Innovations and Applications of

Technology in Language Education

The linguistics and language education world has recently experienced a rapidly
proliferating interest in applying technology. This interdisciplinary area bridges the
gap between two previously separate fields.
Innovations and Applications of Technology in Language Education is a collec‑
tion of 12 chapters by an international group of language and linguistics education
experts. Although technology in language education is a global interest, its practices
should be contextualized. This book covers how language educational technology
is currently applied, discusses how it should be applied, and gives directions for its
future development.
Providing a critical review of respective current practices and perspectives,
this book begins by presenting a set of research‑based principles for developing
­second language teachers’ professionalism. It then examines the use of technology
to enhance students’ English language skills. Acknowledging the advantages and
­disadvantages of AI‑mediated communication, this book argues for the use of AI
to facilitate communication in language education. It also proposes the use of AI to
develop and administer language tests and suggests guidelines for ­practitioners to
deploy AI in developing and administering language tests efficiently. This book con‑
cludes by discussing technology for specific purposes in second language ­education
and the potential of computer‑mediated communication (CMC) to enhance inter‑
action between students.
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 Innovations and
Applications of Technology
in Language Education

Edited by
Hung Phu Bui, Raghvendra Kumar,
and Nilayam ­Kumar Kamila
First edition published 2025
by CRC Press
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Names: Bui, Hung Phu, editor. | Kumar, Raghvendra, 1987- editor. |
Kamila, Nilayam Kumar, editor.
Title: Innovations and applications of technology in language education /
edited by Hung Phu Bui, Raghvendra Kumar, and Nilayam Kamila.
Description: Boca Raton FL : CRC Press, 2024. | Series: Computational
collective intelligence | Includes index. | Identifiers: LCCN 2023053008 (print) |
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Subjects: LCSH: English language—Study and teaching—Technological innovations. |
English language—Computer-assisted instruction. | LCGFT: Essays.
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ISBN: 978‑1‑003‑47391‑6 (ebk)
DOI: 10.1201/9781003473916
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by codeMantra
Contents

Editors................................................................................................................vii
Preface...............................................................................................................viii
List of Contributors............................................................................................xi

Section I TECHNOLOGY-ASSISTED LANGUAGE EDUCATION

1 Professional Learning for CALL Teachers: A Research-Based
Approach.................................................................................................3
LOC TAN NGUYEN

2 Designing and Implementing WhatsApp Communication

Tasks for the English as a Foreign Language Classroom:
A Case Study..........................................................................................20
MOKH. ARIF BAKHTIYAR, TONI DOBINSON, AND JULIAN CHEN

3 Evaluation of ELSA Speak Used by Vietnamese

University EFL Students........................................................................42
LE PHAM HOAI HUONG AND PHAN ANH KIET

4 Critical Appraisal of Artificial Intelligence-Mediated

Communication in Language Education..............................................62
DARA TAFAZOLI

5 “Write It Out!”: Using Digital Storytelling (DST)

to Positively Engage Pre‑Service EFL Teachers with
Digital Content and to Enhance Their Writing Skills...........................80
MERVE ÜLGEN AND NURDAN KAVAKLI ULUTAŞ

6 Revitalizing English Language Learning: An Exploration of

ChatGPT’s Impact on Student Engagement and Motivation................98
NGHI TIN TRAN AND THANG TAT NGUYEN

v
vi ◾ Contents

Section II TECHNOLOGY-ASSISTED LANGUAGE

TESTING AND ASSESSMENT
7 Technology‑Based Language Testing: Principles and
Future Directions................................................................................115
HUNG PHU BUI AND TRUONG CONG BANG

8 Technology‑Assisted Task‑Based Second Language

Assessment for Learning......................................................................130
LIEN THI XUAN CAO, HUY VAN NGUYEN, AND HUNG PHU BUI

9 The Use of Artificial Intelligence in Language Test Development

and Administration: What, How, and Why........................................147
THANH HUYNH VO AND HUNG PHU BUI

Section III USING TECHNOLOGY FOR SPECIFIC

PURPOSES IN LANGUAGE EDUCATION
10 Using Asynchronous Computer‑Mediated Communication
to Increase Students’ Out‑of‑Class Interaction................................... 161
VU HONG LAN

11 Impacts of a Blended Learning Model on EFL Students’

Engagement and English Proficiency: Evidence from IELTS
Preparation Courses............................................................................183
TUYET THI TRAN AND CHAU THI HOANG HOA

12 EFL Teachers’ Informal Digital Learning of English and Its

Effects on Their Instructional Willingness to Communicate
in English............................................................................................198
HERRI MULYONO, RIZKINA AYU INDRIYANI,
AND ZAIN ADINUL FALAH

Appendix A: Pre‑Test and Post‑Test Questionnaires....................................215

Appendix B: Feedback Questionnaire on ChatGPT....................................216
Editors

Hung Phu Bui h  olds a PhD in language education. He is now a lecturer and researcher
at the School of Foreign Languages, University of Economics Ho Chi Minh City
(UEH University). Hung also serves as an editor for several international journals. His
research interests have stretched across different aspects of second/foreign language
(L2) education and technology in language education. His recently published works
have mainly concentrated on applications of cognitive linguistics in L2 acquisition,
sociocultural theory in L2 acquisition, L2 students’ interaction, L2 classroom assess‑
ment, teaching English for specific purposes, and computer‑assisted language teaching
and learning. Serving as the keynote and plenary speaker in many national and inter‑
national conferences in the world, Hung has had opportunities to spread his knowl‑
edge and research interests to students, colleagues, and novice researchers in Asia.

Raghvendra Kumar is Associate Professor in Technology at GIET University,

India. He holds a PhD in applied technology. He spent his postdoctoral fellow‑
ship at the Institute of Information Technology, Virtual Reality and Multimedia,
Vietnam. He has served as an editor for many international journals and publishers
(e.g., Springer, Taylor & Francis) and as a keynote speaker at many international
renown conferences. His research areas include computer networks, data min‑
ing, cloud computing and secure multiparty computations, and algorithms. He
authored and edited 23 computer science books in the respective fields.

Nilayam Kumar Kamila is a lead software engineer in Capital One Wilmington,
USA. He holds a PhD in Applied Technology. He received his multiple masters
and certificates from India and the United States of America. He is especially inter‑
ested in educational technology. He has expertise on application development and
innovative system designs. His publications mainly focus on applications of artifi‑
cial intelligence in management, machine learning, and wireless sensor network.
He has published many journal articles and book chapters with international large
publishers, such as Elsevier and Springer. He has also attended several international
conferences around the world. For further information about him, please contact
[email protected].

vii
Preface

The academic world has recently experienced a rapidly proliferating interest in

applying technology. In the field of applied linguistics and language education, we
can see several recently developed journals, such as CALICO, Computer‑Assisted
Language Teaching (CALL), Language Teaching and Technology, and ReCALL.
Monographs, coauthored books, and edited books have also been recently pub‑
lished, raising current concerns, providing guidelines, and suggesting future
directions regarding the incorporation of technology into applied linguistics and
language education. This interdisciplinary area is to bridge the gap between two
previously separate fields: technology and applied linguistics or language education.
Invited by Subhendu Pani, the book series editor, we are pleased to edit this
volume on the current perspectives and interests in the field. Innovations and
Applications of Technology in Language Education is an unprecedented collection of
12 chapters from different countries. Although technology in language education
is a global interest, its practices should be contextualized. The 12 endeavors report
how it is currently applied, discuss how it should be applied, and give directions for
its future development. These are divided into three main sections. Section I, com‑
prising the first six chapters, mainly focuses on the use of technology to improve
language teaching and learning. Section II, spanning three following chapters, dis‑
cusses the potential and concerns regarding technology‑assisted language testing
and assessment. The last section, with three chapters, reports case studies on using
technology for a specific purpose in English language education.
In Chapter 1, acknowledging professional development as a means to promote
CALL teachers’ use of technology in language teaching, Loc Tan Nguyen provides
a critical review of respective current practices and perspectives. He presents a set of
research‑based principles for developing second language teachers’ professionalism.
Arguing that the teacher’s expertise is a determinant in students’ academic achieve‑
ments, he calls for more research and training courses regarding CALL teachers’
professional development.
The five following chapters concentrate on the use of technology to enhance stu‑
dents’ English language skills. Chapter 2 reports a case study on applying WhatsApp
to enhance communication in English language classrooms. The authors discuss
how to develop, implement, and evaluate a technology‑assisted task. Pedagogical

viii
 Preface ◾ ix

implications are offered to English‑as‑a‑Foreign Language teachers interested in

adopting technology‑mediated tasks to enhance communication and language
learning using the WhatsApp digital platform. In Chapter 3, the authors report
research on the use of ELSA Speak, an emerging technology. Data collected from
a questionnaire and interviews indicated that the application was appropriate for
low‑level students and useful for some language features and skills. The authors
argue for the use of ELSA Speak to improve EFL (English‑as‑a‑foreign language)
students’ pronunciation and self‑study. Dara Tafazoli, from The University of
Newcastle, gives a critical appraisal of the potential of artificial intelligence (AI)
in promoting EFL students’ communication. Acknowledging the advantages and
disadvantages of AI‑mediated communication, this author argues for the use of AI
to facilitate communication in language education. Interested in applying digital
stories in foreign language education, the authors of Chapter 5 report a study on
using digital storytelling (DST) to improve EFL students’ writing. They discuss
pedagogical implications and recommendations regarding using DST for language
teaching and learning. Chapter 6 reports a quasi‑experiment in which ChatGPT
was deployed to improve EFL students’ engagement and motivation. The authors
argue that ChatGPT marks the new age for AI‑driven language learning.
Hung Phu Bui coauthors Chapters 7–9. In these chapters, the authors argue
for the potential of technology‑assisted language testing and assessment. Chapter
7 provides a critical review of 30 years of technology‑assisted language testing. The
authors focus on how to collect examinees’ data to train scoring models and how
automated scoring mechanisms operate. Acknowledging assessment as the facilita‑
tive tool to promote language learning outcomes, the authors of Chapter 8 propose
technology‑assisted task‑based second language assessment for learning. Although
task‑based assessment has been relatively vastly explored in applied linguistics and
language education, the use of technology to assign tasks to support student learn‑
ing has received little interest. The chapter provides guidelines for researchers and
practitioners interested in using tasks to support student learning via virtual plat‑
forms. In Chapter 9, the authors propose the use of AI to develop and administer
language tests. With a thorough and critical discussion of the current critiques and
potentials of AI, the chapter suggests guidelines for practitioners to deploy AI to
develop and administer language tests efficiently.
The final section centers on using technology for specific purposes in second
language education. Acknowledging the potential of computer‑mediated commu‑
nication (CMC) to enhance interaction between students, in Chapter 10, Lan Vu
suggests creating asynchronous CMC platforms to engage students in interactive
tasks outside the classroom. From the experimental evidence, he argues for inte‑
grating audio and visual information into assigned tasks to support students’ reten‑
tion of the learned items. In Chapter 11, the authors argue for the use of blended
learning. Results from proficiency tests, a questionnaire, and interviews show that
blended learning could engage EFL students and improve their English proficiency.
x ◾ Preface

In Chapter 12, Herri and his colleagues report a study on the interplay between
digital technology use and willingness to communicate.
All the 12 endeavors provide insights into and perspectives on different aspects
of language education. They all recommend the use of technology to improve lan‑
guage education and professional learning. This book suggests topics of current
interests and gives directions for the future of technology in language education; it
is especially important to undergraduate and graduate students and novice research‑
ers and therefore deserves much attention from the academic world.

Hung Phu Bui

Raghvendra Kumar
Nilayam Kumar Kamila
List of Contributors

Mokh. Arif Bakhtiyar Zain Adinul Falah

Curtin University English Education Department,
Perth, Australia Faculty of Teacher Training and
Pedagogy,
Truong Cong Bang Universitas Muhammadiyah Prof. DR.
University of Economics and Law HAMKA
Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam Jakarta, Indonesia
and
Vietnam National University Chau Thi Hoang Hoa
Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam Project Development Department
Tra Vinh University
Hung Phu Bui Trà Vinh, Vietnam
University of Economics Ho Chi Minh
City (UEH University) Le Pham Hoai Huong
Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam English Department - University
of Foreign Languages and
International Studies
Lien Thi Xuan Cao
Hue University
University of Foreign Languages and
Hue, Vietnam
International Studies
Hue University
Rizkina Ayu Indriyani
Hue, Vietnam
English Education Department,
Faculty of Teacher Training and
Julian Chen
Pedagogy
Curtin University
Universitas Muhammadiyah Prof. DR.
Perth, Australia
HAMKA
Jakarta, Indonesia
Toni Dobinson
School of Education
Phan Anh Kiet
Curtin University
University of Foreign Languages and
Perth, Australia
International Studies
Hue University
Hue, Vietnam
xi
xii ◾ List of Contributors

Vu Hong Lan Nghi Tin Tran

National Taipei University of Faculty of Foreign Languages
Technology Ho Chi Minh City University of
Taipei, Taiwan Industry and Trade
Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
Herri Mulyono
Tuyet Thi Tran
Faculty of Teacher Training and
Faculty of English Language Studies
Pedagogy
Hanoi University of Business and
Universitas Muhammadiyah Prof. DR.
Technology
HAMKA
Hanoi, Vietnam
Jakarta, Indonesia
and
Faculty of Humanities and Social
Huy Van Nguyen
Sciences
Hue University of Foreign Languages
Maha Sarakham University
and International Studies
Maha Sarakham, Thailand
Hue University
Hue, Vietnam
Merve Ülgen
Bahcesehir College
Loc Tan Nguyen Eskişehir, Turkey
University of Economics Ho Chi Minh
City (UEH University) Nurdan Kavaklı Ulutaş
Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam Izmir Demokrasi University
Izmir, Turkey
Thang Tat Nguyen
Da Lat University Thanh Huynh Vo
Da Lat City, Vietnam Ho Chi Minh City Open University
Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
Dara Tafazoli
School of Education
The University of Newcastle
Callaghan, Australia
TECHNOLOGY- I
ASSISTED
LANGUAGE EDUCATION
Chapter 1

Professional Learning
for CALL Teachers: A
Research-Based Approach
Loc Tan Nguyen

1.1 CALL Teachers and Professional Learning

Computer-assisted language learning (CALL) has long been a research focus in sec‑
ond language education with different studies focused on teachers applying technol‑
ogy in their language classroom (Lian et al., 2023; Schneider & Ene, 2023; Torsani,
2023), professional development activities for CALL teachers (Ene & Serban, 2023;
Kohnke & Foung, 2023), and the effects of technology on learners’ language devel‑
opment (Park & Khoshnevisan, 2019; Wu et al., 2013). In line with computer tech‑
nology advances, language teacher education has also started to include computer
technology-related courses that allow teachers to develop their CALL knowledge
and skills, enabling them to function more effectively in their future teaching job.
However, Hubbard (2023) has pointed out that this innovation in language teacher
education is most prevalent in such developed settings as the US and UK but not
in developing countries. Thus, the coverage of these computer technology-related
courses in language teacher education and professional learning initiatives plays an
important role in assisting CALL teachers to teach better.
Teaching is a craft-based profession in which each individual teacher needs to
understand how best to promote students’ learning, engagement, and well-being
(Timperley & Alton-Lee, 2008). Professional growth is therefore aimed to assist
teachers to practise their craft as a decision-maker in the classroom (Timperley,
2011). The question, then, is how best to promote teachers’ professional growth.

DOI: 10.1201/9781003473916-23
4 ◾ Innovations and Applications of Technology

One of the responses to this query has been the use of teacher professional learning
(TPL) activities. In this chapter, the term TPL is used instead of teacher profes‑
sional development (TPD) for two main reasons. First, TPD, also referred to as
in-service teacher education (Bayer, 2017; Borg, 2011), differs from TPL in that
the former usually involves activities intended for developing teachers’ expertise,
skills, and specialised knowledge, whereas the latter aims for changes in classroom
instruction and improved student learning (Timperley, 2011). Second, TPD is
“almost contrary to our mission of ensuring high levels of learning for all students
and staff” (Murray & Zoul, 2015, p. 8), while TPL “recognises teachers as agents
of their growth and emphasises that learning is an experience driven largely by the
learner” (Calvert, 2016, p. 4).
Following Garone et al. (2022) and Timperley (2011), TPL is used in this chap‑
ter as an inclusive term to embrace both formal and informal activities for CALL
teachers to develop their skills and expertise, which in turn improve teaching qual‑
ity and students’ learning outcomes (SLOs). As Richards (2008) holds, the goal
of teacher learning is not to translate what they have learnt into classroom prac‑
tice but “constructing new knowledge and theory through participating in spe‑
cific social contexts and engaging in particular types of activities and processes”
(p. 164). However, a current consensus in the international literature is that TPL
is a job-embedded learning opportunity (Darling-Hammond et al., 2017; Muijs et
al., 2014) for teachers to transform the professional skills and specialised knowledge
they have received into practice for improved teaching quality and the benefit of
student learning (Barnes & Verwey, 2008; Tsotetsi & Mahlomaholo, 2015). It is
a complex process (Avalos, 2011; Collins & Clarke, 2008) since “there are various
dynamics at work in social behaviour and these interact and combine in different
ways, such that even the simplest decisions can have multiple causal path ways”
(Opfer & Pedder, 2011, p. 378). Regardless of how differently TPL is conceptual‑
ised, it has widely been accepted that the ultimate goal of TPL is to improve SLOs
(Darling-Hammond et al., 2017; Diefes-Dux, 2014; Philipsen et al., 2019).
The past few decades have witnessed worldwide reforms in education for the
sake of enhanced SLOs. Research has shown TPL to be one of the most crucial ele‑
ments of such educational reforms (Alton-Lee, 2011; Diefes-Dux, 2014; Timperley,
2011). According to Mana (2011), educational reforms will be deficient or even fail
unless there is adequate effective TPL. In essence, TPL activities are efficient when
they produce measurable gains in teachers’ professional skills and knowledge, lead‑
ing to changes in their instructional practices that have a positive impact on SLOs
(Darling-Hammond et al., 2009; Diefes-Dux, 2014; Opfer & Pedder, 2011).
Good teaching methods positively impact what students learn and how they
learn (Darling-Hammond et al., 2017); thus, those who want to become good teach‑
ers correspondingly make more efforts to improve professional skills and knowledge
in order to enhance their classroom practices. In this regard, TPL is “indispensable
to bringing about sustainable school improvement, for the ultimate improvement
of student learning” (Steyn, 2011, p. 212). TPL is of great necessity for teachers to
develop a wide range of capacity to respond to the needs of particular groups of
 Professional Learning for CALL Teachers ◾ 5

learners (Darling-Hammond et al., 2017; Timperley, 2011). When designed and

implemented well, it potentially helps foster teachers’ instructional practices and
improve SLOs (Armour & Makopoulou, 2012; Darling-Hammond et al., 2017;
Loeb et al., 2009). Within the profession of language education, it is the teacher’s
professional growth that has more impact on SLOs than any other single factor
(Papastamatis et al., 2009; Philipsen et al., 2019). As such, I would argue that TPL
for CALL teachers deserves greater attention from educators, educational leaders,
and stakeholders alike given that technology has widely been applied within the
language classroom and that many teachers may find it challenging to integrate
technology in their daily teaching work (Yeh & Swinehart, 2019).
Central to TPL activities are changed instructional practices and improved
SLOs. This follows that the knowledge gap of TPL is knowing how to get a TPL
activity situated in each particular educational setting so as to maximise teacher
learning and consequently SLOs (Kubanyiova & Feryok, 2015; Nguyen & Newton,
2021). Therefore, it is important for TPL to be rooted in the contexts where teachers
are operating (Timperley et al., 2008; Van Driel & Berry, 2012), so they can make
the best use of the TPL activities brought to them. However, given the contextual
differences, decisions on approaches to TPL typically lie with educational leaders
and stakeholders alike instead of teachers themselves.

1.2 Approaches to TPL

For decades, there have been extensive rollouts of TPL worldwide. At the national
level, countries such as Australia, Singapore, South Korea, and the UK have estab‑
lished TPL programmes in an effort to “address national needs, identify and pro‑
mote best practice, support the development and dissemination of professional
learning resources in priority areas, and develop professional networks for teachers
and school leaders” (Darling-Hammond et al., 2009, p. 18). At the regional level,
TPL programmes that respond to local needs are usually implemented via semi‑
nars, workshops, and/or training-the-trainer projects, whereas those for individual
schools are tailored to align with the institutional context as well as teachers’ expec‑
tations and learners’ instructional needs (Darling-Hammond et al., 2017). This sec‑
tion reviews different approaches to TPL, followed by a discussion about critiques
of TPL design and implementation with reference to empirical research evidence
from the current international literature.

1.2.1 Traditional TPL – The Top-Down Approach

TPL has traditionally been carried out by transferring the target professional
knowledge and skills hierarchically from stratified groups of teachers to those at a
lower level through workshops, seminars, conferences, and short courses (Mitchell
& Sackney, 2011; Schwille et al., 2007). This is generally referred to as the top-
down (Tsotetsi & Mahlomaholo, 2015) or cascade (Baker, 2016) approach in which
6 ◾ Innovations and Applications of Technology

teachers who have received training can pass on their promoted professional skills
and knowledge to others. Entailing the notion of training-the-trainer (Baker, 2016;
Ono & Ferreira, 2010), TPL traditionally promoted through the top-down approach
is acknowledged to be cost-effective as it can involve a large number of teacher par‑
ticipants within a limited timeframe (Pancucci, 2007; Penuel et al., 2007).
However, traditional TPL is typically implemented independently of teachers’
classroom contexts and this compromises its impact on instructional practices and
SLOs (Armour & Makopoulou, 2012; Murray & Zoul, 2015). Given that TPL activi‑
ties of this type are isolated from teachers’ classroom realities, they are likely to reject
new teaching strategies and/or content as inappropriate and/or irrelevant to their teach‑
ing circumstances (Nguyen & Newton, 2021; Timperley et al., 2008). Additionally,
through the top-down approach, dilution and/or misinterpretations of the professional
skills and new knowledge may emerge when such a TPL activity is transferred to the
next level (Baker, 2016; Dichaba & Mokhele, 2012). As Bantwini (2009) argues, since
the expert-driven top-down approach aims to train teachers to competently follow pre‑
scribed rigid patterns with little inclusion of teachers’ existing knowledge and their own
classroom situations, they become passive learners in such TPL activities. Accordingly,
an alternative approach has been put forward to minimise these potential drawbacks
and optimise teachers’ learning as part of their daily work (Muijs et al., 2014).

1.2.2 Reformed TPL – The Alternative Approach

Differing from traditional TPL, reformed TPL emphasises and validates teacher
knowledge and classroom realities (Garet et al., 2001). This teacher-facilitated
approach aims to help teachers become reflective practitioners who are able to make
informed pedagogical choices from active and collaborative learning (Darling-
Hammond et al., 2009; Nguyen & Newton, 2021; Van Ha & Murray, 2021). This
type of reformed TPL activities has been recognised to lead to greater positive effects
on teachers’ gains and SLOs compared to traditional TPL. According to Pancucci
(2007), reform-oriented TPL works particularly for novice teachers who take part
in study groups receiving support regarding professional knowledge and teach‑
ing skills or strategies from experienced teachers. In this model, current classroom
teachers act as guides to enhance less experienced teachers’ pedagogical strategies
(Glazer & Hannafin, 2006; Nguyen, 2008). These include coaching, mentoring,
classroom observations followed by feedback and collaborative teaching.
Reform-oriented TPL can be site-based or content-focused (Hill, 2009). Site-
based TPL is context-specific, providing support at the institution through coaching
to prepare teachers to respond to their student needs, in particular teaching circum‑
stances (Fishman et al., 2003; Timperley et al., 2008). Given that this type of TPL
exposes teachers to specialised knowledge and skills that align with their under‑
standing about how best to promote student learning, it assists teachers to effec‑
tively translate what they have learned into their own teaching contexts (Nguyen &
Newton, 2021; Timperley et al., 2008; Van Ha & Murray, 2021). Content-focused
TPL is also known as a curriculum-linked model (Fishman et al., 2003), which is
 Professional Learning for CALL Teachers ◾ 7

based on teachers’ classroom practice and curriculum enactment and on how teach‑
ers use curriculum materials and make informed pedagogical choices to optimally
assist student learning (Hill, 2009; Penuel et al., 2007). According to Cohen and
Hill (2008), this TPL model is most likely to bring about teachers’ gains in terms
of professional skills, specialised knowledge, and instructional practice, leading to
a positive impact on SLOs.
One of the most ubiquitous activities of the alternative approach to TPL is
lesson study (Hill, 2009). This TPL activity involves teachers as a whole group
planning, examining, and revising a lesson in focus through exchanged teaching
sessions accompanied by peer observations and followed by group discussions for
lesson improvement (Elliott, 2019). In this model, the intended lesson is imple‑
mented each time to a different group of learners and collaborative self-study of
instructional practice is used to improve teaching and learning quality. Through the
process of planning, discussing, teaching, and lesson revising, teachers are able to
systematically examine the way they tailor their classroom instruction so as to teach
more effectively (Fernandez & Chokshi, 2002). Research shows that this practice of
collaborative learning is facilitative to teachers’ development of expertise and teach‑
ing skills (Bui, 2019; Nguyen & Newton, 2021).

