern concept. In
wireless health monitoring systems, differenttechnologies are used, including wearablesensors, portable
remote health system, wireless communications, and expertsystems. Life is precious; even a singlelife
is also valuable, but due to lack of health facilities, awareness about diseases, andproper access to
healthcare systems, people are dropping their lives. In all situations, Internet of things (IoT) helps in
theindicationofdiseasesandtreatmentofpatients[4].
In IoT healthcare system, there exit wireless systems in which different applications and sensors are
attached to
patients,informationisobtained,andthisinformationisforwardedtoadoctororspecialistthroughanexpertsystem
[5].Medicaldevicesfor Internet of things (MD-IoT) are remotely accessed, where devices are connected to
the In- ternet and sensors, actuators, andother communication devices can monitor patient health [6].
Through these devices,thepatientinformation anddataaretransmitted bythe expert system via gateway
onto a secured cloud based platform where the information is stored and can beanalyzed.
In developing countries like Pakistan, telemedicine is used to handle health issues. Telemedicine
refers to the practice ofcaring for patients remotely when the provider and patient are not physically
present with each other. Telemedicine is simplydefined as “the remote delivery of healthcare services.”
Although telemedicine brings with it many benefits, it has somedownsides as well. Providers, payers,
and policymakers alike know that there are some gray areas that are difficult to keep upwith. While the
field will grow exponentially over the next decade, it will bring with it both practical and
technologicalchallenges.
1.1. Unclear Policies. Because technology is growing at sucha fast pace, it has been difficult for
policymakers to keep
upwiththeindustry.Thereisgreatuncertaintyregardingmatterslikereimbursementpolicies,privacyprotection,a
ndhealthcarelaws. Inaddition,telemedicinelaws varyfrom statetostate.
Therearecurrently29states
withtelemedicineparitylaws,whichrequireprivatepayerstoreimbursetelemedicineservicesin the same way
they would reimburse in-person visits. As additional states adopt parity laws, private payers may
institutemore guidelines and restrictions for telemedicine services. Although it is a step in the right
direction,there is still uncertaintyregardingreimbursement rates, billingprocedures,andmore.
1.2. Fewer Face-to-Face Consultations. Several physicians and patients are finding it difficult to adapt
to telemedicine,especiallyolderadults.Physiciansareveryconcernedaboutpatientmismanagement.
Whileadvancesinmedicinehavemadeit more efficient to use technology, there are times when system
outages occur. There is also the potential for error astechnologycannotalways capture whatthehuman
touchcan.
1.3. Technology Is Expensive. Healthcare systems that adopt telemedicine solutions can attest that they require
a lot of time andmoney. Implementing a new system requires training, and sometimes staff members find
it difficult to welcome this change.Practice managers, nurses, physicians,and more have to learn how to
utilize the system so that practices can see the
benefits.Althoughtelemedicineisexpensiveinthebeginning,healthcaresystemsshouldseeapositivereturnoni
nvestmentovertimeduetomorepatientsandlessstaff.
The major components of healthcare systems are identification, location, sensing, and connectivity
as shown in Figure
1.Smarthealthcareisimplementedthroughawiderangeofsystems:emergencyservices,smartcomputing,sens
ors,labonchips,remote monitoring, wearabledevices,connectivitydevices,andbigdata.
The IoT based systems are Downloaded from
equipped with body EnggTree.com
sensor networks within telemedicine systems. They
include
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deviceswithspecialtypeofnodesthatsenseperiodicdifferenceofpatientdata;tochecktheventilationcondition
sforthepatientsinrooms,sensors are used to collect data for different measures contributing to
ventilation process of a room. These sensors areprogrammed to assess data of different ranges for
temperature, pressure, humidity, and othersignificantenvironmentalvariables.
Thesearrangementshelptomonitorthepatientcon-ditions remotely. The system can send periodic
reports to thehospital and maintain the patient history. The hospital staffcan view the data and prepare
the treatment plan for thepatientunder observation. The second type of devices usedin IoT healthcare
systems is based on wireless sensor net-works. Thesituation is more complex than the above sce-nario
in terms of remoteareapatient monitoring andmanagementtask. Insomesituations,IoTisthemostre-
liableandcheapestsolution,andtherelationshipbetweendifferent devices andinteractive communication
systemsalso needs to be investigated with more formal objectives.
Technologymakesiteasiertomonitorthepatient health by sending information to healthcare teams such as
adoctor, nurses, and specialists throughIoT (Internet
ofthings)andmobiletechnologies.Itwouldbehelpfulforprofessionals to save and gather patient datausing
store-and-forward method so that it is accessible at any time. Therole and services of IoT in modern
healthcare aredepictedinFigure2.
Internet of things (IoT) has different methodologies:smart healthcare, traffic control, smart dustbin,
and vehicle
parking.Thehealthofpatientismonitoredbyscreen,soitisdifficulttoexaminethepatientallthetime.Therefore,
here,patient’scurrentstatus,i.e.,pulserate,temperature,positionofbody, bloodglucose,and ECG,canbe
measuredinten-sivelybyusingsensors.

