Quantum Physics

Waves behaving as particles Particles behaving as waves

Experiments Experiments

1. Photoelectric effect Electron diffraction

(1921, Einstein) (eV)
2. Compton effect Davisson –Germer (USA)
(1927, Compton) (k eV) and Thompson (UK) (1927)
3. Pair Production Electron microscope
(1948, Patrick Blackett)(M eV)

Dual Nature Frank Hertz Expt Stern Gerlach Expt

Black Body radiation Discrete energy level Concept of Spin

https://mmpant.com/2020/04/09/quantum-mechanics-in-everyday-life/
Photoelectric effect
(1921, Einstein) (eV)
Lenard (1902): Studied energy of the photoelectrons with intensity of light.
He could increase the intensity thousand fold.

1. Noticed a well defined minimum voltage Vstop to stop the current in

the circuit. Vstop was independent of the intensity of light.

2. Increasing the intensity of light

would increase the current

3. He performed the experiment

with various colored lights and
found the maximum energy of
the electrons did depend on the
frequency of light.
Qualitatively he obtained more
the frequency more the energy.
 Objections with wave theory
1. Kinetic energy (K) of the photo-electron should increase with intensity
of the beam.
But Kmax was found to be independent of the intensity of the falling light.

2. Effect should occur for any frequency of light provided only that
light is intense enough to eject the electron.
But a cut-off frequency 0 was observed below which photoelectrons
were not ejected (no matter how intense was beam).
3. Energy in the classical theory is uniformly distributed over the wave
front. If light is feeble, there should be a time lag between the light
striking the plate and ejection of photoelectrons.

Ejection of electron is instant, t < 10-9 sec

 Important features of the photoelectric effect

1. Polished metal plates when irradiated emits electrons, not positive

ions.
2. Plates emit electrons provided the frequency of the incident light is
above a certain frequency, called the threshold.
3. The magnitude of current is dependent on the intensity of the
incident light.
4. The energy of the emitted photoelectron is independent of the
energy of the source but depends on the frequency of the incident
light.
5. There is no time-delay between the arrival of the light wave and the
emission of the photoelectron. The measured delay was found to be
as small as 10-9 seconds. This fact could not be explained using
electromagnetism.
 Einstein equation
Conservation of energy:

E photons  K electrons  Wmetal

1
h  m v 2  
2

K max  eV0  e Vstop

Wmetal    h 0
Light is wave : Interference, Diffraction, polarisation
Light is a stream of photons/wave packets (particles).
So wave behaves like particle
 Birth
of
Quantum Physics
on
14th December, 1900

E  h
Planck introduces a new
fundamental constant h
Max Karl Ernst Ludwig Planck
1858-1947 to explain black-body radiation
 Radiation:
Irreversible flow of energy away from the source, the energy per unit time
is transported out to infinity and never comes back.

A charge at rest or a steady current does NOT generate EM wave

Accelerating charge (changing current ) produces EM wave

Blackbody:
Which absorbs all the radiation .
Total energy = absorbed+ reflected+ transmitted;
Eg: Two body are very close to BB;
Lamp black; a=0.96; and
Platinum black, a=0.98
Thermal Radiation from the Human Body:
The radiation is in the infrared region of the spectrum close to 7-15 m.
So, the thermal imaging device for human are most sensitive in this
range. eq: scanner placed at the airport during checking.
Blackbody Radiation h :Planck’s constant
= 6.63 x 10-34 J-s
k=:Boltzmann’s const.
= 1.38 x 10-23 J/K
Energy density = R/N
in the window
υ and υ +d υ

ρ(υ)
(J/m3-Hz)
T=1800 K
T=1400 K

T=1000 K

frequency υ
 Classical concept
Two distinct categories :

1. Material body (particle) Position and velocity (momentum) are

Newton’s laws of motion precisely measurable

Spread over the space, amplitude gives

2. Electromagnetic field (wave)
energy/intensity, frequency is nothing
Maxwell’s equation
but time periodicity of oscillator
Additionally
Laws of thermodynamics E = kT

Fundamental constants :
1. velocity of light c E = mc2
2. Avogadro Number N Velocity << c : non-relativistic
3. Boltzman constant k Velocity comparable to c : relativistic
4. Unit of charge e
Rayleigh-Jeans law
(Classical theory)
T=1800 K

ρ(υ)

T=1800 K
T=1400 K
T=1000 K

frequency υ
T=1800 K
2 dependence
BBR compared to standing waves in cubical cavity
 Stefan-Boltzmann law,

Rayleigh-Jeans approach (Wave picture of radiation)

Wein's approach (Radiation as a flux of particles)

 Planck's approach (Radiation has a dual nature)
Atoms of the walls of the black body behave as an oscillator and each has
a characteristic frequency of oscillation

An oscillator CANNOT have any arbitrary value of energy but have only
discrete energy
E = nh; n = 1; 2:::