1.3 Critiques of TPL Design and Implementation

Although the values of TPL have long been acknowledged by education reform
stakeholders, criticisms have emerged. Given the contextual factors in different edu‑
cational settings, TPL has been constructed and carried out differently. This sec‑
tion addresses the weaknesses of TPL activities that have so far been designed and
implemented in various parts of the world.
First of all, traditional TPL, as mentioned above, has been critiqued for being
fragmented, short-lived, and disconnected from teachers’ real teaching contexts
(Loeb et al., 2009; Timperley et al., 2008; Tsotetsi & Mahlomaholo, 2013; Vazir
& Meher, 2010). Darling-Hammond et al. (2009), for example, have pointed out
that the primary professional learning opportunity for teachers in America includes
short-term conferences or workshops which do not result in sustained impact on
instructional practice and SLOs. They state:
The intensity and duration of professional development offered to U.S.
teachers is not at the level that research suggests is necessary to have
noticeable impacts on instruction and student learning. Most of their
professional learning does not meet the threshold needed to produce
strong effects on practice or student learning. (p. 20).
Additionally, research suggests that TPL which is isolated from classroom realities
does not usually yield much impact on teachers’ classroom instruction and SLOs
(Mitchell & Sackney, 2011; Muijs et al., 2014; Vazir & Meher, 2010). As such, TPL
needs to be integrated into teachers’ specific teaching contexts so that they will be
8 ◾ Innovations and Applications of Technology

able and willing to make changes in their pedagogical decisions leading to achieve‑
ments in SLOs (Timperley, 2011; Van Driel & Berry, 2012).
Second, research has shown many TPL programmes to be very ineffective due
in part to practitioners not being involved in designing such programmes. As Bayer
(2017) and Myende (2014) have pinpointed, teachers’ needs usually are not con‑
sulted properly before an intended TPL activity is designed. For this reason, many
teachers may find the activity irrelevant to their own teaching situations (Darling-
Hammond et al., 2017; Timperley et al., 2008). Within the field of adult education
in Greece, for instance, “all development programmes have been inconsistent with
actual needs of the teaching staff […] programme contents have been randomly
selected, rather than being grounded on systematic investigation of practitioners’
needs, limiting thus, their impact on teaching practice” (Papastamatis et al., 2009,
p. 85). Therefore, understanding teachers’ needs is an important step to inform
effective design of TPL programmes (Avalos, 2011; Nguyen & Newton, 2021;
Tsotetsi & Mahlomaholo, 2013; Wayne et al., 2008).
Third, TPL has also been criticised for focusing only on specific teaching skills
without establishing from evidence of whether such skills positively influence
SLOs (Papastamatis et al., 2009; Timperley et al., 2008; Wayne et al., 2008). TPL
addressing content knowledge alone does not yield much impact either (Day &
Townsend, 2009; Vazir & Meher, 2010) because teachers find it challenging to
translate what they have achieved from TPL activities into practice (Tsotetsi &
Mahlomaholo, 2015). Thus, only when professional skills and knowledge and the
connection between these and SLOs become central to a TPL activity can its effec‑
tiveness be maximised (Timperley et al., 2008; Van Ha & Murray, 2021; Wayne
et al., 2008). Also, the nexus between teachers’ existing experience and new knowl‑
edge should be facilitated (Muijs et al., 2014; Opfer & Pedder, 2011), engaging
them in active learning and sharing of instructional practice (Borko et al., 2010;
Darling-Hammond et al., 2009; Nguyen & Hung, 2021).
Fourth, TPL leaders often design TPL programmes with an attempt to first
change teachers’ beliefs prior to changes in their instructional practice (Guskey,
2002). From the perspective of change sequencing, Borg (2015) and Yoon et al.
(2007) argued that enhanced professional knowledge leads to changes in classroom
practice, which subsequently have an impact on SLOs. Then, only when teachers
see the positive effects of their changed classroom practice on student learning do
they perceive their teaching as successful (Bayer, 2017; Frost, 2012; Tschannen-
Moran & Hoy, 2007). This follows that changes in classroom practice that posi‑
tively impact SLOs precede changes in teachers’ beliefs. To this end, researchers
have recently supported the call for a shift away from changing teacher beliefs as an
ultimate goal in TPL design toward enhanced instructional practices that optimally
foster SLOs (Loewenberg Ball & Forzani, 2009; McDonald et al., 2013).
Fifth, research has further revealed that many TPL programmes did not work
well given the lack of involvement and support of administrators and school leaders
(Darling-Hammond et al., 2009; Tsotetsi & Mahlomaholo, 2013). For example,
 Professional Learning for CALL Teachers ◾ 9

50% of US teachers in Darling-Hammond et al.’s (2009) survey stated that they

were not happy with their TPL opportunities because they did not receive adequate
support from educational authorities and found it meaningless to participate in
such activities. Further, as Alton-Lee (2011) argues, school leaders’ participation in
TPL activities results in more effects on SLOs than any other leadership actions.
As such, it is important for administrators and school leaders, apart from providing
support of various kinds, to actively engage in the activity to assure its relevance
to the school instructional goals and teachers’ specific teaching context (Biputh &
McKenna, 2010; Kutame, 2010; Loeb et al., 2009; Philipsen et al., 2019).
Finally, high-quality TPL programmes that can guarantee teachers’ fulfilled
engagement are still scattered (Darling-Hammond et al., 2017; Dede et al., 2009).
Programmes that are available have failed to satisfy teachers’ professional learning
needs (Darling-Hammond et al., 2009; Papastamatis et al., 2009). For instance,
within the context of American education, Darling-Hammond et al. (2017) and
Yoon et al. (2007) have pointed to a lack of TPL programmes of high qual‑
ity, with many teachers not being provided with TPL opportunities on a regular
basis, making them “lukewarm” about their own experiences in TPL activities
(Hill, 2009, p. 472).
In brief, the deficiencies of TPL that researchers have identified have led to dis‑
couraging results on classroom practice and SLOs (Darling-Hammond et al., 2017;
DeMonte, 2013; Opfer & Pedder, 2011). Such deficiencies also disheartened teach‑
ers, leading to their resistance to TPL activities (Dede et al., 2009; Papastamatis
et al., 2009). In addition, many teachers find TPL time-consuming (Dede et al.,
2009; Sikwibele & Mungoo, 2009; Stack et al., 2011) and did not see the poten‑
tial benefits of their learning prior to engaging in any TPL activity (Hill, 2009;
Papastamatis et al., 2009). As Darling-Hammond and Richardson (2009) advo‑
cate, the key ingredient to successful TPL programmes is that teachers acknowledge
how it can potentially have a positive impact on SLOs. In relation to CALL, it is
important that language instructors see the direct impact of technology application
on their language learners’ learning process and outcomes, which in turn engages
them more actively in TPL activities. To achieve this, the following research-based
principles derived from a holistic review of the current international literature can
lay the foundation for designing high-quality TPL programmes for CALL teachers
and for language instructors generally.

1.4 What Counts as Effective TPD?

Given the need for high-quality TPL programmes, I believe it is necessary to draw
a set of principles that might serve as the foundation for effective TPL design. From
the literature survey, eight principles emerged. This section elaborates on each of
the principles characterised by effective TPL that might help inform successful TPL
programmes.
10 ◾ Innovations and Applications of Technology

1.4.1 Principle 1: TPL Must Be Viewed as a Long-Term Process

First and foremost, it is important that programme designers perceive TPL as a
long-term process during which it requires extra work and time for positive changes
to occur (Darling-Hammond et al., 2017; Papastamatis et al., 2009). In this sense,
Hill (2009) and Loeb et al. (2009) argued that TPL programmes offering teachers
more contact hours of learning activities bring about more notable positive gains
on SLOs. Research shows that TPL which is intensive and sustained has long-
lived, positive effects on teachers’ classroom practice and SLOs (Capps et al., 2012;
Diefes-Dux, 2014; Opfer & Pedder, 2011). In a similar vein, Darling-Hammond
et al. (2009, pp. 9–10) stress:
such sustained efforts typically include applications to practice, often
supported by study groups and/or coaching. The more intense, long-
term professional development teachers have, the greater the achieve‑
ment gains posted by their students during the following years.

1.4.2 Principle 2: TPL Must Be School-Based

Given that TPL is the school’s core business (Papastamatis et al., 2009; Robinson
et al., 2008; Timperley, 2011), it needs to be aligned with the mandated curriculum
and instructional goals of the institution (Blank & De Las Alas, 2009; Darling-
Hammond et al., 2017; Diefes-Dux, 2014). According to the National Centre for
Education Statistics, nearly 50% of US teachers believe that there are few or no
connections between the TPL activities they are involved in and their school cur‑
riculum, so they find it difficult to make use of the curriculum materials in trans‑
forming their promoted knowledge and skills into real classroom practice (Hill,
2009). For this reason, Darling-Hammond et al. (2017) advocated that TPL will
yield positive impact if it is considered an integral part of a broader effort in reform‑
ing schools, assisting teachers to easily translate the professional knowledge and
skills they have received into their own teaching situations.

1.4.3 Principle 3: TPL Must Appropriately

Address Teachers’ Learning Needs
TPL programmes that do not respond to teachers’ learning needs have margin‑
alised impact on their learning, teaching quality, and SLOs. Given the necessity of
understanding learners’ instructional needs, it is important that teachers identify
what they need to know and do (Elliott, 2019; Papastamatis et al., 2009; Timperley,
2011). Since teachers “have very diverse professional learning needs arising from
the specific demands that their particular students place on their teaching skills”
(Timperley et al., 2008, p. 12), school leaders and policy makers need to encour‑
age them to develop action plans identifying their own TPL needs (Antoniou &
 Professional Learning for CALL Teachers ◾ 11

Kyriakides, 2011). Research shows that TPL appropriately addressing teachers’

needs will be more likely to succeed since they find these activities meaningful and
relevant to their own teaching circumstances (Avalos, 2011; Darling-Hammond
et al., 2017; Tsotetsi & Mahlomaholo, 2013; Wayne et al., 2008). Thus, the actual
needs of teaching professionals should be appropriately addressed in designing TPL
programmes or their impact on teacher learning, instructional practice, and SLOs
will be limited (Nguyen & Newton, 2021).

1.4.4 Principle 4: TPL Must Be Content-

Focused and Job-Embedded
Research shows that TPL focusing on the subject teachers are teaching is appli‑
cable to their teaching contexts, leading to positive gains in teachers’ learning,
teaching quality, and SLOs (Darling-Hammond et al., 2017; Dele-Ajayi et al.,
2021; Desimone, 2009; Opfer & Pedder, 2011). Additionally, teachers usually hold
strongly to their beliefs about what is good and how to enhance student learning
effectively (Timperley, 2011; Van Driel & Berry, 2012). This follows that if teach‑
ers find the teaching strategies they are learning and practising do not align with
these beliefs, then they are likely to reject them, and the TPL activity will con‑
sequently be ineffective (Dele-Ajayi et al., 2021; Timperley, 2011). Therefore, for
positive changes in instructional practice and SLOs to take place, it is imperative
that TPL programmes be designed interactively with teachers’ professional lives
(Blank et al., 2007; Darling-Hammond et al., 2017; Van Driel & Berry, 2012;
Yoon et al., 2007).

1.4.5 Principle 5: TPL Must Focus on the

Connections between Teaching and SLOs
The motives for each individual teacher to engage in TPL activities vary. Some
may participate in TPL for certifications or to become a trainer while others for
being satisfied with professional productivity (Carlson & Gadio, 2002; Cuhadar,
2018). However, Timperley et al. (2008) pointed out that the most likely reason
for many teachers to participate in TPL is that they wish to learn new knowledge
and upgrade teaching skills for improved SLOs. Muijs et al. (2014) maintained
that it is important for teachers to be well aware of what needs changing and which
changes have positive influence on SLOs. As such, teachers need to “understand
the links between particular teaching activities, the ways different groups of stu‑
dents respond, and what their students actually learn” (Timperley et al., 2008,
p. 8). In this sense, if a TPL programme is about to yield positive impact on SLOs,
then the connections between teachers’ classroom practice and students’ achieve‑
ment become a particular focus of the programme (Darling-Hammond et al., 2017;
Rogers et al., 2007; Timperley & Alton-Lee, 2008).
12 ◾ Innovations and Applications of Technology

1.4.6 Principle 6: TPL Must Facilitate

Active, Collaborative Learning
Schools have historically operated in such a way that teachers work individually
with little time given for group-based lesson planning and classroom practice shar‑
ing (Darling-Hammond et al., 2009). However, research shows that teachers learn
best when they collaborate to plan lessons and share experiences (Desimone, 2009;
Diefes-Dux, 2014; Nguyen & Newton, 2021). Changes to classroom practice are
less likely if teachers passively attend presentations and memorise new knowledge
from TPL activities (Desimone et al., 2002; Wayne et al., 2008). By contrast, TPL
becomes efficient when teachers cooperate “to investigate, challenge, and extend
their current views; and then generating information about the progress they are
making so that they can monitor and adjust their learning, and evaluate the impact
thereof” (Muijs et al., 2014, p. 249). In addition, interactions among colleagues that
focus on students’ achievement help teachers integrate what they have learned into
practice (Armour & Makopoulou, 2012; Timperley et al., 2008). Hence, it is neces‑
sary that TPL be designed with a professional community established for teachers’
collective participation (Baker, 2016; Papastamatis et al., 2009; Van Driel & Berry,
2012) because one of the most important characteristics of high-quality TPL is that
it allows teachers to be actively and collaboratively involved in such TPL activities
(Borko et al., 2010; Darling-Hammond et al., 2017; Nguyen & Newton, 2021).

1.4.7 Principle 7: TPL Must Involve Experimentation

To refine teaching skills and make positive changes in classroom practice, it is
necessary that teachers develop an in-depth understanding about the professional
knowledge and skills they receive (Papastamatis et al., 2009; Timperley et al.,
2008). Accordingly, TPL needs to integrate theory and practice, enabling teach‑
ers to effectively translate new knowledge into practice from time to time (Elliott,
2019; Papastamatis et al., 2009; Penuel et al., 2007; Van Driel & Berry, 2012).
Given learning as a cyclical process, examining and re-examining the efficacy of
new teaching methods as teachers practice them in their own teaching contexts is
indispensable (Timperley et al., 2008). As such, teachers need plenty of time and
several opportunities to know how to translate new knowledge and professional
skills into actual instruction to improve SLOs (Chan et al., 2019; Papastamatis
et al., 2009; Timperley, 2011). Building up self-regulatory skills is also important
as they help teachers keep track of and reflect on the influence of their changed
practice of teaching (Timperley et al., 2008). Furthermore, “practices that are new
and unfamiliar will be accepted and retained when they are perceived as increasing
one’s competence and effectiveness” (Guskey, 2002, p. 387). In this regard, feed‑
back on student learning is important (Rogers et al., 2007; Timperley et al., 2008)
given that “the effectiveness of innovations must be evaluated throughout their
implementation using evidence of what is accepted as effective or challenging those
assumptions explicitly” (Timperley, 2011, p. 1).
 Professional Learning for CALL Teachers ◾ 13

1.4.8 Principle 8: TPL Must Be Accompanied by

Follow-Up Support and Challenges
The effectiveness of TPL is undermined if there are no follow-up support and challenges.
According to Timperley et al. (2008), only when students’ achievement is evident can
the positive impacts of TPL on classroom practice and SLOs be sustained. Thus, fol‑
low-up support from educational leaders, policy makers, and stakeholders alike when
teachers get back to their classroom is required (Capps et al., 2012; Darling-Hammond
et al., 2017; Lawless & Pellegrino, 2007; Timperley et al., 2008). Also, since teachers
usually work with various groups of learners and achieving different educational goals
may require “trade-offs from time to time” (Papastamatis et al., 2009, p. 88), they need
to be challenged to try out diverse teaching strategies so as to make positive differences
in classroom practice and SLOs (Chan et al., 2019; Darling-Hammond et al., 2017;
Philipsen et al., 2021). Such challenges can be done through external knowledgeable
experts who are able to facilitate teachers’ discussions and development of understand‑
ings meaningful to their own teaching situations because “substantive new learning
requires teachers to understand new content, learn new skills, and think about their
existing practice in new ways” (Timperley et al., 2008, p. 20).

1.5 Concluding Remarks

In conclusion, TPL has long been one of the most useful tools for promoting teach‑
ers’ instructional practice and SLOs. TPL activities, both formal and informal, have
been designed and carried out differently depending on the educational contexts
they are intended for, with each type having their own pros and cons. In language
education, such contextual differences and constraints have led to potential issues
that need to be addressed if TPL activities are to be designed and implemented
successfully. Derived from the current international literature, the eight aforemen‑
tioned principles need to be taken into consideration for the effective design and
implementation of TPL. Once TPL activities are constructed and carried out effi‑
ciently, teachers’ professional growth and students’ achievement can be guaranteed.
I have chosen to present the above provisional specifications in the form of
“principles” of effective TPL design for CALL teachers and for language educators
generally in my own way. I do not expect every researcher, language educator, and/
or CALL practitioner to agree with them given that there is no one-size-fits-all TPL
programme and certain principles may not be valid in some contexts. However,
I believe that these principles can provide a theoretical basis for TPL programmes
to be effectively designed and implemented here and there.

Acknowledgements
This publication was funded by University of Economics Ho Chi Minh City
(UEH), Vietnam.
14 ◾ Innovations and Applications of Technology

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Chapter 2

Designing and
Implementing WhatsApp
Communication Tasks
for the English as a
Foreign Language
Classroom: A Case Study
Mokh. Arif Bakhtiyar, Toni Dobinson, and Julian Chen

2.1 Introduction
Research on computer‑mediated communication (CMC) has burgeoned in line
with technological advancements. In the educational context, synchronous and
asynchronous communication, which are features of CMC (Romiszowski &
Mason, 2013), have unbolted opportunities for online pedagogy, constituting any‑
where and anytime learning (Ahern, 2008; Hung et al., 2022). Specifically, scholars
and practitioners have shown interest in exploring mobile‑assisted language learn‑
ing (MALL), wherein mobile tools are utilized for the particular advantages they
offer in the language learning process (Bui et al., 2023; Kukulska‑Hulme, 2013).
MALL offers students the potential to create content through peer collaboration
and interaction (Morgana, 2021), and the results of such collaborative work can
be shared with teachers, friends, and others online (Morgana, 2019). One of the

20 DOI: 10.1201/9781003473916-3

 Designing and Implementing WhatsApp Communication Tasks ◾ 21

technologies used in MALL is mobile instant messaging (MIM). As a quasi‑syn‑

chronous communication medium (So, 2016), MIM enables teachers and students
to communicate in both real and delayed times (Hung & Nguyen, 2022). Some
MIM applications (apps) include WhatsApp, Telegram, WeChat, and Line. This
chapter focuses on the use of WhatsApp in online English language learning.
WhatsApp has been widely investigated for its viability in language learning or
acquisition (e.g., Andujar, 2016; Andújar‑Vaca & Cruz‑Martínez, 2017; Rashtchi &
Yazdani, 2020; Tümen Akyıldız & Çelik, 2022; Yavuz, 2016). Recently, WhatsApp
has been used to examine students’ pragmatic competence and interpersonal com‑
munication in multicultural groups (García‑Gómez, 2022) and their motivation
in listening and reading tasks (Alamer & Al Khateeb, 2023). Although these prior
studies involved tasks to be performed by participants, the approach was not accord‑
ing to a task‑based or task‑supported language pedagogy framework (Ellis, 2019b;
Ellis et al., 2020). This indicates that, despite numerous related studies in the field,
research on WhatsApp in collaboration with task‑based or task‑supported lan‑
guage teaching and learning remains underexplored. To the best of our knowledge,
no study has documented the design of MIM tasks, specifically those for online
English language teaching and learning in an English as a foreign language (EFL)
context. To address this gap, the present study outlines the process of developing
MIM English language learning tasks using WhatsApp for Indonesian secondary
school students and their implementation in an online space in Indonesia.

2.2 Literature Review

2.2.1 Task‑Based and Task‑Supported Language Teaching
In task‑based language teaching (TBLT), language learning and acquisition occur
incidentally (Lambert, 2019; Long, 2015) when learners interact with each other
to complete communicative tasks (Ellis, 2000; Ziegler, 2016), with the purpose
of achieving an evidence‑based outcome (Chen, 2023). TBLT is a learner‑centered
approach that prioritizes fluency over accuracy (Long, 2015). Instead of focusing
on language forms, this approach centers on the meaning or use of language to
perform tasks (Sasayama, 2021). However, this does not imply that linguistic forms
are unimportant in TBLT. Focus on form can be achieved through task design
or implementation (Ellis, 2019b), such as using corrective feedback when learners
engage in communicative tasks (Long, 2016).
The effectiveness of TBLT implementation is influenced by the context. Oliver
(2020) argued that cultural and contextual considerations are required to create
effective tasks. This is applicable in EFL contexts such as in many Asian coun‑
tries, where the teaching approach largely follows a teacher‑centered and gram‑
mar‑focused model (Chen, 2012; Shehadeh, 2012). In addition, some common
issues, such as institutional, teacher, and student factors, exist in EFL contexts
22 ◾ Innovations and Applications of Technology

(Adams & Newton, 2009; Ellis, 2020). To tackle these challenges, TBLT needs to
be adjusted to local needs (Kessler et al., 2021; Thomas, 2015), resulting in a modi‑
fied or weaker version of TBLT (Long, 2015; Serafini, 2021) or “structure‑trapping
tasks” (Skehan, 1998, pp. 122–123), referred to as task‑supported language teach‑
ing (TSLT) (Ellis, 2003).
According to Ellis (2019b, pp. 457–458), TSLT is “synthetic and product‑ori‑
ented, drawing on a structural syllabus and an accuracy‑oriented methodology,” as
opposed to TBLT, which is “analytic and process‑oriented, drawing on a task‑based
syllabus and a fluency‑oriented methodology.” The syllabus used in TSLT is distinct
from that used in TBLT in that the former is ready‑made and structurally oriented,
and the school or government prescribes the content. By contrast, the TBLT sylla‑
bus is not prescribed or designed specifically for task‑based instruction and contains
a list of tasks to be performed (Ellis, 2017b). In TSLT, a task is used to practice the
pre‑taught linguistic forms while achieving an interactive outcome. Meanwhile, in
TBLT, a task serves as a language practice used naturally to achieve a communica‑
tive outcome (Ellis, 2019b).
The tasks used in this study fall under TSLT for two reasons. First, the tasks
were developed based on a needs analysis (NA), in which one of the components
of the analysis was a prescribed syllabus. Second, the pre‑ and post‑task stages pri‑
oritized the development of lexical knowledge. The decision regarding the second
motive is based on the first author’s teaching experience and NA. As an English
language educator for over a decade, teaching across educational levels from pri‑
mary school to university, the first author has observed a high demand for English
vocabulary knowledge among Indonesian students. The NA (see Table 2.1) clarified
that teachers identified their students’ needs for vocabulary development. Students
supported this notion by revealing the need for a richer English lexicon.

2.2.2 Developing a Task

Before designing a task, it is essential to understand what it constitutes. According to
Ellis (2009), a task should address the following: (a) a focus on meaning, (b) some type
of gap, (c) the use of linguistic or non‑linguistic resources, and (d) the outcome of lan‑
guage use. In a task mediated by technology, González‐Lloret (2020) added a criterion
that a task should reflect true collaboration and interaction between learners. Because
TSLT derives its principles from TBLT, we developed our tasks based on these criteria.
In addition to understanding the criteria for a task, an NA is required before develop‑
ing a TBLT curriculum. It serves to accommodate students’ learning goals, interests,
and needs (Long, 2015). In technology‑mediated TBLT, NA helps identify relevant
tasks, target languages, and technologies for student cohorts (González‑Lloret, 2016).
NA results are used to identify target tasks before classifying them into target‑task
types. Following this step, pedagogic tasks are developed from the target‑task types and
used to form a task‑based syllabus by selecting and sequencing the tasks (Long, 2015).
In the current study, although our tasks belong to TSLT, we shadowed these steps,
 Designing and Implementing WhatsApp Communication Tasks ◾ 23

proceeding from performing an NA to sequencing the tasks. However, as our project

was not aimed at developing a curriculum, we eliminated the step of selecting and
sequencing tasks to form a syllabus. Instead, we directly converted the target tasks into
pedagogic tasks, as our project aimed to support teachers conducting online English
language teaching. Notably, prescriptive syllabi and textbooks predominantly drive
English language teaching in Indonesia. Hence, composing a TSLT syllabus or cur‑
riculum was considered to be beyond the scope of this study.
The composition of a task can encompass three stages: pre‑task, main task, and
post‑task (Ellis et al., 2020). The pre‑task phase is the preparatory stage in which
teachers introduce the topic of the task (Ellis et al., 2020; Skehan, 1996, 2009;
Willis, 1996). TSLT plays a role in this phase, with teachers teaching certain lin‑
guistic forms or skills. In the main task phase, students perform the task, prepare a
report, and present the outcome of the task (Willis, 1996). In this stage, the focus
on a linguistic form may be pre‑emptive, when teachers draw students’ attention
to potential language issues before commencing the tasks, or reactive, when teach‑
ers provide students with corrective feedback when linguistic issues emerge during
the tasks (Ellis et al., 2020). In the post‑task phase, teachers may repeat the task or
discuss any linguistic issues that arose during the main task (Ellis et al., 2020). We
followed this task format to design our tasks in the current study. As indicated, we
introduced some lexical items in the pre‑task phase, whereas in the post‑task phase,
we strengthened what the students learned in the pre‑task stage.