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ThesensorsareattachedtoArduinoUNOsensorsthat,whenattachedtothebodyArduinoboard,getinformationa
ndtransmititto theserver.From thisserver,theinformation isforwarded to
thedoctorwhoadvisesformedicine.
Smarthealthcaresystemisactuallyatechnologyinwhichtreatmentsofpatientsarepossibleandcanimprovet
hestandardof life [7]. In the concept of smart health, the e-health concept is also included which has
commands on many technologieslike electronic record management, smart home services, and
intelligent and medical connected devices. Sensors, smartdevices,
andexpertsystemssupportthehealthpracticeforsmarthealthcaresystem.
Healthcare facilities in modern age are key challenge especially in developing countries where
remote areas face lack ofhigh-quality hospitals and medical experts. As artificial intelligence has
revolutionized various fields of life, health has alsobenefitedfromit.Theexistingarchitectureof
Labonchip
Sensors Connectivity
Medical Bigdata
devices
Smart Remote
computing Security monitoring
FIgurE1:TypicalcomponentsofIoTbasedsmarthealthcare.
combination of sensors [8], imbedded electronics, and software components for decision support
systems [9]. The IoT alsosupportssmartsystemswiththehelpoflightweightnetworking
connectionsandsensorsdata[10].TheIoTcoversalmostalldomains such as home based smart systemslike
security, entertainment, and health; transport systems like smart parking,traffic, logistics emergency
services, andhighway management; community based systems like smartmetering,
businessintelligence,surveillance, environment,andretailsystems[10].
Healthcare is one of the primary concerns that need to beimproved by IoT and related technologies
[11]. IoT basedhealthcare consists of three stages of automation, namely, data collection by sensors,
analytics based on the collected
data,anddecisionmakingbasedonthecollecteddata[12].Healthcaresystemshavealotofpotentialtobeimpro
vedbyIoTbasedsystems.Therearemanydifferenttypesofhealthcareapplicationsproposedbytheresearchers
likee-health[13],communityhealth[14],homehealthmoni-
toring[15],telemedicine[16],andclinicalsupportfordoctors[17].Theprimarycontributionofthisresearchist
oprovidedevicesthathelpinmonitoring,management,andcommunicationbetweendifferentstakeholdersin
thehealthcaredomain.
Table1showsthecomparisonofourworkwithrelated
work.ItshowsthatIoTbasedmodelsprovidemuchas-
sistancetopatients,butthetimeconstraintscanbereducedwiththehelpofCDSSintheabsenceofmedicalstaff.
The methodology of IoTfor smart home, vehicle parking,
andtrafficcontrolisdifferentascomparedtothehealthstore-and-forwardmethod
ofconventionaltelemedicineisfacingsomeproblems:
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(i) Needforalocalhealthcenterwithdedicatedstaff.
(ii) Needformedicalequipmenttopreparepatientreports.
(iii) Timeconstraintof24–48hoursinreceivingdiag-
nosisandmedicationdetailsfromamedicalexpertinamainhospital.
(iv) Costoflocalhealthcenters.
(v) NeedforWi-Ficonnection.
Inthispaper,anovelandintelligenthealthcaresystemisproposed;itisbasedonmoderntechnologieslikeInter
netofthings(IoT) and machine learning. This system is intelligentenough to sense and process a patient’s
data through amedical decisionsupport system. This system is low-cost solution for the people of remote
areas; they can use it to findout whether they aresufferingfromaserioushealth
issueandcureitaccordinglybycontactingnearhospitals.