The oscillators can emit/absorb energy only in the form of packet of h but
NOT continuously

If N is total no. of oscillators and E is total energy of the oscillators,

The average energy, < E > = E/N ,
follow the Maxwell's distribution,
High frequency region in the BBR: maxT  b, (  2.9  10
3
m  K)

Low frequency region in the BBR

 Compton scattering
p'; E '
Momentum and Energy

p' sin

E photon  p photon c

p' cos  p cos

photon e
h
p photon 
c

p sin p ; Ek
Conservation of momentum
along initial photon direction
In x-direction
h p' cos  p cos
c
 h  h ' cos   p c cos 
p' sin
Conservation of momentum along
perpendicular to initial photon direction
In y-direction

 h ' sin   p c sin 

Square and add the above relation
p sin
 Energy Conservation 2
Ek  p c  2 2 2 4
m0 c
E  E '  Ek
Ek  m c 2
m 2c 4  p 2c 2  m02 c 4
p  mv
m = m(v) is the
m0
m relativistic mass

v2
1 2
From momentum balance c

Compare the above two conservation eqns

 '  c (1  cos  ),
h
where, the Compton wavelength, c   0.24 pm
m0 c
Compton Experiment

The diffraction pattern has two

peaks: one corresponding to
modified radiation and other
corresponding to unmodified
radiation
 Pair production
(Energy into matter)

Nucleus The rest mass of e- or e+ is 0.51 MeV.

Hence pair production requires a photon
energy of at least 1.02 MeV.
Corresponding max. photon wavelength is
1.2 pm (Gamma rays)
The linear momentum is conserved with
the help of the nucleus
θ
In empty space momentum and energy
θ
cannot be simultaneously conserved
 Always produce in Pair Particle and antiparticle
Conserve charge
Energy conservation provides the minimum energy required to
produce particle and antiparticle
you may calculate corresponding wavelength or frequency of
produced particles

Energy of gamma rays=Rest energy of pair particles + their kinetic energy

E  2 m0 c 2  2 Ek
For threshold energy (Ek=0): E  2 m0 c 2

c
For electron/positron: E  h   h  2 m0 c 2


 Pair Production
• Energy and momentum conservation give
Energy h  E  E
h
Momentum (x)  p cos   p cos 
c
Momentum (y) 0  p sin   p sin 

• Energy conservation can be re-written

h  p2c2  m2c4  p2c2  m2c4

• But momentum conservation (x) shows

h max  pc  pc

• Thus energy and momentum are not simultaneously

conserved
25
So what if a particle “decayed into two
similar mass particles?
m2
m1

m3

• Momentum must be conserved,

• So pi = pf
• Also Ei = Ef
• But if the new particles have mass, there could
be a problem:
 m2
From relativity, p2
m1
E  ( pc)  (m0 c )
2 2 2 2
p1
m3 p3

If p1 = (p2 + p3) = p
E1 = (E2 + E3) ?
E12 = (pc)2 + (m1c2)2
(E2 + E3)2 = (pc)2 + ((m2 +m3)c2)2
So E1 = (E2 + E3) if m1 = m2 + m3
But, in the pair production, m1=0 for photon, and m2 and m3 have mass
Let ( E2  E3 )  E1   E ,   E  t  ,
So,  E can be greater than zero as long as

the particle exist for less than,  t 
E
 Pair Production
Conservation of energy and momentum does hold in the presence
of an atomic nucleus (or electron) where the recoil of the nucleus
(or electron) ensures momentum conservation
In order for pair production to occur,
the energy of the photon must be at
least twice the electron rest mass
h  2mec2  1.022 MeV

• A related process to electron-positron pair production is

pair annihilation
e++e- → γ γ
• A positron passing through matter will lose energy through
collisions with atomic electrons
• It eventually slows down and annihilates with an electron
(possibly first forming a bound system called positron)
28
Pair annihilation is inverse of Pair production

Compton scattering
Franck and Hertz experiment (1914)
Confirmation of discrete energy levels in atom
 Peaks at 4.9 V and its multiples
300

200
I ( mA)

100

5 10 15
Voltage ( V)

Shows bright bands, not a

continuous emission of
all wavelengths
Mercury has energy levels at
E1,
E2 = E1 + 4.9 eV and
E3 = E1 + 6.7 eV.
1  2 E  4.9 eV
1.24
   253 nm
4.9
4.9 eV corresponds to a
wavelength of light 253 nm

If there are discrete energy

levels, then when an
accelerated electron hits
mercury, it should be
inelastic at 4.9 eV

No temperature dependence (as long as mercury is fully vaporized)

Supports the results of spectroscopy on mercury, and the model of the mercury
atom with discrete energy levels for the electrons orbiting

Accurate and consistent results, 4.961 ± 0.009 eV versus 4.9 eV

 Hydrogen spectra

from n ≥ 3 to n = 2

Balmer series (1885)

visible spectrum

Rydberg formula for hydrogen

(1888)

Rydberg formula for all

hydrogen-like atom (1888)

Classical theory neither explain stable atom nor

discrete atomic spectra

New mechanics is needed!