2.2.3 Technology‑Mediated TBLT or TSLT

Integrating technology‑mediated TBLT (González‑Lloret, 2016, 2017;
González‑Lloret & Ortega, 2014) or technology‑enhanced TBLT (Canals & Mor,
2023; Lai & Li, 2011)—in our case, TSLT—into language learning opens oppor‑
tunities for learners to receive inputs and corrective feedback, negotiate for mean‑
ing, and produce outputs (Smith, 2004; Ziegler, 2016). It can also lodge “students’
interest and digital learning styles, thereby fostering interactive, authentic, and
purposeful language learning” (Sato et al., 2017, p. 758). Additionally, the range
of inputs provided by technology offers opportunities for language learning, elec‑
tronic literacy, and multimodal communication (Ellis et al., 2020). In TSLT, which
is commonly used in the EFL context, the incorporation of technology opens up
the possibility for learners to communicate with speakers of the target language
(González‑Lloret & Ziegler, 2021).
WhatsApp can support language learning through TBLT or TSLT. In addition
to its capability to provide interaction space, the features of the app enable various
inputs such as text messages, voice messages, images, videos, documents, emojis,
website links, and real‑time maps (Bakhtiyar, 2017; Church & De Oliveira, 2013).
The app can also be used to produce outputs in the text, voice, and emoji formats, or
a combination of them all. For instance, let us consider a task where students need
to create narrative stories based on photographs of a road accident. To do so, they
24 ◾ Innovations and Applications of Technology

can utilize text chat combined with emojis to make the story more multimodal,
visually engaging, and meaningful. By facilitating multimodal communication,
WhatsApp enables learners to engage with the target language through commu‑
nication that is more attuned to real life and one that operates not solely in one
medium (e.g., text) but in a combination of different modes, which can enhance
the learning experience.

2.3 Research Methods

This study investigated the development of WhatsApp communication tasks for
Indonesian secondary school students and their implementation in online learn‑
ing. To achieve the study goals, we formulated two research questions: (1) How are
WhatsApp communication tasks developed for EFL students based on NA? (2) How are
the tasks implemented in the EFL online learning context?

2.3.1 Participants
The current case study comprises three stages: NA, pilot study, and main study.
In this chapter, we focus only on the NA and main study components. This case
study was conducted in two public senior high schools in two towns in East Java,
Indonesia. Before the study, the first author contacted each school headmaster to
seek permission and endorsement for the study (Singh & Wassenaar, 2016). Upon
approval, the headmasters assigned an English language teacher to each school to
recruit student participants. The teachers informed their students in Grade 11 about
the recruitment to identify those willing to participate voluntarily (Etikan et al.,
2016). English language teachers from both schools joined the WhatsApp groups
created for this project, as they were eager to learn how to implement the tasks
through WhatsApp. However, their role was purely as an observer. Eighteen students
from school A and 24 from school B participated in this study. The participants were
male and female students aged between 16 and 17 years. Their English proficiency
ranged from beginner to intermediate based on the levels of the Common European
Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR). Two consent forms were used for
each student: one for the student and the other for their parents (David et al., 2001).

2.3.2 Context
As Javanese Indonesians, the students speak the local language in their daily com‑
munication. Bahasa Indonesia, the national language, is used as the classroom
teaching and learning medium. English is learned and taught as a foreign language.
Historically, under Kurikulum 2013, the national curriculum, English has been
compulsory and optional. At a minimum, the students learned the language once a
week, with 2 × 45 minutes sessions in normal situations and 2 × 30 minutes sessions
 Designing and Implementing WhatsApp Communication Tasks ◾ 25

during the COVID‑19 crisis. Those interested in augmenting their English language
learning could join the designated optional English language class containing stu‑
dents from different classrooms but at the same grade level. The time allocation for
this elective English class was the same as that for the compulsory English class. As
mentioned above, the prescribed syllabus and textbooks are the basis for English
language teaching and learning. When data were collected, both schools used the
Kurikulum 2013 syllabus and textbooks, particularly the 2017 revision.
Data were collected through WhatsApp chatlogs, interviews, and learning jour‑
nals. Manual transcription was performed because the chatlogs did not include
voice chat files. The chatlogs were retrieved by “joining the conversation” (Kohne
et al., 2023, p. 182), where the first author participated in the WhatsApp groups cre‑
ated for the study. The interviews were semi‑structured and conducted one‑on‑one.
Students completed the learning journals immediately after performing each task.
The journals were sent to the first author via WhatsApp. At the time of data col‑
lection, COVID‑19 restrictions were gradually relaxed. The teaching and learn‑
ing process was conducted in a hybrid mode, where students took turns to attend
school. Those who did not attend school learned from home online. Therefore, the
first author was able to conduct face‑to‑face interviews. Data were analyzed using
content analysis to capture the development and implementation of WhatsApp
communication tasks in this specific context (Chen, 2012).
In the implementation phase, the tasks were undertaken based on the head‑
masters’ directions, outside school hours when most students were at home. The
schedule of the WhatsApp task class was decided together by the first author and
the students before implementation. Students in school A opted to have the online
class on Friday evenings at 8 p.m., while those in school B chose Saturday morn‑
ings at 9 a.m. (both East Java, Indonesia time). The first author’s role was as a task
manager (Ellis, 2019a). He sent the task instructions and materials to the class
WhatsApp group created for the project, set a time limit, and monitored learners’
performance by observing the WhatsApp groups simultaneously as students per‑
formed each task. When required, he also acted as a communicator to ensure that
learners understood the task instructions and as an instructor to correct learners’
errors or provide feedback (Ellis, 2019a).

2.3.3 Needs Analysis

In this study, NA involved multiple sources (Gilabert & Malicka, 2021) and par‑
ticipants different from those in the main study. Interview data and documents
were used for NA. Two teachers and 10 students, half from school A and the other
half from school B, were invited to participate. The first author interviewed the
participants from school A over phone, which was their preference. For school B
participants, face‑to‑face interviews were conducted. All the interviews were con‑
ducted one‑on‑one using a semi‑structured format. The interviews aimed to explore
students’ English language learning requirements, the technology used in English
26 ◾ Innovations and Applications of Technology

language pedagogy (González‑Lloret, 2016), and WhatsApp use in the context of

English language teaching and learning. The examination of WhatsApp function‑
alities was based on the participants’ admission that they used the app daily to
communicate or learn English. In addition, the students were asked about their
preferred discussion topics. The results of the interviews with teachers and students
are summarized in Table 2.1.

Table 2.1 Summary of Interviews with Teachers and Learners

Indicators Teachers Learners

Learner needs 1. Mastering basic 1. Understanding

competencies as stated instructions
in the syllabus provided by the
2. Knowing the meaning, teacher or
pronunciation, and use presented in the
of a word (vocabulary) textbook
3. Mastering English 2. Practicing English
communications skills 3. Learning vocabulary
4. Mastering English
literacy skills

Learner‑preferred 1. Food
discussion topics 2. Online shopping
3. Online learning
4. Music
5. Video games
6. Movies
7. Tourism spots
8. Trending topics on
YouTube or Twitter

Technology used in 1. WhatsApp 1. WhatsApp

English teaching or 2. Google Classroom 2. Instagram
learning 3. Quizzes 3. Duolingo
4. YouTube
5. U‑Dictionary
6. Google Translate
7. Google Classroom

WhatsApp features 1. Text chat 1. Text chat

for English teaching 2. Voice chat/note 2. Voice chat/note
or learning 3. Combination of 3. Picture
WhatsApp and other 4. Video
apps (YouTube, cartoon 5. Document
maker, etc.) 6. Location (Maps)
 Designing and Implementing WhatsApp Communication Tasks ◾ 27

Document analysis involved the Kurikulum 2013 English syllabus and text‑
books prescribed by the government. The teachers supported the analysis; they
revealed in the interviews that students needed to understand and master basic
competencies such as asking questions and expressing opinions related to sugges‑
tions, perspectives, and thoughts on a given topic. These basic competencies are
explicitly stated in the syllabus and textbooks.

2.4 Findings and Discussion

RQ1: How are WhatsApp communication tasks developed for EFL students based
on NA?

We identified six target tasks based on the interviews and documents (NA): ordering
food online, providing suggestions for a friend’s problem, visiting tourism spots,
understanding a song, describing an accident, and asking for and giving directions.
From the target tasks, we developed six pedagogic tasks that were used in our study.
Before implementing the tasks in the main study, a pilot study was conducted as a
trial. Owing to space constraints in this chapter, we present one task as an example
in Table 2.2, and an analysis of the task follows.
The “ordering food online” task aimed to facilitate among students the experi‑
ence of communicating collaboratively to select meals in English from a restaurant
before ordering food online. The task was developed based on a basic competency
that underlines the capability of asking for and providing information concerning
opinions and thoughts on a subject. As the students were required to post their food
preferences toward the end of the task, they worked jointly on which dishes to select
from by expressing their opinions. The budget limit also encouraged students to
think about not only the menu but also the number of dishes to order. In addition
to the basic competency mentioned above, the task was designed based on students’
preferences to discuss topics related to food and online shopping (see Table 2.1).
To infuse real‑life relevance and authenticity (Buendgens‑Kosten, 2014), we
selected a real restaurant located in Jakarta, Indonesia, for the task. We understood
that a restaurant geographically proximal to students would be ideal. However, the
scarcity of such restaurants with menus in English forced us to choose this specific
restaurant. Incidentally, the topic of ordering food online aligned with the situation
in which many restaurants remained closed because of the COVID‑19 crisis. The
language used in the task also underscored the current circumstances; for instance,
“As we are now in a pandemic situation, maintaining social or physical distance is
essential. Online shopping, including buying meals, could be an alternative to reduce
physical contact” (pre‑task) and “As you cannot visit the restaurant due to COVID‑19
restrictions, you need to order the food online through this link” (main task).
The pre‑task served to introduce the (target) words that might be useful for stu‑
dents in performing the main task (Ellis & Shintani, 2014; Ellis et al., 2020; Willis,
1996). Instead of sending the words manually through WhatsApp, the words were
28 ◾ Innovations and Applications of Technology

Table 2.2 Task: Ordering Food Online

Task Stages

Pre-Task Main Task Post-Task

As we are now in a Here is the main task. One of Before this session
pandemic situation, you has just won a voucher ends, let’s play a
maintaining social or to eat dinner at a restaurant game. You will
physical distance is in Jakarta. The voucher is receive eight
essential. Online worth IDR 500.000 and is for pictures of
shopping, including four people maximum. As ingredients for
buying meals, could you cannot visit the meals successively.
be an alternative to restaurant due to COVID‑19 Guess each of the
reduce physical restrictions, you need to ingredients in the
contact. Have you order the food online pictures by typing
tried ordering food through this link https://www. out the relevant
online? What do you kaum.com/jakarta/ English name in
like about it and what food‑ menu/#small‑plates. the WhatsApp
don’t you like about group. After
it? What are the guessing the
advantages and pictures, you will
disadvantages of receive the correct
ordering food online English words of
in your opinion? the pictures.
Check the words
Before performing Open the link and decide together. Whoever
today’s task, knowing together using voice chat to can guess the
some English select from the menus: most number of
vocabulary related to meals, soup and stew, or words correctly is
the ingredients of desserts, that you want. Don’t the winner.
food available in a forget that you have a budget
restaurant would be limit. Next, use text chat to
helpful for you. list the selected dishes and
Open this link provide reasons why you
https://chegg‑prep. chose them and then upload
app.link/ your reasons as a group to
yCGBuZHprib and the class WhatsApp group.
play the flashcard You have 30 minutes to carry
game. out this task.

introduced through digital flashcards. The use of digital flashcards reflected what
the teachers suggested regarding the combination of WhatsApp and other apps
(see Table 2.1). Each flashcard presented an English word on one side and its corre‑
sponding image on the other. Figure 2.1 captures the content of one such flashcard.
It comprised eight words (vinegar, jicama, pomelo, bean sprout, beef ribs, cashew,
 Designing and Implementing WhatsApp Communication Tasks ◾ 29

Figure 2.1 An example of the digital flashcard.

shallot, and bean curd) that were retrieved from the food ingredients used in the
restaurant. Through these lexical items, the students were expected to learn about
some of the ingredients used in the restaurant when they opened the link provided
in the main task.
In the main task, students were required to work together to choose food items
under a certain budget. The students needed to utilize voice chat to communicate
with each other while deciding on the dishes and text chat to list the final order items
before posting them to the class chat. The use of these features echoed the students’
preferences, as shown in Table 2.1. In addition, it has been suggested that using voice
chat may be useful for speaking (Andujar & Salaberri‑Ramiro, 2021), listening, and
pronunciation practice. Meanwhile, the use of text chat was based on the ease of
perusal and comprehension of other learners who read the selected food items from
a certain group. Regarding time allocation, we limited the time to 30 minutes to
encourage students to interact more efficiently (Ellis & Shintani, 2014).
The activity in the main task is based on that proposed by Ellis (2009). First, it
focuses on meaning. To accomplish the task, students must communicate collab‑
oratively to decide which food items should be ordered. Second, there is a gap that
must be addressed. Each individual would have their own preferences; however,
they had to reach a consensus on which dishes to select. Third, they should use
linguistic or non‑linguistic resources. Accordingly, the students used English as
the target language. They could also engage in translanguaging and use their local
or national language to avoid communication breakdown (Dobinson et al., 2023).
Further, students could use emojis or stickers to support their interactions. Fourth,
there needs to be an outcome. The (main) task required students to post details of
their selected food items to the class chat as the outcome of the task. Additionally,
the task fulfilled the collaboration and interaction criteria mentioned by González‐
Lloret (2020). Evidently, to complete the task, students had to collaborate and inter‑
act with each other to determine which dishes to order.
30 ◾ Innovations and Applications of Technology

In TSLT, an explicit focus on linguistic features is common in the pre‑task phase

(Ellis, 2017a, 2019b). However, in this study, a focus on forms was also assured in
the post‑task stage. The students were re‑exposed to the words they had encoun‑
tered during the pre‑task and perhaps used in the main task. This activity aimed
to strengthen the students’ retention of the target words. To do so, the first author
successively sent eight images of the food ingredients that the students viewed on
the digital flashcards. The words were posted to a WhatsApp class chat (a discussion
of this WhatsApp class group is presented in the following section). The students
were required to type the corresponding English words for each image. To make
the activity interesting, the student who responded accurately and most quickly was
considered the winner. While the game was rather simple and not as sophisticated
as those featured in digital apps such as Kahoot!, the students nonetheless enjoyed
the task, as explained in the findings section of this chapter. Using images at this
stage represents students’ desire for English language learning to include such fea‑
tures (see Table 2.1).

RQ 2: How are WhatsApp communication tasks implemented in the EFL online

learning context?

This section describes how the “ordering food online” task was performed from
the pre‑task to post‑task stages and highlights noteworthy points from students’
exchanges. To illustrate the same, we present screenshots of students’ interactions,
supported by related narratives from students’ interviews or learning journals. The
first author sent task instructions to the WhatsApp class group at 9 p.m. It is worth
noting that the screenshot was taken when the first author was in Western Australia,
resulting in a one hour time disparity between East Java and Western Australia; it
was 8 p.m. in the former location.
The tasks we developed were to be performed in groups and dyads. To accom‑
plish this, we created three WhatsApp groups before task implementation. The first
group was the WhatsApp class group, a centralized hub including the first author;
two and three English language teachers from schools A and B, respectively; and
students. The WhatsApp class group was a platform for the first author to send the
task instructions or for students to post the task outcomes. In some tasks, the group
was used by the students to upload their warm‑up questions, as in the “ordering
food online” task. Other WhatsApp groups were created for tasks to be performed
in groups and dyads. The former group comprised the first author, English language
teachers, and four students, while the latter consisted of similar members to the
former but with only two students. Both WhatsApp groups served as spaces for the
students to perform their main tasks. In some tasks, the students completed the
pre‑task stage in the four‑student WhatsApp group.
Based on our observations, all the students responded to the pre‑task warm‑up
questions. However, it was interesting to note the time required by the students to
 Designing and Implementing WhatsApp Communication Tasks ◾ 31

Figure 2.2 Students’ responses in the pre‑task stage.

respond to the questions. Figure 2.2 offers a snapshot of the students’ responses to
the task instructions. As can be seen, the students commenced responding at 9.08
p.m., indicating that they needed approximately eight minutes before posting their
answers. In another school, we noted that students started to respond after 12 min‑
utes. We found that 8 and 12 minutes were rather long durations to compose such
sentences, leading to further investigation on this matter.
Vincent provided his viewpoint on this issue during the interview, stating:
This was possibly because [their] mother language is Bahasa Indonesia,
so they were not used to it [English]. It also took time to compose sen‑
tences that [were perfect] … and it might have been influenced by our
culture [feeling shy about submitting responses first before others] …
so yea, the feeling and a will to be perfect that drove [them] to compose
sentences as good and neat as possible.
Vincent offered three reasons why the students took a bit longer to respond to the
task instructions. First, the students were not used to communicating in English,
including writing or texting; therefore, they might have needed to adjust to the situ‑
ation and express themselves accordingly. In addition, the “ordering food online”
task was the first task in the project, creating the need to adapt to different learning
circumstances among students. Second, the students (although perhaps not all of
them) sought to construct sentences as accurately as possible. Momok supported
32 ◾ Innovations and Applications of Technology

this, as he conveyed in his learning journal that “the difficulty in converting vocab‑
ulary into sentences that were good to read” was a major challenge in the task. They
may have consulted an online dictionary or grammar book to do so. The desire to
produce perfect sentences might be because the students realized that their teachers
were in the WhatsApp group; therefore, they preferred to be seen as perfect in front
of their teachers and other students. Indeed, the presence of teachers might influ‑
ence students’ behaviors. However, the teachers’ presence in this study mirrored the
real implementation of WhatsApp online classrooms, where students perform tasks
under teachers’ observation and monitoring. Finally, the students possibly felt shy
about being the first to post their responses to the WhatsApp group. This cultural
factor was evidenced when a student (Dominic) posted his response, and the other
students followed immediately (see Figure 2.2).
In the main task, the students interacted using voice chat when they selected
the food items and text chat when they listed the final meals and posted their
details on the class WhatsApp group. Excerpt 2.1 contains a transcription of stu‑
dent exchanges in voice chat format. Based on this excerpt, each student in the
group initially expressed their food preferences. However, negotiations occurred at
9:34 p.m., when Grainybrute warned or expressed an opinion to Dominic that his
proposed food choices were too expensive. This negotiation was part of the task; all
group members had their own preferences, yet they had to agree on which dishes to
eventually select by considering their budgets.
WhatsApp features, such as voice chat, facilitated the interaction or negotiation
to occur naturally and easily. For example, Grainybrute deleted a message at 9:30
p.m., which was probably because he mispronounced some words or was unsure
about the message. By deleting the message, Grainybrute could remove and replace
it with an appropriate one, thus avoiding misunderstanding for others. In addi‑
tion, although it does not appear in the excerpt, the students frequently utilized
the “quote and reply” feature (an example of the use of this feature can be seen in
Figure 2.2 when Momok quoted and replied to the task instructions sent by the
first author). Through this feature, students could select the specific message they
wanted to reply to. Hence, it prevented confusion among other students due to mul‑
tiple or simultaneous postings in text or voice‑based interactions. Overall, the use
of voice chat, or to an extent, text chat, and other features such as message deletion
and quote and reply, demonstrates that WhatsApp can facilitate the negotiation of
meaning and hence enhance task‑based or task‑supported interactions.
Figure 2.3 illustrates how students performed the post‑task. After the first author
posted the image of bean curd, the students immediately typed the corresponding
English word for the item shown in the image. Indeed, there was a possibility that
a student copied another student’s answer. However, the purpose of this activity
was to strengthen students’ word memory. It was not designed merely to determine
who could answer the most quickly. As such, by viewing the image and typing or
 Designing and Implementing WhatsApp Communication Tasks ◾ 33

Excerpt 2.1 Transcription of a WhatsApp Voice Chat

9:28 p.m. Dominic : Hello guys. We won a voucher worth
five hundred thousand rupiah. What
kind of food should we order? You
can choose them, guys

9:29 p.m. Azazel : What do we need to order for four

people?

9:29 p.m. Dominic : https://www.kaum.comijakarta/

food‑menuillsmall‑plates.

9:30 p.m. Grainybrute : This message was deleted

9:31 p.m. Zeglar : Hallo. Can I choose the menu?

9:32 p.m. Dominic : Yes. You can choose the menu from
the link I shared earlier

9:35 p.m. Grainybrute : I want to order Sate Ayam Bumbu

Kacang from Madura Island, and Es
Campur from Jakarta for dessert

9:38 p.m. Azazel : And me, I am enough with Tahu Telur

9:39 p.m. Zeglar : Hmm … Batagor from West Java and

Es Campur from Jakarta sound good.
I want to order these

9:41 p.m. Dominic : For main course, I want to order

Rempah Kuning from Bangka
Belitung Island, and for the dessert, I
also want to order Es Campur from
Jakarta

9:43 p.m. Grainybrute : Sorry Dominic, I think that your

choice Rempah Kuning from Bangka
Belitung is too expensive, maybe you
can choose the other one

9:43 p.m. Azazel : I agree with Grainybrute’s opinion

9:45 p.m. Dominic : Hmmm…okay maybe I want to … I

want to … order Kepiting Soka Saus
Padang from West Sumatra
34 ◾ Innovations and Applications of Technology

Figure 2.3 Students’ responses to the word game.

copying the word, we expected that the game would aid in word retention. In this
regard, some students expressed their views in their learning journals. For example,
Moon revealed that she could remember the words jicama, bean curd, beef ribs,
vinegar, and cashew because “…we competed in typing our answers to the quiz
quickly, so [we could] memorize [the words] automatically.” In line with Moon,
Peenat stated that she could remember the words vinegar, jicama, beef ribs, pomelo,
and cashew because “when the images were sent, we had to answer together. This
challenged me to quickly recall the English words for the food ingredients.” Moon
highlighted the game’s positive impact on her memory, while Peenat suggested a
similar effect of the digital flashcards in the pre‑task stage.
In addition to its potential to strengthen word memory, the game also engaged
students. Figure 2.4 portrays the final interactions in the post‑task phase. Having
posted all the images and received all student responses, the first author inquired
about the winner. The students seemed motivated to answer the question, as indi‑
cated by the use of such emojis. They confirmed this in their interviews and learn‑
ing journals. For instance, Nakko expressed in her learning journal, “… Thank you
for preparing such a great game. This was challenging because it made me rush and
 Designing and Implementing WhatsApp Communication Tasks ◾ 35

Figure 2.4 Students’ reactions after the word game.

tremble while typing. It was [also] because other students were so fast and respon‑
sive.” Likewise, Azazel expressed his viewpoint during the interview, “…in the third
activity [post‑task], for example, we played a guessing game, which created a com‑
petition between our friends to answer quickly. There was passion [from the game].”
Students’ reflections on the “ordering food online” task were varied. Vincent
commented in his learning journal, “Today’s task was so pleasant. We were asked to
provide opinions on a topic that happens in everyday life.” Another student, Bunny,
highlighted the utilization of voice chat or note, “The task was so exciting because
we rarely communicated in English using voice note, so this was a new experience
for me.” Whereas Vincent linked his engagement to the authenticity of the task and
topic, Bunny associated the voice chat feature with a novel learning experience. This
implies that an authentic task developed based on daily topics and performed using
the multimodal features of WhatsApp, including voice chat, can be meaningful,
and language learning can thus be more memorable (Muntaha et al., 2023).
The task also has the potential for vocabulary development (Chou, 2020);
some students revealed that the WhatsApp task helped them retain or recall lexi‑
cal knowledge owing to the fast typing of words and responses to images provided
in the pre‑ and post‑task stages. To this end, designing a task under the TSLT
36 ◾ Innovations and Applications of Technology

framework, where the focus on linguistic forms was emphasized in both pre‑ and
post‑tasks, resulted in positive views from the participants in this study. Although
this project did not examine students’ vocabulary learning (e.g., using pre‑ and
post‑tests), the positive perceptions indicated that the tasks are worth considering in
an online language classroom, particularly for those targeting lexical development.
In addition, the perceptions support the NA results, indicating that students require
more lexical development.
Despite positive evaluations from the participants, designing WhatsApp com‑
munication tasks is not without challenges. Preparation is required to turn a pre‑
scribed textbook‑driven language teaching and learning format following the
present, practice, and produce (PPP) framework into a meaningful and authentic
task design supported by technology (Lai et al., 2012). Teachers who are accustomed
to following the national curriculum should familiarize themselves with the TSLT
framework in order to design tasks that develop learners’ agency in their learning
and produce unrehearsed language outputs (Chen, 2012). Teachers also need to
update their knowledge about cutting‑edge technology, especially the features of
WhatsApp; hence, they can explore the features that can be integrated into tasks
designed using WhatsApp and learn troubleshooting strategies if a technical prob‑
lem occurs when learners perform tasks on the platform (Chong & Reinders, 2020).
Conducting an NA to inform the development of relevant pedagogic tasks is also
essential (Baralt & Morcillo Gómez, 2017); however, it requires time, which teach‑
ers need to anticipate. Although syllabi and textbooks are commonly available in
TSLT (Ellis, 2017a, 2019b), NA will result in an understanding of students’ needs
(González‑Lloret, 2016; González‑Lloret & Ortega, 2014); for instance, in our case,
one of the needs is vocabulary development, or topics that students prefer, since not
all learning topics in the textbooks suit students’ wants or interests. Additionally,
students’ preferences for using specific WhatsApp features (e.g., text and voice chat
or audio and video calls) may differ across schools and regions. As such, conducting
an NA will reveal the specific features of the app that students want to use to per‑
form learning tasks. In relation to the challenges in task design, we suggest that the
government or teacher associations organize teacher training (Hasnain & Halder,
2023) by inviting national or international technology‑mediated TBLT or TSLT
experts and conducting workshops in person or online, respectively.
The implementation of WhatsApp communication tasks also presents challenges
that have important implications for teachers. First, internet connection was an issue
for a few students in this study. For instance, Viona expressed in the learning journal,
“[I] experienced issues with the internet signal when downloading voice notes from
partners.” Thus, teachers should initially inform students that they must choose a place
where the internet connectivity is adequate to perform the tasks (Baralt & Morcillo
Gómez, 2017). Teachers should also have a backup plan in case some students still
experience this issue, for example, recording the session. Second, some students found
that their partners’ voices in the voice chats were somewhat unclear, particularly in
the middle of the voice note. A technical problem did not cause this issue, rather it
was because the students did not speak clearly. Therefore, before students commence
 Designing and Implementing WhatsApp Communication Tasks ◾ 37

the tasks, teachers should emphasize that they need to record their voices as clearly
as possible and use text chats to clarify when the voice is unclear. Third, as shown in
the findings section, the students took a long time to post a response. Regarding this
issue, teachers should inform students before task implementation that they need to
be responsive in performing the tasks. Finally, students may not all be online when
the WhatsApp classes begin. This can interfere with class dynamics as learners can‑
not accomplish interactive tasks without a partner (Lai et al., 2012). To address this
issue, teachers should coordinate with students to agree on schedules a few days prior
to task implementation. If students are absent, teachers should consider an alternative
strategy, possibly rearranging the pairs or rescheduling online meetings if many stu‑
dents cannot join. With respect to the challenges of task implementation, we suggest
that teachers conduct co‑teaching with other teachers or provide professional learning
support by joining locally or internationally established groups.