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2. RelatedWork
The IoTterm was initially coined in 1999 and got attention ofcommunity asoneof the advanced
technologiesasit is
abenefitistomonitorthepatients24/7[26],whichisalmostimpossiblewithmanpower.ThesecondgoalachievedbyIo
Tbasedsolutionistomonitorprimarymeasuresneedstodeterminethe
patientconditions,andtreatmentplanmayincludepulserate,bodytemperature,respiratoryrate,bodyposition,b
loodpressure,ECG,andglucoselevel.ThesesensornetworksareconnectedthroughArduinoboardtocollectthe
informationthroughattachedsensors.Thecol-lectedinformationcanbetransmittedto
theserverandfurtherrefined fordecisionmaking ordecisionsupport systems.
Investigational experiments are made with the assistanceof sensors, and the patient’s health is traced
with Internet. Whatremains is the keen observation of pulse rate, eco of heart, pressure level,
temperature, etc. If there is any dis- turbance orchange in pulse rate or temperature, the system alerts
the person taking care of the patient. Through the Internet, the systemshowsthepulserate and
temperatureofthepatient.
The IoT with mobile technology provides smart andeasier ways to look after the patients under
observation, theirbodymovements, and health conditions and provides intelligent mechanisms to
handle and share the relevant information
withrelevantstakeholders.Thestudy[11]designedasystemwhichcollectspatientdataandsendsittocloud
forfurtherutilizationby people investigating health domain. The multipurpose application may also
provide thefamilies of patients with regularupdatesregardingpatient
health. Ghosh et al. [26] demonstrated a system to automatically gather data from patients and store the
gathered data intocloud for permanent use to help health professionals. The system also helps the
guardians of the patients to know the healthinformation.
The study [27] proposes a system to track the patient records with the measures of pulse rate, ECO,
blood pressure, andbody temperature and maintain the patient history. If the system detects any
abnormal behavior in the measures observed, itimmediately alerts the emergencyteam to handle the
situation. The article [28] provides a survey on the smart healthcare. Itdiscusses in detail the importance,
application, requirements, and classification of healthcare along with the challenges,vulnerability, and
security attacks. Healthcare system plays a vital role in increasing application by using
connectivitytechnologies. The body sensor asamedicaldeviceisused toimplementsmart healthcare as
shown in Figure 3. Smarttelemedicinesystems
[15] are designed to monitor and manage the patient recordsby using sensors and microcontrollers. The
system observesthebodyconditionsandtransmitsthe datatocloudservers.The
patientconditionisobservedandstoredonserversforfurtheruseanddecisionmaking.
The study [29] investigates the challenges and conse- quences of remote health systems. The system
comprises wirelesstransmission system which collects ECG, bodytemperature, and pulse rate of the
patients in remote locations for
severeproblemslikecardiogenicshock.Thepatientismonitored,anddataissenttothedoctortoanalyzethemandp
reparethetreatmentplan.Thisdataalsohelpsthesupportingstafftotakethenecessaryactions[30].
The study [31] states that health monitoring system is essential for a good health because health
problems
areincreasingdaybydaylikecardiacfailure,lungsfailure,andheartrelateddiseases.Nowadays,IoTbecameaplat
formformanyservicesandapplications in which sensor nodes are used. The monitoring of patients that is
continuously done by doctors is the base ofrevealedconsequencesofgenerichealthmonitoringsystem.
The data analytics with big data enhanced the capacitiesof healthcare management system. The IoT
healthcare is based onsensors, data collection devices, cloud services or connectivity provider devices,
and mobile applications. Themain concernof the physician is to separate the informationof one patient
from all other massive information of patients in the
healthcaresystem.Fromsuchhugeinformation,thephysicianmakescriticaldecisionaboutthepatienthealthan
dsuggeststhetreatment.He etal.concluded thatalteringpatientinformationinrealtimeisveryimportant[32].
In order to build a smart system or application, thephysical objects are connected by using IoT
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(Internet of things). Thestudy used IoT for smart resource managementsystem (SRMS) and intelligent
chair system (ICS). An Arduino board isattached to the sensors, user ID is connected through RFID
reader with the chairs, and chair al- lotment is managed andmonitoredbythissystem.
The study [33] investigates the influence of medicalsystem with remote patients. The patient
monitoring is the mainpurpose of the system with a prototype application. The main service provided
by this prototyping system is themonitoringof vital signs of patient health in ICU. Thesystem is more
effective for patients undergoing surgical procedures or
othertreatmentsthatneedintensivecareandmonitoring.Themajorbenefitsclaimedbytheauthorsofthestudyar
elowpowerprofilesensor, wireless communication,and gateway for cheap communication. The system is
also available on web domain for thepatientcaretakersto ob-serveandbeinformedaboutthepatientstatus.
A smart health monitoring system [34] is designed and implemented for ambulance coupled with
communicationchannels. The IoT was used with this smart healthcare system with the capability of low
power sensors. The humanbodysensorsareconsidered anefficientmodeofcommu-
nicationfornearfieldbodysensornetworkapplication.
The study [35] presents a generic model for IoT based healthcare system. The model identifies key
components with anend-to-endIoThealthcaresystem.Theauthorsclaimthattherewasnoend-to-
endIoTbasedremotepatientmonitoringsystem.Thesystemconsistsoffivesensors,threeofwhichwereformoni
toringpatientconditionslikepulserate,respiratoryrate,andbody temperature. The other two sensors were
used to monitor blood pressure and bloodoxygen. The paper also
identifiestechnologicalchallengesandpotentialopportunitiesforremotehealthcaremoni-
toringandmanagementsystemwithIoT.
Thestudy[36]presentstheapplicationsandpotentialusageofIoTinhealthcaresystems.Themajortaskper-
formedby

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thisexperimentalstudywastomonitorthepatientconditionsandmakeitpossibletousemoreoptimizedand
accuratemedicalequipment.Thebasicarchitectureof
Smarthealthcare
Applications Enduser Managemen