 Bohr atom model

Bohr’s hypothesis:

1) Electrons stay in ‘fixed orbits’

around nucleus
2) Angular momentum is quantized
in those fixed orbit
3) No radiation loss in fixed orbits

2π x (electron mass) x (electron orbital speed) x (orbit radius)

= (any integer) x h
 Bohr’s hypothesis can be understood from the standing wave on a string

nλ = 2πrn (n = 1, 2, 3, 4, ….)
n(h/mv) = 2πrn
Angular momentum = mvrn = nh/2π Bohr’s hypothesis
These transitions produce discrete spectra of emitted light
from hydrogen atoms
Energy levels of electron and transitions between levels
in Hydrogen

E4 = - 0.85 eV
E3 = - 1.5 eV

E2 = - 3.4 eV

E1 = -13.6 eV

E3 – E2 = 1.9 eV  λ = 652.6 nm Balmer

E4 – E2 = 2.55 eV  λ = 486 nm series
 Electron diffraction
Davisson –Germer (USA) and Thompson (UK) (1927)
Particles behaving as waves Application: Electron microscope
=500


Maximum KE 54 eV and
maximum current (intensity) Calculate the  using
observed at =500
de - Broglie equation,
d  0.091 nm; n  1,   50 0
h
2 d sin(90   / 2)  n    0.165 nm
p
  2  0.091 sin 650  0.165 nm. p  2 m E , E  54 eV
Evidence of wave nature of particles and validity of de Broglie relations.
Led to the invention of ‘high-resolution’ electron microscope.
 Electron Spin
Concept of spin given by Samuel Goudsmit and George Uhlenbeck
Stern and Gerlach Experiment

Neutral Ag atoms pass through an inhomogeneous B field (in z-direction).

QM:
Let d the distance travelled in the B-field with velocity v Splitting of atomic spin into two
precise beams
Only one component of spin can
be measured at one time
 W. Heisenberg E. Schrödinger

Uncertainty relations &

Wave mechanics
Matrix mechanics (1932)
(1933)
 P.A. M. Dirac W. Pauli

Relativistic theory Exclusion principle

of electron (1933) (1945)
 Uncertainty Principle
It is impossible to determine simultaneously the exact position and
their momentum of a small moving particle.

There are fundamental limits to the accuracy with which one can
measure position and momentum.
Narrow de Broglie wave group Wide de Broglie wave group

x is large
x is small λ=defined
p is large
λ=? p is small
x p ≥ h/2π

The relation between x and p depends on the wave group

And how x and p are defined
The uncertainty is NOT due to technical or intrinsic feature of the
measuring process/device. It is a fundamental feature of reality itself.
 Applications of uncertainty principle
1. Electrons confined in atoms
The radius of the orbit of an atom is of order of 10-10 m. If electron is
confined within the orbit the uncertainty in position must NOT be
greater than 10-10 m.
x ~  x  1010 m

p~ ~p The momentum of the electron
x would NOT be less than p, rather it
could be comparable to p.
p2 2
E   3 eV
2 m 2 m ( x) 2

This energy require to hold is of the order of ionization energy of an

atom, concluded that the electrons are confined in the orbits.
2. (a) α-particles confined in nucleus
Size of the nucleus is 10-14m, the diameter; x ~  x  2  1015 m
 6.6251034  20
p  
 5. 275  10 kg  m / s ~ p
 x 2  3.14  2  10 15

p2 (5.275  10 20 ) 2
K .E   
 1M eV
2m 2  4  1.67  10 27

in the range of accepted nuclear binding energies

2. (b) Non-existence of electron in the nucleus
 6.6251034  21
p  
 5.275  10 kg  m / s ~ p
 x 2  3.14  2  10 14

p2 The electrons inside the nucleus may exist only when

K .E   96 M eV it posses energy of the order of MeV. However, the
2m
maximum possible k.e. of an electron emitted by
radioactive nuclei is about 4 MeV.
Hence, it is concluded that the electron cannot reside
inside the nucleus.
3. Ground state energy of Linear Harmonic Oscillator
 p2 1 2
x ~ 2 x ;  p ~ ~ p; E  k .e.  p.e.   kx
2 x 2m 2

1 1
Emin  h    Zero point energy
2 2
The minimum energy of harmonic oscillator is called zero point energy
4. Ground state of Hydrogen atom
p2 e2 
E  k .e.  p.e.   r~r ;  p ~ ~p
2m 4   0 r r

m e4
 Emin    13.6 eV
2  (4  0 ) 
2 2

Bohr radius
 5. Position measurement in a microscope

2h
 px  sin( / 2)

h h  
 x   
2  p x 2  2 h sin( / 2) 

 x
4 sin( / 2)