2.5 Conclusion
This chapter describes the development, implementation, and evaluation of
WhatsApp communication tasks for Indonesian EFL secondary school students.
We present the development of the tasks from the stages of NA to performing peda‑
gogic tasks, followed by an example of our task. We also illustrate how the task was
implemented in EFL classes using WhatsApp communication tasks outside school
hours, as additional language support. While the evaluation exhibits positive stu‑
dent perceptions of the task, this study has a limitation. Owing to the limited num‑
ber of participants included in NA, the findings may not be generalizable. However,
it is representative of the particular context group targeted, which also shares the
characteristics of other EFL student groups in secondary schools in Indonesia.
This study contributes to the literature in two ways. First, it contributes to the
body of knowledge on technology‑mediated TBLT and TSLT, particularly regard‑
ing the use of MIM platforms (Smith & González‑Loret, 2020). Second, although
the intensity of the COVID‑19 pandemic has diminished, meaning that language
pedagogy has returned to the face‑to‑face mode, this study may inspire teachers to
implement the task in their traditional classrooms with some adaptations. For exam‑
ple, the digital flashcards used in the pre‑task stage of the “ordering food online”
task can be replaced by traditional flashcards. With regard to the restaurant menu
provided in the main task through the website link, teachers can print out one page
from the menu and distribute this to students. Finally, in the post‑task phase, teach‑
ers can reuse the traditional flashcards to play word games with learners.
We conclude that designing and implementing WhatsApp communication
tasks in online pedagogy can be challenging but rewarding. For example, perform‑
ing NA requires time, but the students’ positive perceptions of the development of
lexical items and task topics indicate that it is a worthwhile endeavor. These tasks
can also be an alternative for EFL teachers to provide their students with novel or
distinct learning experiences while adhering to prescribed syllabi and textbooks.
38 ◾ Innovations and Applications of Technology

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Chapter 3

Evaluation of ELSA Speak

Used by Vietnamese
University EFL Students
Le Pham Hoai Huong and Phan Anh Kiet

3.1 Introduction
Since the birth of artificial intelligence (AI) and the use of digital tools in lan‑
guage education, numerous applications have been created to enable self‑study and
integration of technology to enhance learning outcomes. ELSA (English Language
Speech Assistance) Speak was designed to improve the pronunciation of non‑native
speakers of English. It is an English‑speaking application utilizing AI‑based tools,
which are able to recognize speech, to evaluate, and to give comments on language
performance regarding pronunciation and fluency.
ELSA Speak has been found to increase students’ pronunciation skills (Kholis,
2021; Wicaksana, 2022), but how students evaluate the use of the application
remains a question to explore. Besides, such evaluation would benefit students
themselves in terms of continuing with ELSA Speak, the application designers, and
teachers if they want to improve the tool and integrate the software into their les‑
sons. To fill these gaps, the current study was implemented to answer the research
questions as follows:
Research questions

1. How do EFL university students use ELSA Speak?

2. What is EFL university students’ evaluation of the use of ELSA Speak?

42 DOI: 10.1201/9781003473916-4

 Evaluation of ELSA Speak Used by Vietnamese ◾ 43

3.2 Literature Review

3.2.1 Mobile‑Assisted Language Learning
Learning through personal and portable technology is referred to as mobile‑assisted
language learning (MALL) which emphasizes continuity in access in various con‑
texts of use (Kukulsa‑Hulme & Shields, 2008). With MALL, students can access
language learning resources or communicate with their teachers and peers at any
time and from any location (Hung & Nguyen, 2022).
Digital tools, such as smartphones, tablets, and numerous other high‑tech gadgets
and advancements like Twitter, Facebook, Instagram, and Skype, expand the possi‑
bilities for mediated learning and other resources (Bui et al., 2023; Huong & Hung,
2021). When viewed through the lens of sociocultural theory, which emphasizes
the mediating role of artifacts or tools in the thinking and developmental processes
of language users (Huong, 2021), digital devices are thought to help with students’
thinking when they are working on problem solving and to add a complexity level to
the activities they are doing (Lantz‑Andersson et al., 2009). Other benefits of using
digital tools include guiding English practice, enhancing students’ attention span
in learning (Mercer et al., 2019), and improving students’ self‑control (Lee, 2015).

3.2.2 ELSA (English Language Speech Assistance) Speak

ELSA Speak is a software adopting proprietary AI‑powered speech recognition tech‑
nology in teaching English. It gives immediate feedback on word pronunciation,
language fluency, intonation, word stress, English listening and the use of grammar,
and vocabulary. ELSA Speak provides personalized learning agendas for individuals,
integrating learning games with situational conversations for efficient English prac‑
tice. There are more than 10 million users in over 130 countries, according to offi‑
cial ELSA statistics and the app functions on Android and iOS operating systems.
However, it is required that learners register if they want to use the paid membership.
ESLA Speak provides learners with English practice, convenient adaptation, fre‑
quent tests, and exercises to revise daily. Thus, adopting the ELSA Speak application
in practicing speaking skills may develop language fluency and accuracy (Makhlouf,
2021). Besides, in experimentation, the program’s strategies, activities, and system‑
atic design provide students with an efficient learning platform, and the application
intuitively motivates the students’ participation and interaction (Aeni et al., 2021).

3.2.3 Evaluation of Language Learning Applications

Since language learning applications have numerous variables, evaluating them for
the most effective use is essential. Several rubrics have been created to assess learn‑
ing applications. Vincent (2012), for example, suggested the application evaluation
criterion of relevance, customization, feedback, thinking skills, usability, engage‑
ment, and sharing, as presented in Table 3.1.
 44 ◾
Table 3.1 Educational App Evaluation Rubrics

Innovations and Applications of Technology

4 3 2 1

Relevance The app connects The app connects There is limited The app does not
strongly with the with the learning connection to the connect to the
learning purpose and purpose and is learning purpose and learning purpose and
is appropriate for mostly appropriate may not be appropriate is not appropriate for
students for students for students’ learning students

Customization The app provides high The app provides The app provides limited The app offers no
level of flexibility to some degree of flexibility to change flexibility to meet
change content and flexibility to alter content and settings to students’ learning
settings to meet content and settings meet students’ learning needs
students’ learning to meet students’ needs
needs learning needs

Feedback The app gives students The app gives The app gives students The app does not give
specific feedback students feedback limited feedback students feedback

Thinking skills The app promotes The app promotes The app promotes mostly The app is limited to
higher order thinking higher order thinking lower order thinking the use of lower order
skills such as creating, skills including skills like understanding thinking skills
evaluating, and evaluating, analyzing, and remembering including
analyzing and applying understanding and
remembering

(Continued )
Table 3.1 (Continued ) Educational App Evaluation Rubrics
4 3 2 1

Evaluation of ELSA Speak Used by Vietnamese ◾

Usability Students can use the Students need a Students need to be The app is difficult to
app independently teacher to show how guided each time they use or crashes often
to use the app use the app

Engagement Students are highly Students use the app Students perceive the Students avoid using
motivated to learn as instructed by the app as “more the app
with the app teacher schoolwork” and may
work off‑task sometimes

Sharing The app saves a The app saves a The app saves limited No students’
summary of students’ summary of students’ performance data of performance summary
specific performance specific performance students is saved
that can be exported but exporting is
to the teacher or limited
others
Source: Adapted from Vincent (2012).

45
46 ◾ Innovations and Applications of Technology

The rubric Vincent (2012) suggested covers quite comprehensive evaluation of

the contents and use of an application. The rating scale also makes it easier to see
the agreement of application users. In a rather different approach, Lee and Cherner
(2015) emphasized eight theoretical frameworks related to various aspects that
make up a quality application aiming to develop criteria for literacy, cooperative
learning, human interactive design, human motivation, principles for multimedia
learning, dichotomy of rigor and relevancy, usability design, and cultivating learn‑
ers’ ability or zone of proximal development. In a more practical direction, Nguyen
(2019) pointed out seven criteria for choosing a suitable English learning applica‑
tion: (1) Appropriate content that is suitable for the user’s desire and proficiency;
(2) Easy to use with help, guide, or tutorial; (3) Attractive and user‑friendly with
a vibrant theme and friendly multimedia; (4) Relevant and quality content with
responses for better progression and revision; (5) Highly interactive where one or
multiple learning modes can be included for a more engaging study environment;
(6) Customizable for a more personal study place; and (7) Free‑to‑use.
From the criteria reviewed above, it can be said that a helpful application ought to
be adequate and appropriate in terms of content and materials. Moreover, it also needs
to be easy to operate, and the user experience should be appealing and intriguing for
users to attend repeatedly for better outcomes of the learning process. Furthermore,
the in‑app interaction and the learning mechanisms that the application provides
should be flexible and personable in order to enhance the learning experience. As
the student can change different learning modes in each learning time, the learning
experience can be refreshed and boosted regarding the students’ mood.

3.2.4 Previous Studies on the Use of ELSA Speak

Aiming at finding out how digital devices assist learners in language learning,
previous studies have tended to focus on the outcomes and effects of using spe‑
cific applications. However, how students self‑study with a particular application
remains to be explored.
In the case of ELSA Speak, Anggraini (2022) set up the experiment using ELSA
Speak in designing and managing lesson plans and teaching methods to explore
students’ improvement of fluency, accuracy in grammar, accuracy in vocabulary,
appropriacy, and comprehensibility during a pronunciation teaching course with 30
students. It was found that the development of all traits followed a linear positive
trend, and 85% of the students felt stimulated in practicing English.
The introduction of ELSA application in classroom learning was also the
focus of the study by Triwardani and Azi (2022), with 32 students who imple‑
mented the ELSA Speak to learn with the application from the material intro‑
duction to the transfer stage. Since the focus was on the learning outcome with
the application, the study used pre‑test and post‑test and found that the average
student achievement score had a significant difference from 59.64 in the pre‑test
to 76.64 in the post‑test. Besides, it was found that 82% of the students had
 Evaluation of ELSA Speak Used by Vietnamese ◾ 47

positive development throughout the process of one academic year, together with
increased interest in the use of the application.
Focusing on how ELSA Speak’s supporting features and how students study
autonomically pronunciation, Taqy (2021) conducted an in‑depth case study with
three students of English who had already used the app for the minimum time of
one month. The interview results indicated that the ELSA Speak supported pronun‑
ciation learning including vowel and consonant sounds, diphthongs, word stress,
and intonation. Furthermore, students’ learning autonomy when learning with the
application was realized via their actions in making decision of the learning topic,
learning time, and correcting their mistakes during their learning. Other perceived
benefits include evaluating learning performance, determining the needs in pro‑
nunciation study, independent learning, assessing their learning progress, being
responsible for their own learning, and practicing.
The outcome of learning English with the support of ELSA Speak was also
reflected in the study by Nguyen (2020), who found that the students held positive
belief in the application and reported that their anxiety about speaking English was
alleviated when learning with ELSA Speak, thus improving their speaking skills
among the students. However, ELSA only focuses on the pronunciation part, per‑
ceived by the students to lead to the imbalance in speeches regarding suprasegmen‑
tal and segmental pronunciation.
In general, ELSA Speak has been evaluated for its benefits in improving learners’
pronunciation and alleviating learners’ anxiety when learning English. There needs
to be a further study to see how this digital application serves learners’ self‑study,
focusing on using habits, activities, and their evaluation of the application use.

3.3 Research Methodology

The participants of the current study were Vietnamese students majoring in English
at a university in Vietnam. They were familiar with the application and had experi‑
ence with using ELSA Speak to self‑study. At the research site, the students studied
four years and had to complete all the required credits to be awarded bachelor’s
degrees. They were expected to do independent study apart from the compulsory
lessons at university and were encouraged to use online resources.
Given the aim of the study to investigate students’ evaluation of the application
use, a questionnaire was employed to collect data from a large number of respon‑
dents. Besides, in‑depth interviews were carried out to obtain more detailed evalu‑
ation of the use of ELSA Speak. The questionnaire consists of 30 items divided
into two parts: the use of ELSA Speak (items 1–10), investigating the habits and
the activities relating to the app use, and the evaluation of ELSA Speak (items
11–30), studying the evaluation of the students of ELSA Speak use. The question‑
naire contents were based on the research aims in combination with the rubrics
and criteria evaluating educational applications suggested by Tony Vincent (2012),
48 ◾ Innovations and Applications of Technology

Lee and Cherner (2015), and Nguyen (2019). The questions of the interview were
designed to investigate the students’ habits and opinions about ELSA Speak. There
were three parts of the interview protocol, which concentrated on the students’
background, the common ways and time of using ELSA Speak, and the evaluation
of the students about ELSA Speak use.
To analyze questionnaire data, SPSS (Statistical Package for Social Sciences)
was used to calculate and analyze the internal consistency of the questionnaire and
descriptive statistics. Besides, the interviews with 15 students were conducted in
Vietnamese for about 25 minutes for each interview. The interviewees were coded
S1 to Sn (student 1 to student n) not to reveal their identities. The interview tran‑
scripts were first translated into English and coded with themes including time
and frequency of using ELSA Speak, what to use the application for, most valuable
features of ELSA Speak, reported improvement in language use after using the
application, overall evaluation of ELSA Speak, and recommendations for its use.
Besides, for each coded theme, the frequency of answers was counted, and typical
responses were cited.

3.4 Findings
3.4.1 EFL Students’ Use of ELSA Speak
Data were collected from the questionnaire completed by 185 EFL students, and
interviews with 15 students were explored to see how they used ELSA Speak in
their learning. First, the reliability statistics of the questionnaire were run, and it
reached a Cronbach’s Alpha value of 0.878, suggesting the high reliability for the
questionnaire to be used in this study. Besides, the mean scores of the two clusters,
the use of ELSA Speak and evaluation of the application use, were tabulated. The
mean scores reached 3.6492 for the cluster of ELSA Speak use and 3.9003 for its
evaluation, which overall indicates the positive perception and appreciation of the
students of using and evaluating and the similarity among the students’ answers.
The following section will present the findings to answer the first research question
on using the application as reported by EFL students (Table 3.2).
As can be seen from Table 3.1, item 4 achieves the highest mean score, M = 4.1135,
SD = 0.73948, while item 6 has the lowest mean score, at 3.1784, SD = 1.19581. This
indicates the application was considered to be mainly a self‑learning tool by the
majority. However, the students did not show much agreement with the applica‑
tion to be considered the main resource of the self‑study tool, as the mean score of
item 2 achieves only 3.4054, SD = 0.96288, and item 1 only shows the neutrality
of the students in using ELSA as a general tool for learning English. Slightly lower
than the highest item, item 8, with a mean score of 4.0270, SD = 0.76919, indicates
the positive benefit of ELSA Speak concerning pronunciation accent‑wise. Apart
from the pronunciation aspect, the various English‑speaking skill practices that the
 Evaluation of ELSA Speak Used by Vietnamese ◾ 49

Table 3.2 Reported Use of ELSA Speak

Statement N Min. Max. Mean SD
1. I use ELSA Speak frequently for my 185 1.00 5.00 3.27 .82
English study in general.
2. I use ELSA Speak as a main 185 1.00 5.00 3.40 .96
resource of self‑study.
3. I choose ELSA Speak for not just 185 1.00 5.00 3.94 .87
pronunciation practice but also
because of the various
English‑speaking skills practices
that it provides.
4. I use ELSA Speak because I want to 185 1.00 5.00 4.11 .73
improve my English skill by
self‑studying with it.
5. ELSA Speak is suitable with my 185 1.00 5.00 3.71 .89
learning style.
6. I use ELSA Speak to study with my 185 1.00 5.00 3.17 1.19
friends.
7. I use ELSA Speak to prepare for my 185 1.00 5.00 3.41 1.06
English‑speaking tests/exams at
university.
8. I use ELSA Speak because I want to 185 1.00 5.00 4.02 .769
have a native‑like accent.
9. I use the free version of ELSA 185 1.00 5.00 3.96 .78
Speak to learn English and I am
satisfied with it.
10. I prefer the paid version of ELSA 185 1.00 5.00 3.44 1.04
Speak, which is more diverse in
contents and availability.
Use 185 2.00 4.80 3.64 .52
Valid N (listwise) 185

application provides are also the reason why the students chose this application, as
illustrated through the mean score of item 3 (M = 3.9459, SD = 0.87059). Similarly,
the same quantity of opinions of item 9, M = 3.9676, SD = 0.78645, shows satisfac‑
tion with the free version of ELSA, which contradicts the opinions of the inter‑
viewed students who recommended the paid version of ELSA Speak. Additionally,
item 10 (M = 3.4486, SD = 1.04195) further confirms the difference between the
users’ preference toward the versions of ELSA Speak.
50 ◾ Innovations and Applications of Technology

The whole cluster of the ELSA Speak use records the standard deviation at
0.52005 for the mean score of 3.6492, which indicates that 68% of the students giv‑
ing answers ranges from 3.12915 to 4.16925 and that the overall manifestation of
the answers is positive or from “neutral” to “agree.” The highest standard deviation
scores were seen in items 6, 7, and 10, at 1.04195, 1.06054, and 1.19581, respec‑
tively, showing the remarkable difference in perspectives of the participants when
they chose the paid version of the application, how they integrated ELSA Speak in
their school work, and how they used the application collaboratively.
Besides data from the questionnaire, extracts from group interviews with the
students at the research site were used for analysis. In the first group interview, two
students stated that they started to use ELSA Speak in year one, while one student
in year two and one student said she had utilized the application since high school.
The average time everyone spent using the app was 15 minutes each time, and two
students claimed that they used ELSA Speak daily because of the set schedule as
well as the performance streak. Student one said, “To be honest, I think the atten‑
dance streak of the application has motivated me even more than the knowledge
benefits that it brings me that makes me want to come back to use the application.”
In addition, the interviewed students reported using ELSA Speak for differ‑
ent purposes. For example, student 4 said, “I used ELSA because the interaction
between AI and users made it clear for me to learn. I especially appreciated the clear
feedback on pronunciation.” Students 1 and 2 showed significant interest in the
correction of mouth shape and the accent adaptation of the application. They said,
“ELSA Speak helped me practice pronunciation with detailed feedback which cor‑
rected my mouth shape, and it also provided illustrations that I could see and try to
adapt to.” Student 3 shared another different view on the benefit of the application,
which was the accent‑based learning of the content of the application. This means
that the users could achieve certain levels of native‑like accents of English‑speaking
regions that they aimed at through studying with ELSA Speak.
The most claimed improvement of students in the interview with group one was
pronunciation, intonation, and stress due to the specific practice and revision of the
sounds not available in their mother tongue. Below is an example:
I got the chance to practice pronouncing words in the most comprehen‑
sive way. Thanks to the feedback system and AI technology of ELSA
Speak, I have meliorated the words that I usually mispronounce due to
my habits related to my native language. Moreover, my intonation and
stress when speaking were noticed very carefully. (Student 1, interview)
In group interview two, two students stated that they started to use the applica‑
tion in high school, and one began to use it in year three at university, whereas
two students said they utilized ELSA Speak from year two. The average use time
of everyone was about 15 minutes each time. One student reported using ELSA
Speak for up to one hour by repeating the same exercise until she mastered it. She
 Evaluation of ELSA Speak Used by Vietnamese ◾ 51

explained that in this way of learning, she could ensure that she had fully attained
the required knowledge of the session, which helped her memorize the lesson lon‑
ger. It was also a good way to utilize the limited content of the accessible version of
ELSA Speak, “I tend to stick with one lesson for a good amount of time until I feel
like I have perfected my knowledge so that I can move on to the next lesson and
utilize the content that I was provided from ELSA Speak.”
The interviewed students in group two reported using ELSA Speak for the same
purpose: practicing English pronunciation. Students 6 and 7 explained that ELSA
application provided them with detailed and comprehensive feedback on the users’
pronouncing performance.
The reported improvement of students in interview group two can be listed
as the improved pronunciation of intricate sounds (student 6); pronouncing and
reading words correctly in accordance with International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)
standard (student 8); producing clearer ending sounds and having better intonation
(student 9); and reforming and adapting the learned sounds and words (student 7).
In contrast, student 5 reported not to have significant progress, yet his intonation
was signified after using the application.
In group interview three, three students said that they started learning with
ELSA Speak in their first year of university, and one student said to have used the
application from year two of university, whereas two other students said they started
with the application from high school. The average time of using of everyone was
reported to last 15 minutes each time. In addition, the interviewed students in group
three reported using ELSA Speak for different purposes. For instance, students 12
and 14 preferred using the application for self‑study thanks to its detailed feedback
and clear directions and instructions to correct their pronunciation. Meanwhile,
students 11 and 15 found that ELSA Speak was interesting and the material of the
application was suitable, especially for new learners. Last but not least, students 10
and 13 both stated that they valued the vocabulary diversity of ELSA Speak and
objective lessons that can help them revise and practice to better their pronunciation.
Student 10 answered, “I like how we can just randomly search the words I want to
learn, and ELSA application will provide me with a detailed lesson about that single
word. There can be the IPA form, the illustration and the AI feedback for it.”
The reported improvement in language use after using ELSA Speak was mani‑
fested similarly among the students, which was the development in pronunciation
skills with an addition of the extension of the English lexical resource.

3.4.2 EFL University Students’ Evaluation

of the Use of ELSA Speak
Table 3.3 gives information on the students’ rating of 20 items in the second cluster
of the questionnaire about the evaluation of the use of ELSA Speak. Overall, the
minimum score of the 20 items fluctuates between 1 and 3, while the maximum
52 ◾ Innovations and Applications of Technology

Table 3.3 University EFL Students’ Evaluation of ELSA Speak Use

Statement N Min. Max. Mean SD

11. The contents and materials of ELSA 185 3.00 5.00 3.84 .64
Speak are appropriate and relevant
for my English‑speaking learning.