connectivity
Smartdevice Hospitals DB Bodysensors

Statio
nary WiFi
Homebased devi NFC
Earlywarning ces
systems patientsGovernment Network
Vitrosensors Vivosensors Mobliephon
bodiesClinics Security
Monitoring
system
Forecasting
systems
Classificationofsmarthealthcaresystem.
the proposed system was based on sensor data and analyzesthe patient data to make it possible to take
basic decision
forthepurpose.Theproposedsystemwascollectingbodytemperature,respirationrate,andheartbeatsandobserv
ingthepatientbodymovements.
Wearablebodydevices[37]wereusedtodesignsystemsformonitoringandmanagement ofpatientshealth.
ThestudyusedbodywearablesensorswithIoTforsmartpatientmonitoringandmanagement.Thefocusofthisstu
dywastoobservethepatienthealth during surgical procedures, considering more useful and reliable data
collection during such complex situations
wherehumanobservationalskillsarenotenough.Thesecondmajorbenefitwasthereductionofequipmentsizefo
rpatientmonitoringand wireless environment for patient care. Devices like Fitbit health monitor, Pebble
smart watch, and Google glass are con-sidered as modern devices for health monitoring and body care
solutions. The important wearable devices are measuring theblood pressure which is used to assess the
stress on a human mind. IoT imparts a valuable role to electronicsand electricaldevicestomonitorand
managehealthcareforhumankind.
3. ArchitectureofSmartHealthcareSystem
The proposed smart healthcare system has the capability of decision making as per the observed
conditions of the pa- tientbased on body temperature, pulse rate, and heartbeats. This architecture is also
energy efficient solution because it does notturnonallthe sensorsallthe time.The
algorithmusedinthesystemwillhandle the usage ofthesensorsandcontroltheircostand lifetime. The
proposed system addresses the issue of remote monitoring of patients and provides them with
necessarytreatmentthrough expertsinthehospital.
Thesmarthealthcaremonitoringandpatientmanage-mentsystemproposedinthisstudyconsistsofcommuni-
cationchannels,embeddedinternaland
externalsensors,IoTserver,andcloudstorageandissupportedbyagateway.
These activities are performed at different levels of refine- ment named application layer, management
layer, network layer,anddevicelayer. ThearchitectureoftheproposedsystemispresentedinFigure4.
The architecture shown in Figure 4 is revised to show more details. The use of sensors and decision
support systemintelemedicineisanovelideathatimprovesworking
performanceoftelemedicineinruralareas.
3.1. Data Collection through Sensors for Smart Healthcare System. With the help of IoT (Internet of
things), the proposedsystem willDownloaded
be designed tofrom EnggTree.com
implement a device in remote clinic. The device will
take data of patient’s heartbeats,bodytemperature,andbloodpressureasinputand
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willsendittothedoctorconcernedinthehospital.Withthehelpofthedata,thedoctorwillanalyzetheconditionoft
hepatientandwillinformtheremoteareacliniccrewaboutthenecessarystepsforpatient’sbesttreatment.
The architecture presented in Figure 5 shows physical view with necessary components of the
proposed system. Thesystem consists of three sensors: body temperaturesensor, pulse rate sensor, and
heartbeat sensors. These threesensors
areconnectedthroughArduinoboardtocollectandclassifythepatientdata.Thedatatransmissionismanaged
bycommunicationandnetworkingdevices.Thedataana-lyticsprovidesthedecision-
makingfacilities,andthefuzzylogicsystemisusedinthisarrangement to provide decisionmaking. The doctor
view provides the facility to hospital staff to monitor and communicate withthepatient atremoteplace.
The next subsection explains the fuzzy logic system implemented in this smart patient monitoring
and man-
agementsystemfordecisionmaking.Thefuzzysystemisplacedattheserveranditwillorderthedecisionsregardi
ngpatientconditionsand treatment and alert the doctor about the situation of the patient. The system is
fully automated. The last subsection givesthetechnicaldetailsanddescriptionoftheproposedsystem.

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3.2. Fuzzy Logic-Based Smart Healthcare Monitoring and Management. There are the following
problems: a single model isnot enough, so two or more models are combined to solve that problem [38].
When different models are combined,
theyprovideaneffectivesolutiontotheproblem,referredtoasahybridsystem.Ahybridsystemisusedtoobtainindo
orairquality usingthefuzzylogicsystemand neuralnetworksrepresentedasthefuzzyneural network(FNN).
Neural networks focus on perceiving patterns, not on thelogic of how the decision is made [39]. The
fuzzy logic systemsare good at explaining how the decision is made, butthe inference rules are difficult
task as prior knowledge is required
[40].Theselimitationsleadtothefuzzyneuralnetwork.Rulesoffuzzysystemsareacquiredfromtheneuralnetworkspa
tterns[41].
Thisprocessbeginswitha “fuzzyneuron,”
andtheprocessofthefuzzyneuronisdividedintotwostepsasfollows[42]:
(i) Evolutionofafuzzyneuronmodel.
(ii) Developmentofthemodelanditsalgorithmthatconsolidatefuzzinessintotheneuralsystem.
Figure 6 indicates that neural inputs are provided for neural network that provides neural outputs.
Neural outputsare theinference rules for the fuzzy interface that are storedin the system as a database
and used for decision making
andprovidelearningalgorithmsfortheneuralnetworkaspriorknowledge.Dataofneuralnetworksisgatheredby
propa-gationalgorithm,sotheprocedureisslow.Includingspecificdataintothe
neuralnetworktoclarifylearningtechniquesisadifficulttask.Fuzzyrules are explained, and they provide
better performance, so fuzzy systems are used in restricted systems and knowledgeacquisitionis a
difficulttask.Tosolve these problems insolutiondesign,the fuzzyrulesaredesignedfromnumericaldata.
The neural network model named Approximate Rea- soning Intelligent Control (ARIC) (see Figure
7) uses fuzzyneuronsystem. This fuzzy neuron system is trained by physical system forecast. It applies
a fine-tuning refreshing data method tocontroltheinformationbase.
Database
Neuralp Fuzzyin
ference
utnetwork Neural Decisions
Neuralin
Learningalgorithm
FIgurE6:Modeloffuzzyneuralnetwork
ancestor and acquires a unit u. The unit u communicates with the activity control. It is called
defuzzified mixture whichfinishes the process.The
informationlayerinthisframeworkisfuzzified;itismonotonicinnatureandhasthecapacitiestoutilize its
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components in ARIC model. The fuzzy tag is used in rules to balance local standards. The ancestor’s
enrolmentis estimated by these standards and then duplicated and uses load joining with the
association ofinformation component.The qualities base of this system produces the final input. Each
unit which was obscured is exceptional monotonic workcommunicating with final standard. The
monotonicity of this function yieldsthe output. The process is effortlesslydetermined by the opposite
capacity. This esteem is produced with the function ofheaviness and with the association
ofhiddenunit. Theyieldvalueisfinallydeterminedbyweightedaveragemethod.
Theactionoperatorsusedtoevaluatethenetwork,whichtriesto forecastthe model
activity.Theneuralnetowrkmethodused in this system is a typical feedforward neural network system.
This feedforward neural network system isbased onshrouded layer which collects the model states as
information. It uses the blunder flag r from the physical model as a
pieceofhelpingdata.Theprocessgetsvt, tofthe proposed system produced as a forecast for future. Thissystem
relies on loadoftimetandthemodelconstraints.The
tiseithertort+1.Theconditionsinthissystemare
[ ]