12. The contents and materials of ELSA 185 1.00 5.00 4.00 .72
Speak are presented clearly.

13. ELSA Speak has various educational 185 1.00 5.00 3.84 .79
activities that have media
integration.

14. The level of the learning materials 185 1.00 5.00 3.33 1.00
of ELSA
Speak is lower than my English
proficiency level.

15. ELSA application strengthens my 185 2.00 5.00 3.97 .67

English‑speaking skill in terms of
pronunciation, idea developing,
and vocabulary and grammar.

16. Using ELSA application improves 185 2.00 5.00 3.82 .79
my English‑speaking skill very
quickly.

17. I can customize and set the lessons 185 2.00 5.00 3.65 .84
and the speaking exercises in ELSA
Speak.

18. ELSA Speak provides detailed and 185 2.00 5.00 3.92 .82
specific feedback on my
English‑speaking skill when I finish
the exercises.

19. I can see my good and bad points of 185 1.00 5.00 3.97 .79
my English‑speaking skill thanks to
feedback from ELSA application.

20. I can apply the knowledge that I 185 2.00 5.00 3.92 .74
have learned from ELSA Speak to
English speaking in real life.

(Continued )
 Evaluation of ELSA Speak Used by Vietnamese ◾ 53

Table 3.3 (Continued ) University EFL Students’ Evaluation of ELSA Speak Use
Statement N Min. Max. Mean SD

21. I am now more confident in 185 2.00 5.00 3.90 .77

speaking English with the increased
vocabulary knowledge and
improved pronunciation thanks to
ELSA Speak.

22. ELSA application is easy to use. 185 2.00 5.00 4.25 .73

23. ELSA application is interactive 185 2.00 5.00 3.98 .77

because it requires the user to
practice speaking directly and it
gives give feedback right after each
interaction.

24. The themes of ELSA Speak are 185 2.00 5.00 3.97 .68
friendly and aesthetic.

25. The contents and materials of ELSA 185 2.00 5.00 3.97 .71
Speak are interesting and related to
the real life.

26. I am motivated to learn more about 185 1.00 5.00 3.83 .77
English when using ELSA Speak for
my English‑speaking skills.

27. I find it easier to speak English 185 2.00 5.00 3.87 .74
thanks to the vocabulary and
sentence structures given in the
lessons by ELSA Speak.

28. I can track my development in 185 1.00 5.00 3.95 .73

English‑speaking skill as ELSA
application records it for me.

29. I can share my performance and 185 1.00 5.00 3.74 .92
development summary of my
English‑speaking skill in the
application with my teachers or my
friends.

30. Thanks to ELSA application specific 185 2.00 5.00 4.17 .76
feedback, my English pronunciation
has been improved.

Evaluation 185 3.00 4.90 3.90 .40

Valid N (listwise) 185

54 ◾ Innovations and Applications of Technology

score is equally distributed in the value of 5. The highest mean score reaches 4.2595
for item 22 about the easy usability of the application. In contrast, the lowest score
belongs to item 14, M = 3.3351, SD = 1.00331, indicating the appropriateness and
accessibility of ELSA Speak proficiency, which is suitable yet quite low to the users.
The clarity and the diversity of the content of the application were appreciated
by the majority of the respondents through item 12, M = 4.0054, SD = 072605, and
item 13, M = 3.8486, SD = 0.79318. Besides, item 15, M = 3.9730, SD = 0.67108,
and item 16, M = 3.8270, SD = 0.79559, indicate the improvement of the users and
the prominent efficiency of the process learning with the application. Besides, the
vocabulary and the sentence structure provided alongside the content are believed
to have contributed to facilitation during the learning process with ELSA Speak
presented in item 27, M = 3.8757, SD = 0.74506. Moreover, the theme and the mate‑
rials and the authenticity of ELSA are highly appreciated in item 24, M = 3.9730,
SD = 0.68709, and item 25, M = 3.9730, SD = 0.68709.
The feedback system of ELSA Speak surveyed in item 18, M = 3.9297,
SD = 0.82780; item 19, M = 3.9784, SD = 0.79370; and item 30, M = 3.9003,
SD = 0.40306, indicates the helpfulness and sensibility of the app use during their
learning. Additionally, the development tracking system is also evaluated to have
effectiveness in assisting the learning process of the users (item 28, M = 3.9514,
SD = 0.73928). The after‑effect and value of ELSA Speak in terms of communica‑
tive competence in real life is regarded to be very positive as in item 20, M = 3.9297,
SD = 0.74486, and item 21, M = 3.9081, SD = 0.77823. Furthermore, the motiva‑
tion of speaking and learning English is mostly agreed to be enhanced through
ELSA Speak in item 26, M = 3.8378, SD = 0.77015.
Besides, the interviews were analyzed to obtain an in‑depth evaluation of the
application use by EFL students. In the interview, students two and three said
that the flexible customization depended on the users’ level and the diversity of
the up‑to‑date conversations and topics of lessons are the two most significant
advantages of ELSA. Student one agreed that the application could remarkably
improve the user’s speaking skills in terms of pronunciation, intonation, and
stress. Additionally, student three showed interest in the feedback system and the
easy‑to‑use and eye‑catching features alongside a rich repository of topics of ELSA
Speak. Since the application only focuses on improving pronunciation, student
two did not find it suitable to learn English comprehensively. Student four added,
“Although ELSA’s AI feedback system is helpful for my speaking foundation, I can‑
not develop in the long period since I cannot practice real‑life situations.”
All the interviewed students of group one agreed that ELSA Speak was worth
being tried, especially for low‑level learners who want to build up and improve
their foundation which is pronunciation. In terms of a self‑learning resource, ELSA
Speak stood as a trust‑worthy application among the interviewed students and all
the students agreed that ELSA Speak is suitable for beginners and a great app to
strengthen the pronunciation foundation. However, four out of five students shared
the skepticism of growing in the long run since the free version of ELSA application
does not offer appropriate long‑term practice for free.
 Evaluation of ELSA Speak Used by Vietnamese ◾ 55

The most useful features of ELSA Speak highlighted by the students in inter‑
view group two included a clear arrangement of the lessons and study time (students
8 and 6) and thorough pronunciation correction (students 6, 8, and 9). Besides, the
worthiest aspect of ELSA Speak according to students 13, 14, 10, and 15 is the way
the AI technology of the application assessed the users’ level and designed a suit‑
able learning path for them in the application. Moreover, this practice is also found
in the process of using ELSA Speak when the application would reflect the users’
performance and arrange the lessons scientifically. A student said, “My experience
with ELSA application was quite pleasant, I did not have to do much. Actually, all I
had to do was to follow the instructions and let the AI technology of the application
do all the work for me. All the lessons plan or development route or self‑assessment,
I only had to follow the given assignments.” In addition, students 11 and 12 were
fond of the diverse and up‑to‑date contents with a convenient dictionary alongside.
They pointed out, “I remember watching this advertisement on Facebook of ELSA
application, it was using the theme of Halloween which made me interested and
intrigued my curiosity to use this application.”
In terms of a self‑learning resource, all the interviewed students agreed that
the ELSA application is suitable for beginners and it is a great app to strengthen
pronunciation foundation. However, students 10, 11, 14, and 15 shared the concern
of development in the long run since the free version of ELSA application does not
offer appropriate opportunities with limited lessons and knowledge, “Although the
content of ELSA Speak is appropriate and very attractive to study with, I could not
advance to a higher level because the free version does not offer so.”
Besides, according to students 10 and 11, although the application can help new
users to self‑study at home, it is required that the users need to know about the pho‑
netic transcription beforehand in order to utilize the benefits of the application, “I
remember that time when I first used ELSA application the IPA form of it was like
a code for me to decipher. I had to listen to the word from the audio and blind‑try
to say it. I think it would be more effective if the IPA can be assistant in this case.”
Furthermore, student 14 did not find the application as effective since the users
can only use ELSA Speak alone while English speaking requires more interactive
practice. Similarly, student 12 found the self‑learning aspect of the application was
just as efficient when the users use it by themselves since the application has AI
technology and provided comprehensive feedback.
Overall, the students in group three considered the ELSA application to be a
prominent tool to practice and reinforce pronunciation skills. The effectiveness of
the application is validated by the majority, and the contents of the lessons are of
high quality. However, the free version of ELSA Speak offers limited access and
does not provide advanced learning for users (students 12, 13, 14, and 15). Students
10 and 13 also added that the application can only improve pronunciation and
moderately enhance the users’ vocabulary; thus, the users can not develop their
English‑speaking skills thoroughly and comprehensively.
In group three, the views on recommending the ELSA application were vari‑
ous. Student 10 would not recommend students in Vietnam to make full use of the
56 ◾ Innovations and Applications of Technology

application because she thought the users must have self‑discipline and dedicated
learning will if they would like to make the most out of the application. In com‑
parison, students 11, 12, and 13 found the application would be a great assistant for
low‑level learners to develop their foundation in English. Lastly, students 14 and 15
would not recommend the application since the content of the free version is quite
limited and the users need little knowledge of English before using such as knowing
the IPA so as to take full advantage of ELSA Speak.

3.5 Discussion
This study attempted to answer two research questions: how EFL university stu‑
dents use ELSA and how EFL university students evaluate the use of ELSA Speak.
Data were collected from 185 EFL students who had used the application via the
use of a questionnaire and interviews. In general, the findings show that the major‑
ity of the students perceived the use of the ELSA application positive. In terms of
using habit, the students mainly considered the application to be a self‑learning tool
at home that could help them improve their pronunciation and English‑speaking
skills. This result shows the similarity to the findings of the research by Haryadi and
Aprianoto (2020) which found that the majority of the students showed high appre‑
ciation for the application and preferred using it as a self‑tutor at home. However,
ELSA Speak was not considered the main resource in terms of a self‑learning tool
in the current study. To explain this notion, the function of ELSA Speak is reported
to focus mainly on pronunciation education, so English‑speaking self‑learning in
general can not be improved with the application.
The study also found that the reported reasons for using ELSA application were
diverse. The first reason for the students to choose the application comes from pro‑
nunciation practices and accent‑based improvement, which were the most com‑
mon reason among the participants. Another reason is that the students could see
their mistakes of speaking English from the application’s feedback which integrated
well‑developed AI technology; thus, they were able to reinforce and receive the
appropriate exercises for better improvement and development of other skills of
English. The side development that ELSA Speak offers was reported to make the
students want to try it, especially for the vocabulary and syntax knowledge recog‑
nized through the variety of in‑app contents of the given lessons and exercises.
In terms of learning attitude and motivation, there was resemblance between
the current study with the research by Triwardani and Azi (2022) in which the stu‑
dents raised their intention of learning and using English in daily life and in school
tasks significantly while and after using ELSA Speak. It is recorded that most of
the students in the current study found themselves more confident thanks to ELSA
application use. Through the use of ELSA Speak, they reported to gain confidence
in using English in regular school time and tend to build a more curious mindset
in learning English. Furthermore, in accordance with the research of Anggraini
 Evaluation of ELSA Speak Used by Vietnamese ◾ 57

(2022), similar results were found when the stimulation of practicing English on
the students in the classroom was approved by the majority of the current research
participants.
The newly discovered aspects of ELSA application from the current study are
that the “cliffhanger” of ELSA Speak was reported to be the streak point system
and the set learning schedule of the application. The students tended to come back
to learn with the application not only because they wanted to practice English but
also to keep themselves attentive to the ranking system and competition with their
friends from the linking platforms.
Different from the other applications, ELSA Speak provides lessons and exercises
that focus exclusively and intensively on pronunciation. This can be seen through
the detail feedback system which analyzes the smallest fraction of the users’ pro‑
nunciation. With these features of ELSA Speak, the students in the current study
generally evaluated the ELSA application to be potentially helpful for practicing
and reburnishing their foundation in English in terms of pronunciation.
However, one problem that the participants in the current study realized was
that they could not extend their development outside this aspect. To add to this
notion, the level of the lessons in ELSA Speak is intermediate, so the students could
not broaden their vocabulary range and they could not enhance their competence
in real‑life conversations since the interaction in the application is quite rigid and
the content is rather similar to each other. Hence, this finding reiterates what was
reported in the research by Nguyen (2020) about the influence of ELSA Speak on
students in Vietnam and their perception toward the application.
One drawback of ELSA Speak recognized in the research of Nguyen (2020)
about the deficiency of balance in speeches in terms of suprasegmental and segmen‑
tal aspects has been found to be quite different from the current study’s findings. In
the interview with the students in the current study, it is reported that the applica‑
tion in recent years has updated the new features which allow the users to review
their intonation and stress in detail. Furthermore, the users can now learn from the
models given visually to illustrate the pronunciation of the words.
In the current study, it seems that the majority of the users of ELSA Speak were
reported to be the students at secondary and first‑year university students because
the paid version of the ELSA application was not affordable, yet this version is con‑
sidered to be more diverse in content and exercises that make the free version of the
application too limited. This is also the reason why the students in the current study
did not consider ELSA Speak to be a main self‑practicing resource and showed
concern for the development in the long run. Besides, ELSA Speak was regarded
as an intensive self‑learning tool in terms of pronunciation which has friendly fea‑
tures and modernized technology. Besides, the ELSA application was rated a well‑­
developed application. More specifically, first, the English‑speaking educational
aspect of the application can be clearly seen and experienced. AI technology and
the comprehensive feedback of the application was seen to be the strongest point
validated by mostly all the students in this study. Hence, the students were able to
58 ◾ Innovations and Applications of Technology

see their mistakes and weaknesses pointed out directly and in detail with ways to
improve. Besides, the interesting content and the instant benefit the application
brought about made the students want to use it more. They especially appreciated
how ELSA Speak was able to trigger the students’ competitiveness by presenting the
attendance streak and the online ranking system.
Additionally, ELSA Speak was evaluated to be an easy‑to‑use app which stu‑
dents could get used to and self‑practice without any help from a third party. The
students pointed out that they could customize the content within the application,
and the app also provided them with suitable recommendations for lessons and
schedules. Furthermore, they could share their performance at ease with the con‑
nection of the application with Facebook and other social media platforms.
However, in terms of English‑speaking skill in general, ELSA Speak can only
provide pronunciation and foundation reinforcement. Furthermore, since the app
only focuses on the pronunciation part, its use could help the students only under‑
stand and remember while practicing with it but does not offer users opportunities
to practice higher‑level thinking skills like examining, evaluating, or creating.
The application was found to be a good English learning application from the
current study’s finding based on the seven evaluation criteria of Nguyen (2019).
First, the content was seen to be suitable for the user’s desire and proficiency. When
first using ELSA Speak, the users could have a proficiency test and the application
could automatically arrange the lesson route to suit them. However, while the level
of the lessons was reported to be appropriate, it could not meet the expectation of
the students in terms of advancing in the free version.
Second, ELSA Speak as evaluated by the participants in the current study is
easy to use with help, guide, or tutorial since it provides a well‑detailed tutorial and
the interaction in‑app is simple to use, and the application has an attractive and
user‑friendly interface with a vibrant theme and friendly multimedia. Besides, the
theme of ELSA is considered friendly and attractive, depending on the social events.
The related multimedia was reported by this study’s participants to be diverse and
convenient with affiliation with Facebook, Google, and other platforms.
In terms of relevant and quality content, the content of ELSA Speak according
to the interviewees was up‑to‑date with various topics and model conversation for
the students with responses for better progression and revision. Moreover, feed‑
back and progress recognition were also the strength offered by the application.
However, the free version was seen to provide limited resources, so the development
is noticeably affected. Although ELSA Speak is highly interactive where one or
multiple learning modes can be included for a more engaging study environment.
The free version of the application, which is the main version used by the majority of
the students, only provided some modes in accordance with practicing pronuncia‑
tion and listening. However, the available modes as found in the current study were
quite useful and engaging since they provide the users with adequate and customiz‑
able study and performance records.
 Evaluation of ELSA Speak Used by Vietnamese ◾ 59

3.6 Conclusion
In the attempt to examine EFL students’ use of ELSA Speak and their evalua‑
tion of the app impact, the current study found that the application was reported
to be mainly appropriate for the low‑level learners who wanted to reinforce their
English pronunciation and that the majority of students chose ELSA application for
self‑practicing. The application was seen not only to benefit the students in pronun‑
ciation but also other aspects such as vocabulary, listening skills, and syntax knowl‑
edge. The average time for using ELSA Speak was reported to be about 15 minutes
each time of use, and the frequency was dependent on some factors including mood
or in‑app schedule or the ranking system. The number of students participating
in this study who preferred the free version of the ELSA application significantly
outnumbered those who preferred the paid version.
Second, in terms of the evaluation of the app use, it is found that the application
features are friendly and easy to access with simple yet eye‑catching and up‑to‑date
interaction and appearance. Furthermore, the content and materials of ELSA Speak
were highly appreciated since they are diverse and up‑to‑date with various topics
and relevant vocabulary. However, the skills the students can practice and develop
are constrained to only pronunciation, so their English‑speaking skills cannot be
improved holistically. The effectiveness of the application is confirmed by the major‑
ity of the students in the current study who reported that their pronunciation was
improved noticeably. This is mainly contributed to the feedback system with the help
of AI technology which can point out the steps for the students to follow in detail
and specifically. Several updates have been recognized; those are a visual illustration
of the model of pronunciation or the testing system to track the users’ performance.
Moreover, the motivation of the students in learning and practicing English‑speaking
skills was perceived to enhance during and after using ELSA Speak.
From the study’s findings, several implications are made for teachers and stu‑
dents to utilize the ELSA Speak. First, teachers should be aware of the prominent
advantages of the application which are foundation fortification and motivation
amplification of English pronunciation learning. Therefore, the teachers can intro‑
duce and integrate ELSA Speak in lessons and practice exercises to help the students
who are deficient in their fundamental English‑speaking skills or to correct the
students’ wrong habits of pronunciation which were accumulated from the past.
Not only can this application play a role in shaping and rectifying the students’
premise of English for their future development but it also provides a refreshing
and interesting way of learning English, thus enhancing motivation of students in
learning and practicing English.
As for students, ELSA application is found to be used mainly as a self‑learning
tool due to its mobility. Hence, the students can take the most advantage of the
application at home or anywhere to practice and perfect their pronunciation and
broaden their vocabulary. Although the findings show that the free version of ELSA
60 ◾ Innovations and Applications of Technology

Speak is limited in terms of content and level, it is useful for the students to build
up and strengthen their pronunciation at the establishment level.
To use ELSA Speak, students are recommended to practice persistently because
repetition is crucial in making progress. An interviewee in the current study
reported to spend an hour practicing only one exercise until she grasped the skill
and could perform her best so that she could move on to another exercise. By doing
this, she was able to utilize the limited aspect of the content of the free version and
fully develop her sense when learning a particular topic. Since the application has
set schedules for the users, the students can follow them and practice daily to main‑
tain productivity. Furthermore, it was found that the students can not only learn
pronunciation through designed lessons, but they can also practice the vocabulary
topically and exclusively.
This study’ findings shed light on specific usage patterns of ELSA Speak in learning
English pronunciation by EFL students. In particular, it documented the time frame,
frequency, and features of the application that were made use of by EFL students to
self‑study pronunciation. Especially, users’ moods, in‑app schedule, and the ranking
system were found to be factors impacting the use of the application. Furthermore, the
study’s findings revealed the features that made the ELSA application appreciated by
the EFL students. Those features included easy access, attractive appearance, diverse
topics, and relevant vocabulary. Especially, the feedback system powered by AI tech‑
nology to provide feedback on the steps for the students to follow in detail to make
progress with their pronunciation was highly evaluated by this study’s participants.
The current study’s results were rather limited to be more quantitative and thus
mainly presented in descriptives. Future research can be carried out on a group of
participants with the same level of English for an amount of time to see the progress
and outcome of the actual use of ELSA Speak. Furthermore, experimental studies
should be implemented to measure the impact of ELSA Speak on learning English
pronunciation of users.

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Chapter 4

Critical Appraisal of
Artificial Intelligence-
Mediated Communication
in Language Education
Dara Tafazoli

4.1 Introduction
Artificial intelligence (hereafter, AI) has been progressively utilized in education in
recent years, leading to a surge in research and applications of AI in education (hence‑
forth, AIED) (Luckin et al., 2016). Research on AIED is interdisciplinary, involv‑
ing AI, pedagogy, psychology, and other related disciplines (Luckin et al., 2016;
Steenbergen-Hu & Cooper, 2014). The objective of AIED research is to enhance the
fields of AI, cognitive science, and education by incorporating computer-supported
education (Conati et al., 2002). A number of AIED applications are being applied to
adaptive learning and evaluation in order to enhance educational effectiveness and
efficiency, modify teaching approaches in real time, and gain a deeper insight into
how students acquire knowledge (Beal et al., 2010; Chassignol et al., 2018; Shute &
Psotka, 1996; VanLehn et al., 2007), in various fields like language education.
In this chapter, I concentrate specifically on the integration of AI in language
education. AI-based tools applied in language education are part of computer-
assisted language learning (CALL) and intelligent CALL (ICALL) (Tafazoli
et al., 2019). Based on the scope of the book (i.e., artificial intelligence-mediated
communication or CMC), I chose to shift the attention away from the device

62 DOI: 10.1201/9781003473916-5

 Critical Appraisal of AI-Mediated Communication ◾ 63

(e.g., computer) to the positive and negative influences of ‘mediated’ processes in

CMC from a pedagogical perspective to phase out the use of the word ‘computer’
and reassert that CMC is about the study of mediation and the focus of CMC
research should be on human-centered processes, as suggested by Carr (2020).

4.2 Intelligent Computer-Assisted Language Learning

In the realm of language studies, particularly in the field of language education,
AI has become increasingly prevalent due to the progress made in natural language
processing (NLP), deep learning, and networked learning (Fryer & Carpenter,
2006). With the evolution from CALL to Intelligent Computer-Assisted Language
Learning (ICALL), here has been a significant enhancement in the quality of inter‑
action between students and computers (Kannan & Munday, 2018). This shift has
allowed for a more sophisticated and personalized approach to language education,
benefitting both students and educators alike.
The advantages of ICALL arise from the potential of AI to customize digi‑
tal language learning for each learner (Tafazoli & Gómez-Parra, 2017). ICALL is
expected to bring several benefits, including the ability for learners to advance at
their preferred speed and to obtain instant feedback, which can serve as a power‑
ful motivator (Huang et al., 2023). This personalization could result in decreased
time and cost and reduced frustration for learners. The system can also personalize
topic repetition, focusing on topics that learners have found challenging. It provides
a swift and objective evaluation of a learner’s progress, as well as a deeper compre‑
hension of their preferences and approaches to learning. By using big data process‑
ing algorithms and machine learning algorithms, each learner’s behavior can be
dynamically adjusted to maximize these advantages. Furthermore, ICALL has the
potential to accurately predict a learner’s future performance and objectively evalu‑
ate various teaching tools, including texts, lectures, assignments, and tests. The
algorithms have the capacity to evaluate the learner’s aptitudes and limitations and
to generate a tailored collection of study materials for every session. In addition, the
algorithm can learn from the behavior of both individual and collective learners,
strengthening its predictive capabilities (Campbell-Howes, 2019).
The areas of AI research most pertinent to ICALL are NLP, user modeling, expert
systems, and intelligent tutoring systems (ITSs) (Schulze, 2008). NLP is concerned
with two key aspects of understanding and generating natural language. The former
involves designing computers that can receive and comprehend spoken or written
natural language input, while the latter aims to develop computers that can gener‑
ate natural language output, irrespective of whether it is spoken or written (Fryer &
Carpenter, 2006). These functions, exemplified by systems like chatbots, entail
processing various features of natural language elements, including graphology,
phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics. User modeling aims
to tailor computational systems to their users, with the primary objective being to
64 ◾ Innovations and Applications of Technology

adapt to users’ needs. This involves observing user behavior by gathering, retain‑
ing, and scrutinizing data from their past task responses. Additionally, user model‑
ing seeks to predict future behavior by tracking personal memory curves. Expert
modeling, in addition to user modeling, is a crucial element of ITSs. Statistical and
predictive analysis are both involved in user and expert modeling using big data
(Fryer & Carpenter, 2006).
ICALL tools have various applications in language education, including but
not limited to machine translation (MT), AI-powered virtual language exchange
platforms and language learning communities, text-to-speech technology, intel‑
ligent content recommendations, chatbots, automated grading systems, adaptive
learning games, pronunciation analysis tools, automatic speech recognition (ASR),
sentiment analysis tools, speech synthesis technology, ITS, extended reality (XR),
intelligent writing assistants, AI-powered interactive textbooks, language learning
analytics, cognitive learning, gamified learning platforms, predictive analytics, and
AI-powered language learning apps. In the following, I pedagogically reflected on
some of the abovementioned ICALL tools based on the literature and provided
some recommendations for language teachers.
AI-powered ASR technology can improve students’ oral proficiency and fluency
in a foreign language (e.g., Chen, 2022; Dai & Wu, 2023; Evers & Chen, 2021,
2022; Mroz, 2018; Song, 2020; van Doremalen et al., 2016). Many of the ASR soft‑
ware can be obtained for free (e.g., Google Speech Recognition, Windows Speech
Recognition, Siri assistant, iFlyRec, and AT&T Watson) (Evers & Chen, 2022).
These programs have access to a large speech database, which improves their ability
to decode speech. Additionally, the free availability of these programs makes them
easy to use for classroom or self-study purposes, particularly for constant corrective
feedback and self-monitoring. Neuroscience studies have shown that when foreign
language learners speak, they tend to monitor their speech production from the
perspective of their first language (L1) rather than the target language due to their
L1 filtering the sounds in their external monitoring system (Meekings & Scott,
2021). This can make it difficult for them to self-monitor their speech in the target
language, and while language teachers can provide feedback, it may not be timely
or sufficient for individual learners. To address this issue, ICALL tools such as ASR
are becoming more widely used in foreign language learning (Bashori et al., 2021;
Evers & Chen, 2021; Mroz, 2018).
Despite their advantages, ASR dictation programs have limitations when it
comes to pronunciation instruction. While these resources offer extensive exercises
and prompt responses, they do not encompass features related to phonetic descrip‑
tions, like clarifying the utilization of the vocal apparatus for specific sounds or the
variations between target sounds and the user’s native language (Liakin et al., 2014).
Learners require more assistance to understand pronunciation, which could be why
earlier research observed advancements in speaking abilities but not in listening capa‑
bilities (Hung et al., 2022; Liakin et al., 2014). Moreover, despite advancements in
ASR technology, recognition accuracy is still lower than that of human evaluation,
especially when noisy environments are present (Evers & Chen, 2022). The Google
 Critical Appraisal of AI-Mediated Communication ◾ 65

Speech Recognition system has an accuracy rate of 93% for free non-native speech
(McCrocklin, 2019), while other systems like Windows Speech Recognition and Siri
are less accurate, with rates of 74% and 69%, respectively (Daniels & Iwago, 2017;
McCrocklin, 2019). Transcription inaccuracies can cause frustration and demotiva‑
tion among students, as reported by participants in various studies (Liakin et al.,
2017; McCrocklin, 2019; Mroz, 2018). Efforts may be undertaken in the near future
to address this challenge by helping learners exchange viewpoints about their pro‑
nunciation, which may be more accurate than software feedback (Evers & Chen,
2022). Also, it should be noted that most ASR programs were not designed to cater
to language learning needs and do not offer any support to modify pronunciation or
rectify mistakes. Therefore, some scholars suggest that combining ASR software with
scaffolding activities could enhance its effectiveness in language teaching (Evers &
Chen, 2022; Mroz, 2018).
Machine translation (henceforth, MT), like Google Translate, can be used to
translate text and speech between different languages. MT has gained popularity
in the realm of foreign language education as well as in daily use over the past few
years because of its convenience, multilingual capabilities, affordability, and imme‑
diacy (Alhaisoni & Alhaysony, 2017; Briggs, 2018). A novel translation system,
which is released by Google as a neural MT, uses statistical methods to identify the
most probable match in the target language from a vast amount of data when trans‑
lating source texts. Consequently, it has achieved notable improvements in accuracy
and comprehensibility compared to its predecessor, a phrase-based statistical MT
(SMT) system (Briggs, 2018).
Recent studies have emphasized the benefits of utilizing MT in the field of
foreign language education, especially in language writing (Garcia & Pena, 2011;
O’Neill, 2016). MT enables students to write more fluently, communicate more
effectively, and concentrate more on content in a second/foreign language with fewer
errors (Garcia & Pena, 2011; Shadiev et al., 2019). Furthermore, MT helps learn‑
ers to minimize errors in vocabulary, grammar, syntax, and spelling (Fredholm,
2019; Lee, 2020; Tsai, 2019), thereby producing higher-quality writing (O’Neill,
2016). In spite of MT’s assistance being limited to the sentence level in L2 writing,
linguistic errors can severely impact the overall quality of L2 writing, thus dem‑
onstrating that MT helps with L2 writing by reducing lexicogrammatical errors
(Lee, 2020; Tsai, 2019). Additionally, beyond the linguistic domain, several studies
have reported a range of advantages of using MT in the affective and metacognitive
domains of foreign language learning (Shadiev et al., 2019).
Despite the potential advantages of utilizing MT, language educators frequently
view it as an insufficient or potentially detrimental resource when used in teaching
foreign languages for various reasons, including ethical concerns or students’ exces‑
sive reliance on MT (Lee, 2020; Nguyen et al., 2023). Nonetheless, a considerable
number of students already utilize MT for various educational purposes and regard
it as a valuable tool for language learning (Alhaisoni & Alhaysony, 2017; Briggs,
2018). While MT can improve writing outcomes by reducing errors, it may not lead
to language learning without proper pedagogical design (Lee, 2023). Pedagogical
66 ◾ Innovations and Applications of Technology

designs should not only focus on effectively using MT in tasks but also on cultivat‑
ing language learning over a longer period. Teachers’ concerns are understandable,
but they should also be aware of this gap and consider MT a language learning
aid. In order to make informed decisions with regard to pedagogy, it is essential for
teachers to have a thorough understanding of the benefits and limitations of cur‑
rent MT technologies, as well as their potential as a tool for language education.
Teachers should also consider the impact of highly accurate MT on language learn‑
ing, including demotivation and potential academic dishonesty (Murtisari et al.,
2019). They need to provide students with clear guidelines on ethical use and pre‑
pare for the future of language learning classrooms (Nguyen et al., 2023).
ITSs employ AI and machine learning technologies to engage with learners and
carry out educational tasks. These systems collect information regarding student
reactions; create a model of each student’s understanding, awareness, motivation, or
sentiment; and deliver customized guidance. ITSs feature interfaces for students to
interact with throughout the learning activity, allowing for more detailed student
modeling, step-level hints, and feedback (Mousavinasab et al., 2021). ITSs utilize
AI methodologies to support education by following the principles of cognitive psy‑
chology and student learning models (Anderson et al., 1995; Shute & Psotka, 1996;
Xu et al., 2019). Researchers in education have devoted their efforts to developing
teaching methods that enhance teaching outcomes (Graesser et al., 2005; Kolodner,
2002; Luckin et al., 2016). For instance, Graesser et al. (2005) investigated how
pedagogical strategies that embraced constructivist approaches could be integrated
into ITS instruction, revealing that learning outcomes were inversely proportional
to boredom and directly proportional to a state of flow, and also probed the rela‑
tionship between emotions and the learning process. These systems are interactive,
capturing and analyzing learner performance, selecting corresponding tasks, and
presenting appropriate information to the learner (Shute & Zapata-Rivera, 2008).
This information provides tailored feedback and creates adaptive instructional
input during tutoring sessions (Anderson et al., 1995; Atkinson, 1968; Shute &
Psotka, 1996; Xu et al., 2019).
ITSs designed for language education generally consist of various components,
such as modeling, forecasting, feedback provision, adaptable lessons and activities,
and scaffolding (Hung & Nguyen, 2022; McNamara et al., 2007). The system
ensures real-time monitoring of individual students’ progress and provides neces‑
sary assistance as needed (Graesser et al., 2011a). Other computer programs that
adapt to learners do not utilize complex learning principles or track cognitive and
emotional states like ITSs (Graesser et al., 2011b). Scholars also applied various
types of ITSs in their studies (Khella & Abu-Naser, 2018; Mayo et al., 2000;
Michaud et al., 2000). A tool was developed by Michaud et al. (2000) to enhance
the literacy skills of deaf high school and college students who communicate in
American Sign Language (ASL) as their primary language. The system evaluates
the student’s written text for mistakes in grammar and provides a tutorial dialogue
to suggest the necessary corrections. The system adapts to the user’s knowledge level
 Critical Appraisal of AI-Mediated Communication ◾ 67

and learning style and uses both English and the user’s native language for ­tutorial
instruction. The study showed how ITS successfully created a flexible, multi-modal,
and multilingual system that improved the literacy skills of deaf students who use
ASL. Mayo et al. (2000) introduced a newly developed ITS that instructs students
on the mechanical aspects of English capitalization and punctuation. The mecha‑
nism necessitates that students engage in an interactive process where they apply
capitalization and punctuation to brief passages of text that are initially written in
lowercase. It defines the field using a series of limitations that outline the appropri‑
ate punctuation and capitalization formats and provides responses when students
deviate from these limitations. During classroom testing of the ITS, a set of stu‑
dents between the ages of 10 and 11 were involved, and the results indicate that the
students were successful in learning the 25 rules included in the system. In another
paper, Khella and Abu-Naser (2018) outlined the design of a digital ITS aimed
at helping students overcome difficulties in learning French. The system aims to
provide a compelling introduction to learning French by presenting the purpose of
learning the language and generating related problems for students to solve. It also
adjusts to the personal progress of every student in actual time. The system offers
explicit assistance and can be flexibly adjusted to the needs of each learner. Based
on the mentioned features, ITS, as an exemplar of ICALL, has been found to be
almost as effective as teachers (VanLehn, 2011). These intelligent tools can boost the
functions of teachers and students (Spector, 2014).
AI-powered chatbots are designed to interact with users and process natural
language inputs. Over half a century ago, ELIZA became the pioneering chatbot
(Weizenbaum, 1966). Currently, chatbots have gained immense popularity as a
highly effective medium for providing information and addressing frequently asked
questions (Smutny & Schreiberova, 2020). Chatbots have been employed in edu‑
cational environments for various purposes in recent times, including sustaining
learners’ motivation in scientific studies, supporting first-year students with their
college experiences, and aiding educators in managing substantial classroom activi‑
ties (Carayannopoulos, 2018; Schmulian & Coetzee, 2019).
The potential of chatbots in language teaching has attracted the attention of
researchers (Chiu et al., 2023; Fryer et al., 2019; Jia et al., 2012; Xu et al., 2021).
Chatbot-supported language learning involves using chatbots to interact with stu‑
dents in the target language for daily practice (Fryer et al., 2019), answering ques‑
tions (Xu et al., 2021), and conducting assessments (Jia et al., 2012). Chatbots can be
a valuable tool in language practice for students. They can help reduce shyness and
make the learning experience more comfortable for all involved (Fryer & Carpenter,
2006). Additionally, chatbots can help bridge the gap between learners and instruc‑
tors in online learning environments, which can reduce the transactional distance
and improve the overall experience (Huang et al., 2022). Visual chatbot develop‑
ment platforms, such as Dialogflow and BotStar, allow teachers to create customized
chatbots without prior programming experience. These platforms provide a design
dashboard that enables teachers to script students’ learning experiences and meet
68 ◾ Innovations and Applications of Technology

their learning objectives (Huang et al., 2022). To learn a new language effectively, it’s
essential to practice speaking and immerse oneself in language contexts, but many
students lack motivation and confidence. Researchers have suggested that chatbot-
supported activities can create a more engaging and authentic language environment
and improve language learning outcomes (Lu et al., 2006). Language educational
chatbots generally possess three main characteristics. Firstly, they are available 24/7
to support students (Garcia Brustenga et al., 2018), allowing them to practice lan‑
guage skills at any time that suits them (Haristiani, 2019). Secondly, chatbots can
provide students with a broader range of language information than their peers, who
may be at a similar proficiency level, including additional expressions, vocabulary,
and questions (Fryer et al., 2019). Thirdly, chatbots can function as tireless assistants
and relieve teachers of repetitive tasks such as answering common questions and
providing continuous language practice (Fryer et al., 2019; Kim, 2018). Chatbots are
always available to help students practice speaking and learn a new language.
Although chatbots have proven to be advantageous in language education by
decreasing students’ anxiety (Ayedoun et al., 2019) and enhancing their participa‑
tion in language learning (Ruan et al., 2019), the temporary nature of learners’
engagement and performance improvement may be due to the novelty effect associ‑
ated with chatbots (Ayedoun et al., 2019; Fryer et al., 2019). The novelty effect refers
to the initial excitement of a new technology that wears off as students become more
accustomed to it. Additionally, concerns have been raised about chatbots’ limited
capabilities. While AI has advanced significantly, designing intelligent dialogue in
chatbots remains a challenge for developers (Brandtzaeg & Følstad, 2018). Even
small mistakes in student input can lead to irrelevant responses from the chatbot,
which may not be able to understand multiple sentences at once as humans can
(Kim et al., 2019). This can restrict students’ interaction to a pre-set knowledge base
(Grudin & Jacques, 2019) and may result in chatbots providing unrelated answers
(Haristiani, 2019; Lu et al., 2006).
Another challenge deals with cognitive load limitations (Huang et al., 2022).
Cognitive load limitations refer to the additional attention or mental effort which
are necessary to complete a task during the learning process (Sweller, 1988). The
amount of cognitive burden that students must carry depends on the instructional
design of activities supported by chatbots. If the cognitive load is too high, it can
interfere with learning outcomes, particularly for low-proficient students (Kim,
2016). Therefore, the use of chatbots must be carefully designed to avoid imposing
an excessive c­ ognitive load (Fryer et al., 2019). Teachers should take a leadership role
in determining the best way to use chatbots to achieve learning outcomes and miti‑
gate their limitations (Huang et al., 2022). It is imperative to complete a task that
involves learning, as it is a crucial part of the learning process. For example, chatbots
may be more appropriate for advanced learners, and restricted chatbots can be used
to correct spelling errors or check factual knowledge for beginners. Teachers have the
ability to establish guidelines for interactions with chatbots, which can assist learn‑
ers in comprehending the capabilities and limitations of these conversational agents.
 Critical Appraisal of AI-Mediated Communication ◾ 69

To address the novelty effect, students can be prepared through a workshop before
the first lesson, and multimedia principles and human-like gestures can be employed
to enhance students’ cognitive processing. Quick buttons can also be used to enhance
interactivity and engagement between chatbot and students. These measures can
help make the chatbot experience more enjoyable and effective for language learners.
Taking into account the present level of technological progress is equally significant
when implementing chatbots in language learning.
Extended reality (XR), including virtual reality (VR), augmented reality (AR),
and mixed or merged reality (MR), can be used to create immersive language learn‑
ing experiences, allowing students to practice real-world language skills in a simu‑
lated environment. Over the last ten years, XR has gained significant popularity. As
XR aims to provide realistic simulations, authenticity, a strong sense of presence, and
exposure, it has been identified as an essential tool for language learning by research‑
ers in language education (Meccawy, 2023). Several studies have been conducted
worldwide to explore the potential benefits of XR in language education (see, Bonner
& Reinders, 2018; Godwin-Jones, 2016; Lan, 2020; Peterson & Jabbari, 2022).
CALL researchers have proposed that XR provides language learners with a
distinct and innovative learning environment due to its CMC exclusive learning
environments (Peixoto et al., 2021). The advantages of XR include enhancing learn‑
ers’ interest, motivation, engagement, and spatial memory and knowledge (Lege &
Bonner, 2020; Xie et al., 2021), providing an inaccessible environment, distance
learning, and empathy training (Bonner & Reinders, 2018; Lege & Bonner, 2020);
reducing distractions (Bonner & Reinders, 2018); linking classroom concepts to
the real world (Reinders & Wattana, 2014); facilitating interactions (Bonner &
Reinders, 2018); providing a culturally rich and dynamic context (Godwin-Jones,
2016; Yeh & Kessler, 2015); and promoting learners to participate in the construc‑
tion of their learning environment (Bonner & Reinders, 2018). These are just some
of the benefits that XR offers in language education, as suggested by scholars.
Although VR has been shown to have positive effects on language learning, lan‑
guage educators have mixed opinions on its use. Some of the main barriers to the inte‑
gration of XR in language education are the high cost of VR tools and the need for
advanced digital literacy skills (Parmaxi et al., 2017). Lack of VR-specific pedagogy,
cognitive demands, and potential immersion-breaking also pose challenges (Lege &
Bonner, 2020). To effectively integrate VR into language education, teachers need to
introduce it to the classroom before implementing it, as explained by Southgate et al.
(2018). Gender should also be considered as an influential variable in VR integra‑
tion (Southgate et al., 2019). In addition, empirical studies on the merits of XR in
teacher education and the design and development of such tools are scarce (Meccawy,
2023). Therefore, it would not be possible to judge the affordability of XR from the
teachers and material developers’ perspectives. Furthermore, the lack of XR-specific
pedagogy which spells out ‘why’ and ‘how’ language education stakeholders should
constructively and compellingly integrate technology is crystal clear. In other words,
implementing XR without sufficient and efficient teacher training is useless.
70 ◾ Innovations and Applications of Technology

In conclusion, the use of ICALL is widely regarded as a vital component for

the development of education (Luckin et al., 2016). However, it is important to
recognize that language teachers need to be equipped with the necessary skills and
knowledge to effectively integrate these intelligent tools into their teaching prac‑
tices. This involves providing adequate training and education to ensure that teach‑
ers are proficient in this area and can effectively implement these technologies in
their classrooms. The next section delves further into these considerations.

4.3 ICALL and Teacher Education

While human teachers and social interactions outside of the digital realm remain
crucial for achieving fluency in language education, the integration of ICALL in
language education has led to a redefinition of the roles of teachers and learners (Bui
et al., 2023; Lam & Lawrence, 2002). As previously reviewed in the same chapter,
AI-based systems offer language learners an environment where they have the free‑
dom to choose their own learning path and pace, granting them greater control over
the learning process. These systems facilitate the development of learners’ decision-
making skills, resulting in greater learning autonomy. Through ICALL tools, con‑
nections with native speakers are easier, and foreign- and second-language learners
can intensify their learning without the need for a teacher’s direct involvement. This
enables learners to become more active participants in the learning process rather
than being passive recipients of knowledge.
The integration of AI into language learning systems has revolutionized the
teaching approach, enabling a more personalized learning experience. The learner
now has the autonomy to make independent decisions and take charge of their
progress. This shift in dynamic allows the teacher to take on a new role as a facilita‑
tor and supporter of the learner’s unique path toward proficiency. As a result, the
teacher is no longer the sole authority and decision-maker but rather works along‑
side the learner to guide them toward success. This approach has been widely recog‑
nized in the academic community, as it brings about a more inclusive and effective
learning environment (Bancheri, 2006; Rilling et al., 2005).
Currently, there is a lack of research on the newly emerged AI-powered tools in
language education, such as ChatGPT. To the best of my knowledge, no empirical
studies have been conducted on the pedagogical impact of large language mod‑
els in foreign language classes, nor on the attitudes of learners or teachers toward
their use. Additionally, there has been no research on teacher training or prepara‑
tion for integrating AI-powered tools into language classes. It is not necessary to
explore the topic of using AI-powered tools in language education completely in
isolation or from the beginning. The preparation of teachers for ICALL is a part of
CALL teacher education and professional development which has been addressed
in multiple book publications (see, Hubbard & Levy, 2006; Son, 2018; Tafazoli &
Picard, 2023; Torsani, 2016) and research articles (e.g., Hubbard, 2008, 2018,
 Critical Appraisal of AI-Mediated Communication ◾ 71

2023; Kessler, 2007, 2010; Levy, 1997; Lord & Lomicka, 2011). The general goal of
CALL teacher education is to provide language teachers, both present and future,
with the necessary technical and pedagogical knowledge and skills to effectively
incorporate technology into their classes (Hubbard, 2008; Tafazoli, 2021).
There have been numerous research studies conducted that have revealed a posi‑
tive attitude among language instructors regarding the integration of CALL and
other contemporary technologies in their classrooms. However, despite this positive
outlook, many instructors tend to be hesitant in utilizing these technologies to a
great extent. Several external factors such as a lack of equipment, technical sup‑
port, inflexible curriculum, and time constraints can contribute to this reluctance.
Additionally, there are internal factors such as a lack of CALL literacy, limited expe‑
rience with technology as a learner, lack of motivation, difficulty integrating tech‑
nology with existing teaching practices and learning styles, fear of being outside of
their comfort zone, and the fear of losing control over the classroom and students’
respect that can also influence this reluctance (see, Tafazoli & Farshadnia, 2022).
Park and Son (2009) discovered in their study that while teachers acknowledged
that CALL makes language learning more engaging, they did not believe that they
needed to be experts in using computers. Abdelhalim (2016) found that even when
teachers integrated technology into their teaching, they mainly used basic appli‑
cations such as email or web browsing. Therefore, CALL teacher trainers should
consider these factors when developing their training programs. Although it may be
premature to identify specific ICALL teacher skills or propose ICALL teacher train‑
ing models, such models will likely emerge in the near future. It will be essential to
approach this task realistically and practically. Language teachers do not need to
have programming skills or expertise in AI to use chatbots or incorporate ICALL
practice into their classes.
Several scholars have developed detailed inventories and intricate diagrams of essen‑
tial abilities for teachers (see, Mishra & Koehler, 2006), which can impose impractical
demands on teachers of foreign languages. These materials overlook the fact that such
teachers are primarily language educators and professionals. To effectively overcome
the aforementioned barriers to successful CALL implementation, adequate and ongo‑
ing professional training may be the best solution. Teachers must believe that technol‑
ogy can assist them in achieving educational objectives more efficiently and effectively
without disrupting other aspects of classroom management. They must also possess
sufficient CALL skills and have unrestricted access to technology.

4.4 Conclusion
Incorporating AI into language education has given rise to the concept of ICALL,
which offers a new level of quality in language teaching and learning. AI-based
tools can provide a sophisticated educational environment that is more personalized
and flexible for learners and teachers. These tools can assist learners in acquiring
72 ◾ Innovations and Applications of Technology

the knowledge and skills that modern society demands. There are individuals who
hold a pessimistic perspective toward the incorporation of AI, fearing that it may
obtain complete dominance and transform into an oppressive mentor that directs
the ­content, timing, and manner in which students acquire knowledge, using infor‑
mation gathered without their approval. In contrast, others have a positive view,
envisioning learners who control their personal AI tools, which aid them (and their
teachers) in better understanding their progress and organizing learning activities
(Fryer & Carpenter, 2006).
The eminence of CALL teacher education and professional development should
be considered in this situation. Language teachers required to pick up new skills to
integrate ICALL tools into their teaching processes effectively and avoid unneces‑
sary workloads and repetitive tasks. The use of tools such as writing assistants and
correction systems can support learners. However, it remains to be seen how well-
informed language teachers are about ICALL advancements and how frequently
they incorporate AI tools into their teaching. Research needs to answer various
questions, such as what the preferred AI tools among language teachers are, how
they perceive ICALL, and what motivates them to use it. Additionally, identify‑
ing the key skills required for AI-enhanced teaching environments and developing
appropriate teacher training programs are crucial.