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portrayed by fortification of higher values for information collected for decision making. The change
in load is man- agedby support method that uses the output of the system states of the network and
action state evaluation method.
TheengineeringofARICwasconnectedtopostadjustment.Itisalsodemonstratedthatthemodelwiththecom
pre-hensionanditsassignments.
Thesignsandweightsarerealnumberswithinputneurons.
This is a perfect combination of fuzzy system with neuralnetworks which boost the advantages of
both decision-
makingmethods.Theframeworkcanlearn,andinformationutilizedintheframeworkhasthetypeofif-
thenfuzzysystem.Therulesaredefined in advance, and the system canstart without outside help, so it
adapts quicker than a standard neural system.
TheframeworknamedARICconsistsofAENactionpositionwhichisusedtoevaluatethenetworkconstructedthr
oughinformationbase.TheARICalsocontainsASNoperationusedfornetworkselection.Itisamultilayerneural
networktechniquewithfuzzycontrol system. The ASN component has two separate fuzzy interfaces in
the first layer of the proposed system. The neuralnetworkisplaced in thesecond layer.
Theneuralsystemfindsf[a,a+1]operation,apartofconfidenceacquired
throughfuzzy inference. Itshould gainp (a+1)using
theamountoftimedenotedbytandtheconditionofframeworkt+1.Amodificationmodulewhichisstochasticinn
ature
improvesthecontrolwithp(t)offluffypartandtheexpectedlikelihoodregradingdecisionsandproducesthefinalout
put.
u′ (t) r(u(t),d[t,t+1]. (1)
The unitcioffuzzyinference isorganizedtoassessthefuzzyguideline.Theunitforinformationajisastandard
Theinformationdoesnotchangethesesigns.Theyieldisverymuchequivalenttotheinformation.Thesignalaima
ycol-laboratewiththeloadtowitoconstructtheseitems.
d wiai, i 1,2. (2)
The inputdata diiscollected,byaddition, todelivertheinformation,
net d1+d2 w1a1+w2a2, (3)
to the neuron. The neuron utilizes its exchange work f, whichcould be a sigmoidal functionf(x)(1
+e−x)−1, to figureouttheoutput:
y f(net) fw1 a1+w2 a2. (4)
This basic neural net, which utilizes duplication, addition, and sigmoidal f, will be called a(nordinary
neural net asshowninFigure8.
Inthisevent,weutilizedifferentactivitieslikeat-norm,orat-
conorm,tojointheapproachinginformationtoaneuron;weget what we call hybrid neural net. These
modifications lead to fuzzy neural engineering dependent onfuzzy arithmetic
tasks.Thisgivesusachancetoexpressthesourcesofinfoa1,a2andtheweightsw1,w2overtheunitintervals[0,1].The
a1
w1
w2
a2
y=f (w1a1+w2a2)
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TaBlE2:Directfuzzificationofneuralnetwork.
Fuzzyneuralnet Weights Inputs TargetType1 Crisp Crisp Fuzzy
Type2 Fuzzy Crisp Crisp

Type3 Fuzzy Fuzzy Crisp
Type4 Crisp Fuzzy Crisp
Type5 Crisp Fuzzy Fuzzy
Type6 Fuzzy Fuzzy
FuzzyFIgurE8:Neuralnet.

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systemsisto broadenassociationweightsandadditionalinputstofuzzynumbersasshowninTable2.
A set of fuzzy rules were defined for the clinical decisionsupport system used for IoT based
telemedicine. These rulesarebasedon the factsand fuzzydatashown in
Table2.Followingareafewexamplesoffuzzyrulesdefined.
IF(Temperature High)AND(Pulse_Rate Low)AND(Blood_Pressure Very_High)

THENDecision High
IF(Temperature High)AND(Pulse_Rate Low)AND(Blood_Pressure High)
THENDecision High
IF Normal) AND (Pulse_R-ate High)AND(Blood_Pressure Mediu
(Temperatu m)
re
THENDecision Low
IF(Temperature Low)AND High)AND(Blood_Pressure Medium)

THENDecision (Pulse_Rate
Low
IF Normal) AND (Pulse_R-ate Low)
(Temperatu Normal)AND(Blood_Press
re ure
THENDecision High
3.3. Implementation Details. A microcontroller board (Arduino) (see Figure 9), which has model
numberATmega328, has
4digitalpinsforinputandoutputsources.Thesixi/opinsarePWMoutput.Themicroprocessorhas16MHzwithap
owerjack,USB connection. The other components on this microcontroller chip are analog input and reset
button with ICSP header. Thepower is supplied bya USB interface, and Arduino is designed as open
electronicplatform. The basic settings on Arduino
boardareinput/output,set/resetbutton,sensorlights,andactivating motorwithoutputLED.
HC-05Bluetoothmodule:Toaddwirelessfunctionalityoftwoways(fullduplex)toyourproject,HC-
05isverycoolmodule.If communication is required between two microcontrollers, Bluetooth module is
used as Arduino and can communicate
withanydevicewiththefunctionalityofBluetoothlikealaptoporaphone.BluetoothSSP(serialportprotocol)mo
duleisdesignedfor wireless transport. HC-05 can be used in a master or slave configuration that will
begreatsolutionforwirelesscommunication.
Temperaturesensor(seeFigure10)isusedtodetectheatstroke,bodytemperature,andfever.Inwearablehealthc
are
system, body temperature is used as a diagnostic tool. For themeasurement of body temperature,
thermistor type sensors areused.Temperaturesensingaccuracyislimited.
The temperature sensor (see Figure 11) is integrated circuit which is used to measure the body
temperature in
centigrade.Thetemperatureisshownasvoltageoutput.ThemodelnumberofthissensorisLM35.Thismodelofb
odytemperaturesensorisconsideredbetterinperformancethanlineartemperaturesensor.Thereasonisthatuser
neednotconvertKelvinscaletocentigradescalebyusingthismodel.Thesensorunderthissetupisveryusefulforr
emotesensingandcalibratesCelsiusscale.Theemergencyconditionsaremeasuredthroughcardiacarrest,pulm
onaryembolism,vasovagalsyncope,andpulsesensor.
Thepulserateisprimarymeasureforcriticalmedicalconditionsandbodyfitnessconditions.Thepulseratesenso
risthemostused and researched sensor in patient care and managementdomain.It isused toassess
heartbeats and complex diseaseslike heart attack. The sensor works when theobject places finger on input
panel. The Downloaded
output is fromdetected
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powerrequiredforthissensoris5voltdirectcurrent.Theworkingprincipleofthismoduleisbasedonbloodflowra
tethroughfinger.The heartbeat sensor normal reading was 60–100 bpm. Figure 12 shows the used blood
pressure sensor to measure the bloodpressure
ofthepatientandrecorditinanExcelsheetforfurtherprocessing.
1. ExperimentalResults
1.1. Experiment Setup. The system is tested under the su- pervision of medical staff. Samples are
collected from dif- ferentareas of South Punjab using the proposed device. Thedata collected through
sensors was forwarded to the server. The resultsare presented at the Arduino application and webbrowser.
Table 3 shows the information about locations thatwe selected totesttheproposedmodel.Almosteightdif-
ferentlocationsareselectedfortesting.Thedistancefrom
BVHandtestingperiodofselectedlocationsaredifferent.
1.2. Dataset. Table 4 shows the report sample of the patient that is generated on the server after receiving
data collectedthrough sensors and forwarded through smart device. Thereport has three sections:
patient’s data, sensor data, andsymptomsofthepatient.
Table 5 shows the comparison of response time of the queries that are responded to by CDSS and by
physician. Almost270 queries were received on the server from se- lective areas. Most of the queries
were treated by CDSS. Table 5 clearlyshowsthataverageresponsetimeofthe
queriesthatarerespondedtobyCDSSisquiteshort ascomparedtotheresponsetimeofthe
queriesrespondedtobyphysician. The proposed systemislow-costand
efficientsolutionforthepeopleofremoteareas;they can use it to findout whether they are suffering from a
serious health issue and cure it accordingly by contacting nearhospitals.