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Chapter 5

“Write It Out!”: Using

Digital Storytelling
(DST) to Positively
Engage Pre‑Service EFL
Teachers with Digital
Content and to Enhance
Their Writing Skills
Merve Ülgen and Nurdan Kavakli Ulutaş

5.1 Introduction
The rapid advancements in information technologies have transformed various
fields, including education. The advancements and transformations have also
made technology an integral part of language education paving the way for educa‑
tors to explore innovative ways such as online learning platforms and gamifica‑
tion to incorporate technology into traditional classroom settings (Altasan, 2016;
Kavaklı Ulutaş & Abuşka, 2022, 2023; Kazazoğlu & Bilir, 2021). Therefore, it
is apparent that learner‑centered innovative approaches do necessitate the utiliza‑
tion of customizable learning materials together with novel pedagogies that can

80 DOI: 10.1201/9781003473916-6

 Digital Story Telling ◾ 81

be employed in the language learning environment, which is digitally driven. In

that, the t­ echnology‑based process of teaching and learning caters to learners with
various kinds of learning styles from visual to kinesthetic, and it not only offers an
abundance of digital tools but also facilitates the planning phase of the lesson for
language teachers.
In this context, DST has mushroomed as one of those innovative learning peda‑
gogies to practice language skills in a flexible and creative atmosphere where learn‑
ers are actively involved to practice and produce language content through digital
stories. The Digital Storytelling Association depicts DST to be a contemporary way
of storytelling. That is, we are all telling stories in our lives to convey our messages
to the addressee in many ways, and if it is done through digital multimodal chan‑
nels, the stories then become digital since they may include video, music, audio, and
images to tell the story engagingly weaving various digital multimedia tools (Robin,
2008). Thus, for Robin (2008), DST comprises an integrative process nestling dif‑
ferent types of media (i.e., photographs, videos, pictures, etc.) “that is well‑­positioned
to take advantage of user‑contributed content and to help teachers overcome some of
the obstacles to productively using technology in their classroom” (p. 222).
Nestling these various types of media, storytellers are expected to share their
spoken narratives to offer unique insights into a specific subject, spanning between
2 and 5 minutes. Herein, a digital story should carry seven main components:
(a) a viewpoint; (b) a rising question; (c) a sensible content; (d) the voice; (e) the
soundtrack; (f) economy; and (g) speed (Robin, 2008). Since each component figu‑
ratively contributes to the creation of stories, each becomes unique and authentic
(Balaman, 2018).
In addition, while creating these digital stories, three major steps are followed
according to Robin (2008): (a) prepare; (b) produce; and (c) present. Firstly, sto‑
rytellers make decisions on some points such as the topic, audience, how to create
a draft, how to edit, and the like. Secondarily, appropriate multimedia tools are
embedded in good cooperation with the points planned in the first step, using
audio, video, and/or pictorials. In the last step, learners are assumed to showcase
their digital stories in their finalized forms and present them to the target audience.
To effectively convey the story to the intended audience, the storyteller should
develop a scenario that incorporates their unique perspective; henceforth, DST
grants the opportunity for personal narration, and it is essential to utilize mean‑
ingful sounds and a variety of effects to elevate the story. The inclusion of dra‑
matic inquiries can aid in gauging the narrative’s success in achieving its objectives.
High‑quality visuals are also imperative in capturing and retaining the audience’s
attention while simultaneously achieving the story’s goals. It is of utmost impor‑
tance to ensure that the content and audio utilized in the narrative are lucid and
comprehensible. The sentences utilized should accurately and concisely convey the
essence of the story. Once all these elements have been taken into consideration, the
final narrative can be presented across a range of digital platforms.
82 ◾ Innovations and Applications of Technology

DST can be utilized as a vehicle for communicating through writing since it

lets learners to transmit messages logically through multiple modes. Thus, it has
been largely used in language classes, specifically English as a Foreign Language
(EFL) classrooms, to enhance their writing skills in a digitally driven and
­engagement‑provoking language learning environment (Balaman, 2018). To exem‑
plify, Storyjumper, a DST tool, has been used to explore to enhance EFL learners’
writing skills, assured to carry high potential to do so (Damavandi et al., 2018).
Similarly, WeVideo and a video‑editing tool have been used to investigate EFL
learners’ writing skills improvement, remarking that writing instruction when laced
with digital tools becomes more effective and engaging compared to the traditional
one since DST is influential in improving their writing skills (Balaman, 2018). In
another study, Storybird has been applied as a DST tool in a setting where students
learn English as a second language (ESL) to improve their writing skills, noting
that DST is a very fruitful tool that motivates students to collaborate to produce
a final work that is purified from prior mistakes (Nazri et al., 2016). Simply put,
enriching the students’ language learning experience and bolstering their writing
skills development, DST is regarded as a tool to offer opportunities for reflection
and connection with peers.
Yet, although there is a myriad of research on using DST for learners’ lan‑
guage skills development, research‑based evidence is scarce on how DST impacts
the English language teacher candidates’ writing skills development, which is also
pivotal in language teacher skills‑based training. Thus, the current study strives
to use DST for the improvement of pre‑service English language teachers’ writing
skills as they are assumed to be future English language teachers to those who are
struggling to learn English. Through learning how to implement it, they can have
the opportunity to use DST in their future classes, as well. To do so, a research proj‑
ect is prepared, submitted, and found eligible for funding. The project is designed
to improve pre‑service English language teachers’ writing skills by the utilization of
DST in writing classes and elaborated in detail in this chapter. Further information
is given to elaborate the context of the study below to present a better understand‑
ing for DST‑oriented practices, thanks to the research‑based evidence.

5.2 Literature Review

DST has gained popularity, albeit its roots traced back to the 1990s with the pio‑
neering efforts of Dana Atchley and Joe Lambert. Together with their peers, they
established the San Francisco Digital Media Center, which eventually evolved into
the Center for Digital Storytelling (CDS) in 2015. According to Robin and Pierson
(2005), the revised version of DST elements encompasses the purpose of the study,
narrative pacing, the narrator’s viewpoint, meaningful audio usage, a dramatic
question, image quality, content selection, voice clarity, language grammatical
usage, and the economy of the story. In consideration of these elements, it has been
 Digital Story Telling ◾ 83

agreed that the initial version prepared by the CDS be reviewed (Robin & Pierson,
2005). They intend to expand upon the existing content to encompass ten essential
components. When developing a meaningful narrative, it is crucial to establish a
clear purpose as all subsequent plans can be based upon it.
The storytelling process is utterly instructive since it entails multi‑layered con‑
struction phases of acquiring information, organizing thoughts and ideas, forming
an action plan, overcoming difficulties that emerge in the process, and eventually
coming up with a result. As new literacies revolve around technological develop‑
ments and usage, digital stories are pedagogically efficient tools that help students
enhance their digital, communicational, and language competencies within class‑
room settings. Multiple reasons make digital stories user‑friendly (Bull & Kajder,
2004). In a simple example, they can be created using a variety of contemporary
multimedia tools (visuals, sound, animations, etc.), allowing users to express their
unique experiences and points of view.
The process of creating digital narratives adheres to the ADDIE
(analysis‑design‑development‑implementation‑evaluation) model, a widely rec‑
­
ognized and utilized framework that has been in existence since the 1970s. For
analysis, a topic that is both engaging and informative is carefully selected. The
intended audience for the digital story is identified, and objectives are established.
Subsequently, a scenario outline is created, and it is imperative to conduct a com‑
prehensive literature review during this stage to ensure that the selected topic
aligns with previous research and to identify any gaps that require addressing.
During the design stage of content production, a comprehensive storyboard is
crafted to outline the subject matter. The appropriate multimedia tools are then
selected or prepared, and a final script is meticulously created. Personal narration
is utilized to record the script onto the designated platform during the develop‑
ment phase. Lastly, titles, texts, and credits are added to troubleshoot any potential
issues that may arise in the process, ensuring that the story reaches its final form.
The process continues with the implementation phase. The digital story is created
with the completion of all these components. The final phase is evaluation, and in
this stage, feedback is provided for story drafts before they are being published.
Following this, it is determined whether the messages that the digital stories want
to convey reach the target audience or whether there are still some points that need
to be developed. Herein, Cennamo and Kalk (2018) state that this phase includes
formative and summative processes to determine the overall quality of the learning
materials, which also confirms the idea that DST can also be used as an alternative
form of assessment.
Additionally, since several teaching methods and approaches have recently
become significant and supported learner engagement, sharing the common back‑
ground to be “learner‑centered” (Barrett, 2006), students accustomed to passive
learning have become acquainted with patterns of process‑oriented methods that
promote active participation, thanks to the nature of DST‑oriented practices.
Therefore, various DST tools are introduced to contribute to these developmental
84 ◾ Innovations and Applications of Technology

areas, such as Bubblr, Capzles, PicLits, Slidestory, ACMI Generator, Storybird,

ZooBurst, MapSkip, Canva, Animoto, Pixton, Powtoon, StoryboardThat, and so on.
Thanks to these tools and many more, digital media production has become more
popular, allowing individuals and organizations to create their digital stories to use
in education, for reflection, or as a social change in a participatory environment.
In such an environment, students are captured by DST in accordance with various
learning styles and preferences by triggering emotional connections with the stories
that they are going to develop. In addition, DST offers enjoyable and memorable
moments of life to build peak learning experiences that cannot be forgotten easily
since there are emotional connections for content retention. Boosting their creativ‑
ity, students can explore various cultures, issues, and perspectives while gaining
socio‑cultural awareness and autonomy, thanks to the personalized learning experi‑
ences gathered throughout the learning process.
In such a learning process laced with personalized learning experiences, stu‑
dents’ socio‑emotional skills can be shaped by their preferred learning paths to
improve their skills. In this context, Gözen and Cırık’s (2017) study has shown
that DST has a positive impact on the social and emotional behaviors of preschool
children, pinpointing approximately two‑thirds of them showing critical thinking,
flexibility, adaptation to differences by establishing relationships, and management
skills, which all became permanent right after the learning process.
For language teachers and learners, teachers are often believed to take on the
role of storytellers in the classroom (Cameron, 2001). This not only piques students’
curiosity and interest in the subject but also improves the effectiveness of language
teaching when the stories are well‑structured and engaging (Byram & Feng, 2006).
In that, DST offers a unique platform for teachers to incorporate various cultural
elements into narratives, catering to students to explore language in an amplified
cultural context to gain new perspectives on the subject.
Furthermore, DST allows students to become their content creators as well
(Robin, 2008). Thanks to their knowledge and skills, language teachers can guide
their students in the process of creating their own stories (Smeda et al., 2014),
thereby promoting their creativity by facilitating the development of linguistically
rich narratives and original content. To provide students with a more effective
language learning experience, language teachers should prioritize improving their
language proficiency and writing skills. That said, DST can be used as a useful tech‑
nique for achieving this, which leverages the benefits of technology and provides a
wide range of multimedia channels for further use.
Considering these, as a powerful technique to promote the development of writ‑
ing skills of language users, DST has been employed to provide research‑based
evidence on how it impacts the English language teacher candidates’ writing skills
development, which is also pivotal in language teacher skills‑based training within
the scope of the current study.
 Digital Story Telling ◾ 85

5.3 Methodology
5.3.1 Research Design
The current study deployed a mixed‑methods research design, which was quanti‑
tatively driven in which the quantitative part was laced with one group pre‑test–
post‑test design whereas the qualitative part was nestled with their reflective reports
of structured interviews, which were the products of a funded national project.
Using a DST tool, named Powtoon, the English language teacher candidates’ writ‑
ing skills development was pursued together with taking their perceptions and
reflections on the process.

5.3.2 Participants
The participants were determined by purposive sampling (Tongco, 2007) among
freshmen at the Department of Foreign Languages Education from a state univer‑
sity in Türkiye voluntarily in the fall semester of the academic year 2022–2023.
The participants were initially ten students; however, two of them only executed the
pre‑test, albeit not the post‑test. Accordingly, they were excluded from the study to
ensure validity and excluded from further statistical analyses not to affect reliability.
Thereupon, eight volunteer participants who also attended the compulsory “Writing
Skills I” course and enrolled for the “Writing Skills II” course were recruited with
an age range between 18 and 20. The reason behind taking this compulsory course
was that initially, skills‑based courses (e.g., oral communication skills, listening
and pronunciation, advanced reading, and writing skills) were completed to move
on to subject‑specific field courses (e.g., linguistics, language acquisition, teaching
language skills, etc.) at these departments of Faculties of Education. Thus, freshmen
students were considered as the participants of this study to emphasize validity as
that of the generalizability of the results to similar research contexts. In addition,
the participants did share a common background of language knowledge since they
were enrolled at the department to their scores of a standardized high‑stakes exami‑
nation executed as a university entrance exam with no prior experience abroad,
which might derail the reliability of the study, and their self‑perceived proficiency
levels were similar (from B1+ to B2).

5.3.3 Instruments
As a DST tool, Powtoon was used which was funded by the project with its pre‑
mium option solely for the researcher to introduce the steps for digital story creation
together with the essentials of the tool. However, participants could only use its
free form since they did need to pay if they would like to add premium features,
albeit not needed during the process. The reason for choosing Powtoon was that
86 ◾ Innovations and Applications of Technology

the researcher had a good command of knowledge to use it, and it had a relatively
friendly interface providing handy visuals. Since the researcher was going to orga‑
nize introductory sessions on how to use this DST tool, it was of the researcher’s
convenience to use what was already being used by her; otherwise, it would take
much time. In addition, the free version was available for all participants without
charge, which was fair enough for the accomplishment of the current study.
Apart from that, a simple pre‑test and post‑test design was utilized regarding the
midterm and final scores of the participants during the semester from the “Writing
Skills II” course for the quantitative part. It was, thus, detected whether there was
a statistically significant increase that might be enhanced using DST‑oriented prac‑
tices. In the meantime, the participants were also asked by the researcher some
demographic questions before mingling with the DST process under three main
headings: (a) digital competence, (b) digital use, and (c) digital transformation.
They, therefore, self‑reported their digital skills via Google Forms to promote flex‑
ibility before the process began with a Cronbach’s Alpha reliability score of 85.
These items were also helpful in understanding whether they had prior knowledge
or skills to create digital stories better than the others, which might derail the reli‑
ability and validity of the current study. To investigate their prior digital compe‑
tencies, the participants were asked by a list of items (N = 15) composed of can‑do
statements on a 5‑point Likert‑type basis from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree
(5) regarding their digital competence, digital use, and digital transformation to
detect digital repertoires and skills in the very beginning through self‑reports. This
form was only used in the very beginning since later, participants were expected
to write narratives to a structured open‑ended sentence pattern further elaborated.
For the qualitative part, a structured open‑ended sentence pattern was given
to the participants: “At the end of this session, I….…” which was provided with an
example (Ex: At the end of this session, I like to learn how to draw some simple story‑
boards to illustrate my ideas for a digital story) to ensure their understanding before
they filled in their narratives. In this way, it was aimed to observe their reflections
on the overall process in their own words. Before the participants were introduced
to the data collection process and instruments, their consents, together with the
Ethical Committee Approval, were taken to ensure that the results would solely be
reported for research purposes and their names would be kept anonymous.

5.3.4 Procedure
Priorly, Microsoft Teams (MT) was applied to conduct the study. On MT, a chan‑
nel of a proficient learning community (PLC) was created in which the group
of participants together with the researcher were listed. On this channel, all the
announcements were made by the researcher regarding introductory meetings on
the project, DST training sessions, updates, data collection processes, assignments,
and reflection for evaluation. Through the online sessions previously decided and
 Digital Story Telling ◾ 87

set according to the convenience of both the researcher and participants, the proce‑
dure was implemented robustly for research purposes.
Initially, the first introductory meeting was held face‑to‑face to let participants
meet the researcher, understand the research process, and ask questions if they
happened to have any further inquiries. This meeting was also helpful for making
pre‑service English language teachers see what the project was about, what the proj‑
ect demanded, and whether they would like to participate or not. Taking this as the
starting point, the sampling of the participants became easier as well. However, for
the sampling process, the course instructor was also invited to meet and discuss the
potential of the project to help him convey the course more smoothly. Since mid‑
term and final exam scores would be in use, permission was taken from the course
instructor to take place in the research process. Taking the confirmation from the
course instructor to establish collaboration in‑betweens, the researcher together with
her academic advisor planned to detect voluntary participants as a preliminary step.
Afterward, the participants of the study were met online to discuss the timeline
together with the project requirements and given information on how to conduct
the overall process. In doing so, they were given a list of items in the form of can‑do
statements regarding their digital competence, digital use, and digital transfor‑
mation to detect participants’ digital repertoires and skills in the very beginning
through self‑assessment, and it was conducted online through Google Forms. In
that, if there was a participant with greater knowledge and skills than the oth‑
ers, s/he needed to be withdrawn from the process as it might derail the overall
results. On the contrary, participants indicated that they somehow lacked such
digital competencies. To eliminate the shortcomings that might arise from the lack
of participants’ knowledge and skills, and to facilitate the research project adapta‑
tion process, the digital story production process was thoroughly explained to the
participants beforehand.
Following that, the DST tool that would be in use for weeks was introduced
to the participants in an online meeting organized on MT. As mentioned previ‑
ously, as a DST tool, Powtoon was used by purchasing a premium account to pro‑
duce sample digital stories and guide the participants by the researcher. Until the
midterm week of the “Writing Skills II” course, the course syllabus tracked by the
course instructor was followed according to the usual flow. Introductory meetings
were implemented during this period during which the participants were given pre‑
determined tasks weekly and instructed to generate their digital stories between the
midterm and final weeks of the course. Since the research timeline was set as seven
weeks, the participants were awaited until midterm week to have a good command
of digital skills to create their own stories until the final week. During this time,
they were given sessions on how to use DST for writing skills development, how
to apply Powtoon as a DST tool to create unique stories, and how to create stories
effectively in line with the subject areas previously defined under the triangulation
of the course instructor, academic advisor, and researcher.
88 ◾ Innovations and Applications of Technology

Subsequently, the stories were shared on YouTube, and feedback sessions were
held on the MT channel on the stories developed by the participants, thanks to the
efforts of the researcher. Hereby, it was aimed to support and monitor the devel‑
opment of the participants’ digital skills as that of writing. The requested digital
stories were prepared under four headings with the consensus of the three parties
on (a) how to paraphrase (sentence/paragraph substitution), (b) content and lan‑
guage integrated learning (CLIL)‑based article analysis, (c) how to use citation/give
references, (d) how to create a cause‑effect essay. Henceforth, participants delved
into the various steps involved in producing digital stories and explored how they
could engage with digital content and computer‑mediated multimodal strategies
(Figures 5.1 and 5.2).

Figure 5.1 Digital story sample created by participant A.

Figure 5.2 Digital story sample created by participant B.

 Digital Story Telling ◾ 89

Herein to note, participants were not forced to produce their digital content
within a previously defined time limit or space. As the nature of the DST process
entailed flexibility, participants were given extra time to create their own stories;
however, to conduct the research project efficiently, there was a timeline to follow,
which was already shared by the participants in the very beginning session, also
shared as a separate file in the folders of the MT channel.
After presenting and publishing their digital content, the participants were
given time to study for final exams since this was a part of the process. Before letting
them, a structured open‑ended sentence pattern was asked online through Google
Forms again to ease the process of obtaining information about their personal expe‑
riences and reflections about the overall DST process. A structured open‑ended
sentence pattern given to the participants was: “At the end of this session, I….…”,
and an example was given in a separate sentence to direct the appropriate way for
the participants. Herein to note, all the materials in use were in English since their
language development was a part of the study regarding writing, and this was
maneuvered for research purposes, albeit their native language was Turkish. After
the completion of the term, the midterm and final exam scores of the participants
were gathered from the course instructor and documented. The developmental dif‑
ferences of these exams were analyzed using statistical software, and participants’
reflections were analyzed thematically via narrative analysis.

5.3.5 Data Analysis

As noted, a quantitatively driven mixed‑methods research design was utilized in which
the quantitative part was obtained by using a pre‑test and post‑test design for a single
group. Since the nature of the data was violating the basic assumptions of normality, a
non‑parametric test was utilized to detect the differences in‑betweens by a Wilcoxon
signed ranks test via SPSS. On another hand, the qualitative data were collected online
through a structured open‑ended sentence pattern to ensure practicality according to
the convenience of the researcher and participants, which were analyzed via narrative
analysis. In this respect, the possible contributions of DST to the participants’ writing
skills development were interpreted by the researcher(s), who were experts in the field
of language education together with methodological knowledge and skills.

5.4 Findings and Results

5.4.1 Participants’ Prior Self‑Reported Digital Competencies
To investigate their prior digital competencies, the participants were asked by a
list of items (N = 15) composed of can‑do statements on a 5‑point Likert‑type basis
regarding their digital competence, digital use, and digital transformation to detect
digital repertoires and skills in the very beginning through self‑reports, and it was
conducted online through Google Forms. The items are listed in Table 5.1.
90 ◾ Innovations and Applications of Technology

Table 5.1 Items on Digital Competence, Digital Use, and Digital

Transformation
Item N Mean SD

1. I can collect digital media. 8 2.87 1.17

2. I can analyze digital media. 8 3.00 1.00

3. I can edit photos and videos. 8 3.75 1.39

4. I can use digital tools like a camera, 8 4.75 .43

microphone, and tripod.

5. I can record a voice‑over. 8 4.25 1.09

6. I know when voiceovers are recorded in a 8 5.00 .00

quiet place, better quality is engaged.

7. I have problem‑solving skills. 8 2.25 1.56

8. I can create digital stories. 8 2.00 1.32

9. I can apply different angles and shots in a 8 2.86 1.17

digital story.

10. I can apply video‑editing techniques to 8 2.63 1.32

set the mood.

11. I can apply music to set the mood. 8 3.00 1.12

12. I know advanced techniques, such as 8 1.88 1.36

inter‑cut, slow and fast motion, and
subtitles, to transmit messages according
to the theme.

13. I can develop storylines according to the 8 2.88 1.17

theme with creativity.

14. I can use storyboards for drawing and 8 2.88 1.27

script writing.

15. I can ask dramatic questions to hold the 8 2.66 1.22

interest of the audience.

Valid N (listwise) 8

Contrary to the researcher’s belief that participants were born into the new age of
technology which might help them advance in digital skills, participants indicated
that they somehow lacked digital competencies. To eliminate the shortcomings that
might arise from the lack of participants’ knowledge and skills, and to facilitate the
 Digital Story Telling ◾ 91

research project adaptation process, the digital story production process was thor‑
oughly explained to the participants beforehand. The lowest scores were noted for
Item 12 (I know advanced techniques, such as inter‑cut, slow and fast motion, and
subtitles to transmit messages according to the theme), Item 8 (I can create digital stories),
Item 7 (I have problem‑solving skills), and Item 10 (I can apply video editing techniques
to set the mood) with the mean scores of 1.88; 2.00; 2.25; and 2.63, respectively. Very
similarly, Item 15 (I can ask dramatic questions to hold the interest of the audience) with
a mean score of 2.66; Item 9 (I can apply different angles and shoots in a digital story)
with a mean score of 2.86; and Item 13 (I can develop storylines according to the theme
with creativity); and Item 14 (I can use storyboards for drawing and script writing) with
the same mean scores of 2.88 were noted to be lower in terms of ranking, stating that
participants were not fully competent in the steps to compose a digital story.
Nevertheless, the highest mean scores were estimated for Item 6 (I know when
voiceovers are recorded in a quiet place, better quality is engaged), Item 4 (I can use dig‑
ital tools like a camera, microphone, and tripod), and Item 5 (I can record a voice‑over)
with the mean scores of 5.00; 4.75; and 4.25, respectively. In sum, participants were
found to lack using advanced media techniques (e.g., inter‑cut, slow/fast motion,
etc.) whereas they were aware that recording in a quiet place contributes to the
process of ensuring better quality in the use of digital media content. Since the
participants were assumed to self‑report the overall process through reflections in
a qualitative way, they were not requestioned by this form to detect day‑after‑day
differences.

5.4.2 Participants’ Test Scores

The Wilcoxon signed ranks, as a non‑parametric test, was applied to determine
the difference between the pre‑ and post‑test scores of the pre‑service English lan‑
guage teachers. The pre‑test for the current study was accepted as the participants’
midterm scores whereas the post‑test for the current study was remarked as their
final exam scores gathered from the course instructor. According to the results, a
significant difference was found statistically in‑betweens (M1 = 73.40, SD1 = 9.54;
M2 = 90.80, SD2 = 5.33) scores of the participants (Z = 2.809; p = 0.025). The dif‑
ference was in favor of the post‑test scores based on negative ranks. That was, ulti‑
mately, participants increased their proficiency in DST, which might pave the way
toward an increase in the test scores. This might also relate to the level of engage‑
ment with the “Writing Skills II” course since participants’ knowledge and skill in
the course were also increasing; however, achievement was a manifold concept that
had various facets, and statistics just confirmed it.

5.4.3 Participants’ Reflections about DST

Participants’ reflections gathered in the form of narratives played a crucial role in
discovering their overall viewpoints and reflections. Accordingly, the contribution
of DST to their digital competence development, the role of digital story production
92 ◾ Innovations and Applications of Technology

steps to help their writing skills development, and their future tendency to use DST
in their future language classrooms to teach a foreign/second language together
were listed as the main themes.
To remember, the first introductory meeting was held on MT on May 20, 2022,
and the participants’ reflections were gathered through a structured open‑ended
sentence pattern: “At the end of this session, I….…”. The responses gathered from the
participants were diverse, and to ensure anonymity and confidentiality, the names
of the participants were not listed, albeit given a flowing order without any correc‑
tion of the participants’ writing:

… I’m nervous because I had plans for this week.

… I fully understand what digital storytelling is.
… I think I might like to visualize my thoughts on a digital platform and show them
to others.
… I realized that I could love teaching children with digital stories.
… I want to improve my digital story skills. Especially video and photo editing.
… I want to improve my writing skills and learn about some digital techniques.
… I liked the idea of putting my project forward and helping people learn things
easily and with fun.
… although I think I will face some difficulties when creating digital stories (using
digital materials), it sounds interesting, and I believe I will do my best.
… at the end of this session, I want to improve my basic skills such as writing, speak‑
ing, and reading comprehension.

Looking at the responses comprehensively, it could be fair to state that although the
participants had concerns about issues of not creating their own digital stories at
first, they were positive and hopeful about the overall process. The fact that digital
stories were visually rich had a positive effect on the participants’ opinions about
DST. In addition, participants would mostly like to adopt DST for further use and
stated that they would continue to improve themselves. In this regard, participants
might also help to disseminate the use of DST in language education as a part of
their professional lives:

… I can use technology in my future classroom and easily grab students’ attention.
… I think it would be good for young learners as the bright colors and effects of the
digital stories will keep their attention and help them to focus.
… Digital storytelling is an interesting technique. With the right animation choices,
I am sure my students will be more interested in digital storytelling than tradi‑
tional methods.
… I think that digital storytelling attracts students’ attention.
… As a prospective teacher, I plan to use digital storytelling as its animations are
interesting for younger students, and I can also use it for my students to summarize
what I’m teaching.
… Digital storytelling makes the subject more understandable and interesting.
 Digital Story Telling ◾ 93

Participants also stated that the use of DST provided an advantage for them as
future English language teachers in terms of grammatical accuracy and lexical
knowledge so that they could develop a sense of self‑confidence in preparing more
authentic materials:

… It is useful in using synonyms frequently and improving sentence quality.

… It is advantageous to summarize and interpret my writings more easily.
… Learning these skills allows me to create increasingly interesting videos.
… Now I have another option for teaching.
… I can create digital storytelling videos about any topic. So you can create your
material and it will motivate you.