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Usingsensorsanddecisionsupportsystemintele-
medicineisanewidea,andTable5showshowitminimizestimeconstraintincomparison to
theclassicaltelemedicinemethod.
1.3. UsedToolsandDataAnalysis.Theuseofanalyticspotentiallyimprovestheaccuracyandpermitsearlydiseas
edetection,personalization,andcostreductioninmedical
12
1.ConclusionsandFutureWork
The proposedmethodconsistsofsensorsforbody tem-perature, pulserate,and blood pressure to assessthe
con-dition
ofthepatientunderobservation.Fordeterminingthepossibleconditionsandcure,thesystemusedaknowledge
baseandfuzzylogicsystemforintelligentdecision makingforpatientcare,monitoring,and management.
10
94.70
AdaBoostwithFeatureSelectionUsingIoTtoBringthePathsforSo
maticMutationsEvaluationinCancer
Abstract
Nowadays, the research in bioinformatics helps in finding out numerous ways in storing,
managingorganic information, and developing and analyzing the computational tools for better
understanding. Sofar, much of the research has been carried out to overcome the difficulties in
experimental methods whilestoring vast amounts of the data in different sequencing projects. In this
process, many of thecomputational methods and clustering algorithms were brought to light in the past to
diminish blocksbetween newly sequenced gene and genotypes by applying identified jobs. The latest
specific applicationsinvented in bioinformatics are paving way for more advancement by adding
developments in machinelearning and data mining fields. Because of a large quantity of applications
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existing classification results remained inadequate.
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Hence, the present study isintended to create awareness among the readers on the various possibilities
available in finding somaticmutations by using machine learning algorithm, AdaBoost with feature
selection, a classification invarious feature selection techniques with their applications, and detailed
explanation on the distinct typesof advanced bioinformatics applications. This study presents the
statistical metric-based AdaBoost featureselection in detail and how it helps in decreasing the size of the
selected feature vector, and it explainshow the improvement can be attributed through some
measurements using performance metrics:correctness, understanding, specificity, paths of mutations, etc.
The present study suggests some IOTdevices for early detection of breastcancer.
A Fuzzy-Based Expert System to Diagnose Alzheimer’sDisease
Abstract
Soft computing techniques came into reality to deal effectively with the emerging problems related
tomany fields. A medical diagnosis is totally based on human abilities, uncertain factors,
ambiguoussymptoms, high accuracy, and bulk of medical records. Soft computing techniques are suitable
to obtainresults in an efficient way in medical diagnosis. Fuzzy logic (FL) is one of the popular soft
computingtechniques. FL is a mathematical approach for computing and inferencing which generalizes
crisp
logicandsetstheoryemployingtheconceptoffuzzyset.Fuzzylogichasbeensuccessfullyappliedinthefieldsof
pattern recognition, image processing, knowledge engineering, medical diagnosis, control theory,
etc.,Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is the most popular dementia in aged people. AD is an irreversible
andprogressive neurodegenerative disorder that slowly destroys memory, thinking skill, and degrades of
theability of performing daily tasks. Hippocampus is a key biomarker for AD to identify the disease at
anearly stage. To detect and diagnose Alzheimer’s disease at an early stage, fuzzy logic is playing a
vitalrole. In this study, computerized system for classification of AD was constructed using fuzzy
logicapproach, i.e., fuzzy inference system (FIS) to classify the subjects into AD, mild cognitive
impairment(MCI),andnormalcontrol(non-AD)on thebasisofvisualfeaturesfromhippocampusregion

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Secured Architecture for Internet of Things-Enabled
PersonalizedHealthcareSystems
Abstract
The Internet of Things (IoT) is the emerging area. This technology is made to connect any object
aroundus to the Internet with the unique IP, and these connected objects can be communicated each
otherremotely as per the user’s convenience. It has applications in all most all the fields like
industries,factories, environment, agriculture, transport, education, healthcare, energy, and retail. IoT
leads to thenewtechnologieslikebigdataandcyber-
physicalsystems.Connectinganyobject,fromanywhereatanytime,isnotsimple.Ithasvariouschallengeslikedi
scovery,scalability,softwarecomplexity,interoperability,faulttolerance,security,andprivacy.Oneofthemajo
rchallengesissecurity.Duetotheweak links used to connect the things to the Internet leads to many
security issues in different levels
oftheIoT.ThispaperpresentsthevarioussecurityissuesandnovelsecurityarchitecturefortheIoT-
enabledpersonalizedhealthcaresystems.KeywordsIoT·InternetofThings·Security·Architecture·Healthcar
e
7.1Introduction
Sinceadecade,InternetofThingsisevolving.TheenablingtechnologiesofIoTarethecloudcomputing,wireless
sensor networks, communication protocols, big data analytics, embedded systems, etc.
InternetofThingsisatrulyubiquitouscomputing,i.e.,anywhere,anytimeforeveryonecomputingsaidbyWeiser
[1]. The phrase “Internet of Things” is first coined by the Kevin Ashton in 1999 at MIT. Nowadays,
themobilephonesanddataratebecomeverycheaper,thewirelesscommunicationdevicesbecomingsmallerand
cheaperandtheprocessingcapabilitiesismore.Sothesmartphonebecomesthemediatorforthings,Internet,andp
eople[2].Ithasvastapplicationdomainsliketransportationandlogistics,healthcare,smartenvironments,
Personal, Social and Futuristic applications of IOT [3]. The major relevant scenarios forthis
domainareshown in Fig. 7.1

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By 2025, the market share of the IoT applications is projected as healthcare 41%, manufacturing
33%,electricity7%,urbaninfrastructure4%,security4%,agriculture4%,resourceextraction4%,vehicles2%,an
d retail 1% [4]. The projected analysis shows that major application of IoT healthcare leads a goodmarket.
Remote monitoring of the health plays a key role in the domain of the healthcare. If many IoTdevices are
connected to Internet, it may lead to many attacks. Particularly in the healthcare, if any data ismisused,
then the patient’s life will be expired. The major attack in healthcare IoT is impersonate
attack.Inthisattack,theintruderwillpretendashe/sheisapatientordoctorforcollectingthedata,etc.Thisleadstom
anysecurityissues.Itis necessarytodevelopsecurityarchitectureintheareaofhealthcareIoT.
This paper proposed the novel security architecture for the IoT-enabled personalized healthcare
systems.The next sections in this paper are organized as follows: In Sect. 7.2, related works are discussed.
TheproposedarchitecturesarediscussedintheSect.7.3.Finally,inSect.7.4,conclusionandfutureworkwerediscu
ssed. 7.2 Related Work In this research work we have [5] proposed an architecture for an IoT, itconsists
of the IoT nodes and the protocols where we can plant the sensors and the actuators and
thisarchitecturecanbefitfordifferenthealthcaresystemsandvariousotherapplicationsindifferentdisciplines.
The experiments also proved that this is effective architecture for the IoT. In [6], authorsproposed a
detection method for various attacks in the household appliance. The analysis was done in thetheoretic
fields by the simulation methods. In terms of the accuracy and localization, the proposed methodproved
as good. In paper [7], authors proposed a novel architecture for 5G smart dieses, in the layer-wiseand
comparison of the various diabetic versions and discussed about the personalized healthcare systems.In
the paper [8], proposed the various medical care services like the metabolic syndrome with the cloud-
based personalized healthcare systems. Here service broker is responsible for the dynamic creations in
theperspectiveoftheusers.Thisarchitecturecanbeusedforthehealthcaresystemswiththeadditionofsomesecurit
y features. In paper [9] proposed the security features for the hybrid cloud architecture for the IoTwith
some security features. Particularly the authors had concentrated on the issues like scalability
andinteroperability, and some research challenges have been discussed. 7.3 Proposed Architecture In
theproposed system, the communication will be from the sensors that equipped with the patient’s body to
thecloud, and from the cloud to the corresponding doctor. The authorized doctor will access the data
fromcloud and treat the patient based on the obtained values. This will be done in layer-wise. The layers
in IoTare user-side layer, edge-side layer, and cloud-side layer [10]. The security should be provided in
andbetween those layers. The data flowed from one layer to other layer (Fig. 7.2). Here the goal is to
remotemonitor the patient that living in their home from the hospital. To achieve this goal, the sensor
values,communications links, data in cloud, etc., in all layers should be secured. To provide security for
thoselayers in

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be equipped in the patient’s body and patient’s home for continuous monitoring the patient and
patient’shealth condition. The continuous data obtained by that equipped sensors will be stored in the
componentcloud. From that cloud component, the data can be accessed by the doctor module. The
doctor’s moduleconsists of the doctors and there have a facility to collect the data of a patient from the
cloud. In betweenall the three modules, doctor, patient, and cloud, secured communication links should
be established, i.e.,the security mechanisms module. For storing the data in cloud, the secured cloud
storage component isused. In the security mechanisms module, with the communication technology, there
is necessity tointegrate any one or more security mechanisms like the intrusion detection systems (IDS),
authorizationmechanisms, cryptographic mechanisms, and secured routing protocols. Simulataneously in
the securedstorage module need to use the secured data storage techniques like authorization and
cryptographicalgorithms.
7.4Conclusion
The Internet of Things is the emerging technology, and it has various applications in all disciplines.
Thispaperisfocusedonthepersonalizedhealthcaresystems,andnovelsecurityarchitecturefortheIoT-
enabledpersonalized healthcare systems is proposed. This architecture leads to many research challenges
likedeveloping novel IDS, cryptographic mechanisms, and secured routing protocols. In the future work,
wedevelopthenovelintrusiondetectionsystemsfortheRPL-
basednetworksformitigatingtheroutingattacksliketheblack holeattack,wormholeattack, and rankattack.

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GANESH COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, SALEM

BM3551-EMBEDDED SYSTEM AND IOMT NOTES

DEPARTMENT OF BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING

Assistant Professor & BME

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UNIT I: INTRODUCTION TO EMBEDDED SYSTEM DESIGN

1.1 Overview of Embedded Application Architecture

Embedded systems, an emerging area of computer technology, combine multiple

1.2 Introduction to Embedded Systems

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environments, they were prototypes of embedded systems.

As the technology advanced, more industries demanded special computer systems. As a

Embedded computing systems evolved in a completely different way. By emphasizing

Figure 1.1: Comparison of an embedded computer chip to a US penny.

The emergence of embedded computer systems alongside general-purpose computer

Table 1-1. Comparison of General-Purpose Computers and Embedded Systems

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1.2.1 Mobile Phones

Mobile equipment, especially smartphones, is the fastest growing embedded sector in

1.2.2 Consumer Electronics and Information Appliances

Home/entertainment/audiovisual devices mainly include network television like

1.3 General Architecture of an Embedded System

Figure 1-2 shows a configuration diagram of a typical embedded system consisting of

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Figure 1.2: Basic architecture of an embedded system

Figure 1.3: Hardware architecture of Embedded System

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1.3.1 Von Neumann Architecture

Figure 1.4: Von Neumann architecture

1.3.2 Harvard Architecture

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To efficiently perform memory reads/writes, the processor is not directly connected to

Figure 1.5: Harvard architecture

1.4. Microprocessor Architecture for Embedded Systems

A microprocessor is the CPU of the computer fabricated on a single chip. The

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In general, there are two types of embedded microprocessor architecture: reduced

Currently, microprocessors used in most embedded systems have five architectures:

1.4.1 CISC Architecture

Figure 1.6 CISC Architecture

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Characteristics of CISC processor

Note: Instruction Set Architecture is a medium to permit communication between the

Examples of CISC PROCESSORS

1.4.2 RISC Architecture

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 pipelining: A techique that allows for simultaneous execution of parts, or stages, of

Figure 1.7: RISC Architecture

RISC Architecture Characteristics

 RISC permits any register to use in any context.

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 One Cycle Execution Time

 RISC contains Large Number of Registers in order to prevent various number of

 In RISC, more RAM is required to store assembly level instructions.

 Reduced instructions need a less number of transistors in RISC.

 RISC uses Harvard memory model means it is Harvard Architecture.

 A compiler is used to perform the conversion operation means to convert a high-level

A comparison of RISC and CISC is given in Table 1-2.