According to the consensus of the participants, some of the prominent advantages of

DST were that they provided rich visual and auditory opportunities, and therefore,
helped to generate interest. In this context, digital stories differed from traditional
methods as they were both teacher‑ and learner‑friendly. Contrarily, as with any
method, there were a few disadvantages noted, though. To mention, it was agreed
that the production process was time‑consuming, specifically for those who were
newly experiencing DST, understanding how the process worked took much time
and effort. Although the end‑product had visually rich content, it required detailed
work, which made the process (sometimes) far from entertaining and even demoral‑
izing for some of the participants who were also the creators of the digital stories:

… It takes time and effort. The making process is not that much fun.
… Creating digital stories is somewhat time consuming.
… I’ ll use it often, yet it takes a while to create, so if I don’t have time for my lecture
or presentation, I can’t use digital storytelling.

In addition, Powtoon used during the DST execution process had some limitations
according to the belief of one participant. The pricing policy of Powtoon created a
deficit for users, especially due to the exchange rate difference. Although the website
offered the opportunity to use a free account, the possibilities and material avail‑
ability offered in this account content were mostly limited when compared to those
of premium features. This limitation was reported to be demotivating and restricted
users’ creativity and freedom. Since s/he had positive thoughts about the use of
DST, s/he stated to favor using alternative platforms other than Powtoon, though:

… I will use digital storytelling in the future but probably not this website.

5.5 Discussion and Conclusion

Just like the advances in technology, the use of DST is becoming more prevalent
day by day. In that, “digital stories are a form of communication and as they are
created, students apply critical thinking skills while selecting the appropriate media
94 ◾ Innovations and Applications of Technology

to convey the story’s message to the audience” (Xu et al., 2011, p. 181). In doing so,
DST provides students with an environment in which they can learn the content,
practice language skills, communicate and collaborate to produce, and critically
think and analyze the content together with the overall learning process, thanks to
the quality standards enabled by technology. In this vein, the question addressed in
this study considers whether the DST contributes to the writing skills of pre‑service
English language teachers.
Beyond question, there are multidisciplinary studies examining the use of
DST for the advancement of writing skills (Meletiadou, 2022), in gifted education
(Yaman & Taşdelen, 2022), in teacher candidates’ development of creative writing
skills (Duman & Göçen Kabaran, 2015), and the employment of DST in EFL set‑
tings (Castillo‑Cuesta et al., 2021). Results have revealed that the use of DST can
create an authentic learning environment for learners and facilitate the learning
process by providing long‑term motivation and self‑efficacy. Thanks to the oppor‑
tunity of adding personal narratives to digital stories, learners can develop their
communicative and critical thinking skills by internalizing the process.
In the context of this study, composed of eight English language teacher candi‑
dates recruited voluntarily from the Department of Foreign Languages Education
in a state university in Türkiye, participants are observed on a longitudinal basis
on a task‑based continuum and catered with constructive feedback on the subject
areas priorly defined in collaboration with the course lecturer, academic advisor, and
researcher to compose their unique digital stories via Powtoon. Analyzing the gath‑
ered quantitative data through SPSS and qualitative data through narrative analysis,
it is scrutinized that the implementation of DST has yielded a favorable impact on
pre‑service English language teachers’ writing skills development since it is showcased
that as the level of engagement with digital content has increased, their perceived level
of improvement in DST together with that of writing has also enhanced. Confirming
this, a statistically significant increase is reported between pre‑ and post‑test results.
It is also reflected by the participants that Powtoon despite having some limitations
because of the premium capabilities it offers can be utilized to improve the writing
abilities of pre‑service English language teachers and create digital stories.
When the pre‑ and post‑test results are compared, it can be stated that the process
is instructive, and the participants’ writing skills have advanced over time, confirming
the results of a previous study conducted with primary school students (Çıralı Sarıca
& Koçak Usluel, 2016). In addition, their (2016) study also proved that DST had a
significant influence on students’ writing skills development together with the visual
memory and the longevity of the information they learned. Similar results were gath‑
ered in this study, which confirmed the generalizability of the results to postulate the
efficiency of using DST to improve students’ writing skills. Likewise, as Alemi et al.
(2022) stated in their study, DST offered a novel experience for students as users, thus
elaborated guidance could be provided during the overall process. Taking this issue
into consideration, explanatory sessions on DST held at the offspring of the study
and sample digital stories prepared priori by the researchers to get superior products
 Digital Story Telling ◾ 95

ultimately by the students as posterior digital stories could be given to confirm the idea
behind it. Lensing through the test results again, it was noteworthy to mention that
participants demonstrated enhancement in their self‑efficacy levels within the scopes
of dramatic questioning, making necessary arrangements, and developing storylines
by the end of the process. Additionally, the utilization of storyboards was reported to
facilitate the creation of well‑defined plotlines within their narratives as confirmed
by the previous studies in literature (Yamaç & Ulusoy, 2016). Since there might be
difficulties in the way of creation, it was recommended for story creators to enhance
problem‑solving skills in case they might be encountered.
As a result of the qualitative part, participants’ reflections indicated that the
use of this technique could increase the student’s interest in the lesson, and DST
was suitable for presenting the subject matter in a more meaningful and summa‑
tive way. The notion of utilizing digital stories by effectively using DST technology
throughout their professional career journey with their future students also boosted
the enthusiasm of the participants in creating unique digital stories. Similar results
were obtained in the literature and confirmed that the presence of an audience
could boost users’ motivation to develop texts with greater diligence and eagerness,
resulting in high writing performance (Meletiadou, 2022).
Beyond question, by attending explanatory sessions and receiving helpful sam‑
ples from the researchers, participants could develop confidence in their digital
competencies and problem‑solving skills. The statistically proven increase in their
writing skills laced with positive reflective thoughts on digital story creation as their
final products demonstrated the benefits of utilizing this method to enhance writ‑
ing skills. Nonetheless, it was crucial to note that DST might be time‑consuming,
albeit multifaceted. Thus, an appropriate platform just as planning the overall pro‑
cess from the beginning was to be selected to ensure that participants’ enthusiasm
was not dampened. By doing so, users could enhance their cognitive skills and retain
the acquired knowledge in long‑term memory. In this vein, students could deepen
their comprehension of the cyclical nature of the writing process by evaluating and
revising their texts from many aspects during the preparation, drafting, editing, sto‑
ryboarding, and production processes of their digital stories. Through the incorpora‑
tion of their voices and the use of several multimedia tools in the stories, participants
felt more engaged, found the opportunity to personalize their products, and devel‑
oped their new literacy skills. In addition, since the stories were created in the target
language (English), participants could develop their language skills to create mean‑
ingful narratives in the target language as well as their writing skills.
In summary, digital stories can be advantageous for language teaching and learn‑
ing due to their ability to provide a visually captivating and enjoyable experience.
This can serve as an intrinsic motivator for students, leading to increased language
competence. During the creation process, narrators can enhance grammatical com‑
petence by crafting meaningful narratives. This technique has been confirmed to be
effective by the participants who have experienced its benefits firsthand. During the
creation process of digital stories, narrators can test and improve their problem‑solving
96 ◾ Innovations and Applications of Technology

and management skills by overcoming technical problems (i.e., voice clarity, record‑
ing) together with the challenges of planning (i.e., creating storyboard and narration).
However, in the current study, the contributions of DST on EFL student–­
teachers’ writing skills development are examined which may be remarked as a
limitation with a relatively small number of participants, albeit grounded upon
research‑based evidence. Following this, further research can be expanded by uti‑
lizing experimental design with a relatively higher number of participants to detect
possible contributions and potential risks in tow. Undoubtedly, DST will continue
to captivate the attention of educators and researchers who aim to elevate its efficacy
in promoting students’ learning since it is evident that DST offers a contemporary
pedagogical approach for enhancing users’ digital literacy and writing skills.

Acknowledgment
This study is supported by the Scientific and Technological Research Council of
Türkiye (TUBITAK) under the 2209‑A Research Project Support Program for
Undergraduate Students within the call of 2021/1.

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Chapter 6

Revitalizing English
Language Learning:
An Exploration of
ChatGPT’s Impact on
Student Engagement
and Motivation
Nghi Tin Tran and Thang Tat Nguyen

6.1 Introduction
Language education has witnessed a hopeful innovation in chatbots, featuring
ChatGPT driven by the cutting‑edge GPT‑4 model, the iteration of the Generative
Pre‑trained Transformer (GPT) series. Unlike traditional methods, these chatbots
stimulate engagement and prompt real‑time feedback to learners. Nevertheless, there
is meager substantial proof to attest to the efficiency of ChatGPT in elevating stu‑
dent enthusiasm and engagement in EFL (English as a foreign language) contexts.
Artificial intelligence (AI) has quickly changed the landscape of language educa‑
tion. AI brings the possibility to shift educational patterns significantly, particu‑
larly in how languages are acquired. Through the help of AI‑assisted instruments,

98 DOI: 10.1201/9781003473916-7

 Revitalizing English Language Learning ◾ 99

students acquire distinct responses and practical learning events, giving them more
occasions to rehearse beyond the four walls of the classroom. This especially benefits
EFL students in learning English, as they frequently require supplementary assis‑
tance (Hung et al., 2022).
The significance of the English language across sectors like education, com‑
merce, and technology is undeniable. However, challenges in engagement and
motivation often hinder learners (Dörnyei, 2001). AI tools, such as ChatGPT, pres‑
ent potential solutions to these challenges, with initial studies suggesting enhanced
student engagement and motivation (Baker, 2016; Grassini, 2023).
As ChatGPT is an innovative application of AI, research into its applicability
may shed light on how it should be used and modified. To fill this gap, this study
aims to:

1. Evaluate ChatGPT’s impact on student engagement and motivation in EFL

contexts.
2. Understand students’ perceptions regarding the usability and effectiveness of
ChatGPT.
3. Compare the outcomes of students accessing ChatGPT with those who do
not, to ascertain its specific contribution to English language learning.

This study may contribute to the literature on the use of technology in language
education (Baker, 2016). It particularly offers empirical insights into ChatGPT’s
potential, informing its future development and implementation strategies. The
findings may give implications for the immediate context and beyond, underscor‑
ing the importance of integrating technology into pedagogical designs (Eiland &
Todd, 2019; Gellerstedt et al., 2018).

6.2 Literature Review

The landscape of foreign language education has been transformed by technology.
Online platforms and multimedia resources are now integral to fostering genuine
communication, autonomy, and immediate feedback (Aisami, 2015; Nikolic et al.,
2023). The application of AI technology is particularly remarkable in this regard
since it enables learners to proceed at their own pace while simultaneously provid‑
ing them with quick feedback. The application of AI technology is particularly
remarkable in this regard since it enables learners to proceed at their own pace while
simultaneously providing them with immediate feedback. Learners can improve
their skills more quickly with digital tools’ feedback on vocabulary, grammar, and
pronunciation (Golonka et al., 2013; Kuhail et al., 2023; Lee et al., 2020), but
they can also develop fluency by utilizing these tools to communicate with native
speakers (Hwang et al., 2023; Okonkwo & Ade‑Ibijola, 2021). Opportunities to
100 ◾ Innovations and Applications of Technology

communicate with native speakers are paramount to achieving fluency. Digital

tools are essential for language learners, as they offer various opportunities for com‑
municating and practicing with native speakers, leading to fluency development
(Wang & Han, 2021).
Scholars have discovered that using technology in language learning promotes
authentic communication (Selvaraj et al., 2021), leading to meaningful conversa‑
tions with native speakers, as reported in a study conducted by Dolores (2006).
Dolores (2006) pointed out that learners who used digital tools were likelier to
engage in meaningful conversations with native speakers than those who did not.
The ability to interact successfully with people of other cultures is referred to as
intercultural communicative competence, and Godwin‑Jones (2023) discovered
that learners can develop their intercultural communicative competence with the
use of digital tools.
To this point, the use of technology in the process of language acquisition has
proven to be an encouraging method that possesses the potential to enhance the
skills and capabilities of learners. However, it is essential to note that technology
does not replace human interaction. Learners still need opportunities to practice
their skills with native speakers and teachers.
Within this technological evolution, AI has carved a niche, particularly with
the emergence of conversational agents or chatbots. These AI‑driven chatbots have
been recognized for their ability to offer personalized and interactive experiences,
simulating real‑world conversations and providing learners with instantaneous feed‑
back. Such capabilities have been linked to improvements in specific language skills,
including oral fluency and reading comprehension (Coniam, 2014; Fryer et al., 2019).
The role of engagement and motivation in language learning is a prominent
subject in the conversation. Technological interventions, especially multimedia
and gamification, have been identified as significant enhancers of these critical fac‑
tors (Luo, 2023). Such interventions make the learning process more engaging and
stimulate motivation outcomes (Dörnyei, 1998; Hamari et al., 2014). Furthermore,
technology‑augmented environments have been associated with fostering autono‑
mous learning, a factor directly correlated with increased motivation and improved
language learning outcomes (Chowdhry et al., 2014; Dörnyei, 1998; Hamari et al.,
2014; Hung, 2021).
Amidst the plethora of AI tools, a cutting‑edge conversational AI rooted in
the ChatGPT 4.0 model has garnered attention in various educational contexts.
However, a noticeable gap exists in the literature regarding its specific role and
efficacy in English language learning. While the broader benefits of technology
in language learning are well‑documented, the distinct advantages of employing
ChatGPT, especially concerning student engagement and motivation in English
instruction, remain underexplored.
Engagement and motivation are crucial factors regarding the transforma‑
tive impact that technology can have on language learning, as elucidated in the
 Revitalizing English Language Learning ◾ 101

literature. However, determining just how ChatGPT fits into this paradigm is
still debatable. Consequently, this study aims to determine the potential impact of
ChatGPT on the EFL landscape, utilizing prior research on technology‑enhanced
language instruction. The ultimate objective is to ascertain how ChatGPT can fos‑
ter greater student motivation and engagement levels.

6.3 Methodology
6.3.1 Research Design
A quasi‑experimental design was employed, utilizing both pre‑tests and post‑tests to
assess the impact of ChatGPT on student engagement and motivation. The experi‑
mental group incorporated ChatGPT and traditional instruction, while the control
group adhered to the conventional curriculum.

6.3.2 Participants
The study encompassed 50 university EFL students, categorized into two distinct
groups: the experimental group (n = 25) and the control group (n = 25). The demo‑
graphic details of the participants are summarized in Table 6.1.

6.3.3 Materials
To measure student engagement and motivation, identical pre‑tests and
post‑tests were administered (see Appendix A). Experimental group partici‑
pants engaged with ChatGPT online to practice English and their traditional
instruction activities. The ChatGPT platform offered interactive language prac‑
tice and feedback opportunities. Eight students were given ChatGPT accounts
to access, and researchers monitored these accounts. Following the interven‑
tion, both experimental and control groups completed a feedback questionnaire,
­a ssessing the usability and effectiveness of ChatGPT as a supplementary tool
(see Appendix B).

Table 6.1 Participants’ Demographic

Information
Group Age (Mean ± SD) Gender (M/F)

Experimental 22.4 ± 2.1 12/13

Control 22.2 ± 1.9 11/14

102 ◾ Innovations and Applications of Technology

Table 6.2 Pre-Test and Post-Test Scores for Engagement and Motivation
Pre-Test/100 max Post-Test/100 max
Group Metric (Mean ± SD) (Mean ± SD) Min Max

Experimental Engagement 50.2 ± 6.8 64.6 ± 7.1 42.5 78.2

Motivation 51.4 ± 6.5 67.3 ± 6.9 45.2 81.7

Control Engagement 49.6 ± 7.2 53.1 ± 6.5 41.8 72.5

Motivation 50.9 ± 7.1 54.7 ± 6.4 43.5 74.3

6.3.4 Procedure
At the commencement of the study, both groups underwent a pre‑test. Over a
ten‑week period, the experimental group engaged with ChatGPT for a minimum
of 30 minutes weekly, while both groups received the same classroom instruction.
A post‑test and a feedback questionnaire were administered upon study completion.

6.3.5 Data Analysis

The collected data underwent descriptive and inferential analysis. The collected
data underwent descriptive and inferential analysis, with mean scores and standard
deviations used as parameters for inference (Table 6.2).
The experimental group demonstrated significant improvements in engagement
and motivation scores (p < 0.001), whereas the control group exhibited no signifi‑
cant changes. Following the intervention, the experimental group’s engagement and
motivation scores were notably higher than the control group’s (p < 0.001).
The examination of participant English proficiency levels (Mean ± SD) in
Table 6.1 indicates that both experimental and control groups possessed similar ini‑
tial proficiency, allowing for a more accurate comparison of the treatment’s effects
on engagement and motivation. Utilizing a feedback questionnaire for both groups
facilitated comprehensive insights into the participants’ experiences and percep‑
tions regarding ChatGPT’s usability and effectiveness. Additionally, the Treatment
section now elucidates the class of the experimental group, its activities, and the
integration of the ChatGPT platform.

6.4 Results
The following sections present a detailed analysis of the results, comparing the
experimental group that utilized ChatGPT with a control group that followed a
conventional curriculum.
 Revitalizing English Language Learning ◾ 103

6.4.1 Pre‑Test and Post‑Test Outcomes

Engagement, a pivotal aspect of effective learning, was assessed by analyzing par‑
ticipants’ active participation in class discussions and their tendency to seek sup‑
plementary English resources. Table 6.3 presents the engagement scores for both
groups, capturing the frequency of active involvement and resource‑seeking.
The mean overall engagement score for the experimental group was 6.5
(SD = 1.2), indicating a high level of engagement. This group reported frequent
active participation in class discussions (M = Often) and moderate tendencies to
seek additional English resources outside class (M = Sometimes).
Comparatively, the control group displayed a slightly lower mean overall engage‑
ment score of 6.2 (SD = 1.3), suggesting a moderately engaged cohort. Their active
participation in class discussions was characterized by a “Sometimes” frequency
(M = Sometimes), and they reported infrequent seeking of additional English
resources (M = Rarely).
The range of engagement scores, depicted by the Minimum (Min) and
Maximum (Max) values, further illustrates the variability within each group. The
experimental group’s engagement scores ranged from a minimum of 5.0 to a maxi‑
mum of 9.2, indicating diverse engagement levels among participants. Similarly,
the control group’s engagement scores ranged from a minimum of 4.5 to a maxi‑
mum of 8.8, reflecting varying levels of engagement within this group.
The higher engagement scores in the experimental group suggest that the inte‑
gration of ChatGPT and traditional instruction may have fostered a more engaging
learning environment, prompting students to participate more actively in class dis‑
cussions and explore supplementary English resources more frequently.
Motivation, an influential factor in language acquisition, was assessed through
participants’ self‑reported motivation levels, primary motivation factors, and fre‑
quency of setting personal English learning goals. Table 6.4 outlines the motivation
scores, key motivating factors, and goal‑setting tendencies (see Appendix A).
As illustrated in Table 6.4, the overall mean score for motivation for the experi‑
mental group was 7.4 out of 10 (SD = 1.1), indicating a relatively high level of
motivation. The primary factor driving their motivation was an “Interest in the
language,” suggesting a personal affinity toward learning English. Additionally, this
group reported a frequent practice of setting personal goals for their English learn‑
ing (M = Often).
Table 6.3 Engagement Outcomes
Overall
Engagement Active Seeking Additional
Group (Mean ± SD) Participation Resources Min Max

Experimental 6.5 ± 1.2 Often Sometimes 5.0 9.2

Control 6.2 ± 1.3 Sometimes Rarely 4.5 8.8

104 ◾ Innovations and Applications of Technology

Table 6.4 Motivation Outcomes

Overall Primary Setting
Motivation Motivation Personal
Group (Mean ± SD) Factor Goals Min Max

Experimental 7.4 ± 1.1 Interest in the Often 5.9 9.8

language

Control 7.0 ± 1.2 Academic Sometimes 5.5 9.5

requirements

Table 6.5 Language Proficiency Self‑Assessment

Reading Writing Speaking Listening
Group (Mean ± SD) (Mean ± SD) (Mean ± SD) (Mean ± SD) Min Max

Experimental 6.8 ± 1.3 6.5 ± 1.2 7.1 ± 1.1 7.0 ± 1.2 4.9 9.7

Control 6.5 ± 1.4 6.2 ± 1.3 6.8 ± 1.2 6.9 ± 1.3 4.7 9.4

The control group exhibited a slightly lower mean overall motivation score of
7.0 (SD = 1.2), indicating a moderately motivated cohort. Their primary motivation
factor was “Academic requirements,” implying that external academic demands
significantly influenced their motivation. Moreover, their frequency of setting
personal goals for English learning was characterized by a “Sometimes” practice
(M = Sometimes).
The range of motivation scores, represented by the Minimum (Min) and
Maximum (Max) values, provides a deeper understanding of the variability within
each group. The experimental group’s motivation scores spanned from a minimum
of 5.9 to a maximum of 9.8, reflecting diverse motivation levels among participants.
Similarly, the control group’s motivation scores ranged from a minimum of 5.5 to a
maximum of 9.5, indicating varying degrees of motivation within this group.
The higher motivation scores in the experimental group suggest that the integra‑
tion of ChatGPT might have reignited their intrinsic interest in learning English,
making the learning process more enjoyable and encouraging the frequent setting
of personal learning goals.
Participants’ self‑assessed language proficiency across different language skills,
namely reading, writing, speaking, and listening, offers valuable insights into their
perceptions of their own language abilities. Table 6.5 provides a comprehensive
overview of the language proficiency self‑assessment scores for both the experimen‑
tal and control groups, derived from participants’ responses to the language profi‑
ciency self‑assessment questions outlined in Appendix A.
For the experimental group, the mean self‑assessed reading proficiency score was
6.8 (SD = 1.3), suggesting a high level of self‑perceived reading ability. Similarly, they
rated their writing skills at a mean score of 6.5 (SD = 1.2), indicating a proficient
 Revitalizing English Language Learning ◾ 105

self‑assessment. Additionally, participants in this group self‑rated their speaking

skills at a mean score of 7.1 (SD = 1.1), showcasing a high level of confidence in their
spoken English. Their self‑assessed listening proficiency garnered a mean score of
7.0 (SD = 1.2), reflecting their positive perception of their listening abilities.
The control group’s self‑assessed proficiency scores were slightly lower, with a
mean reading proficiency score of 6.5 (SD = 1.4), a mean writing proficiency score
of 6.2 (SD = 1.3), a mean speaking proficiency score of 6.8 (SD = 1.2), and a mean
listening proficiency score of 6.9 (SD = 1.3). These scores indicate a moderately posi‑
tive self‑perception of their language abilities across all four skills.
The range of self‑assessed proficiency scores, indicated by the Minimum (Min)
and Maximum (Max) values, provides additional insight into the variability within
each group. In the experimental group, reading proficiency scores ranged from a
minimum of 4.9 to a maximum of 9.7, suggesting diverse perceptions of reading
skills. Similarly, writing proficiency scores ranged from a minimum of 5.0 to a
maximum of 9.8, speaking proficiency scores ranged from a minimum of 5.1 to a
maximum of 9.9, and listening proficiency scores ranged from a minimum of 5.2
to a maximum of 9.8, highlighting varying levels of perceived proficiency within
this group.
The slightly higher self‑assessed proficiency scores in the experimental group
could be attributed to their regular interactions with ChatGPT, which may have
contributed to enhanced self‑confidence in their language skills, particularly in
speaking and listening.

6.4.2 Feedback on ChatGPT

Participants’ feedback on the usability and effectiveness of ChatGPT as a language
learning tool provides valuable insights into its potential impact. Table 6.6 presents
a comprehensive overview of participants’ feedback on the usability and effective‑
ness of ChatGPT, derived from their responses to the Usability and Effectiveness
sections in Appendix B.
The experimental group’s mean ease‑of‑use score was 8.2 (SD = 0.6), indicating
a positive perception of ChatGPT’s user‑friendliness. While the majority of partici‑
pants found ChatGPT easy to use, a subset of 12% reported encountering technical
issues. The ease‑of‑use scores ranged from a minimum of 6.9 to a maximum of 8.4,

Table 6.6 ChatGPT Usability and Effectiveness Feedback

Encountered
Ease of Use Technical Specific Issues
Group (Mean ± SD) Issues Mentioned Min Max

Experimental 8.2 ± 0.6 12% Yes Login issues, slow 6.9 8.4
response times
106 ◾ Innovations and Applications of Technology

highlighting the diversity of experiences in terms of user‑friendliness within the

experimental group.
The effectiveness of ChatGPT as a language learning tool was assessed through
participants’ perceptions of its impact on their English learning journey. The mean
effectiveness score reported by the experimental group was 8.2 (SD = 0.6), indicat‑
ing a favorable perception of ChatGPT’s effectiveness. Notably, 90% of participants
found ChatGPT effective in aiding their English learning, and a similar percentage
expressed their willingness to recommend the platform to their peers.
The feedback highlights ChatGPT’s potential as a valuable tool for English lan‑
guage learning. The majority of participants found it user‑friendly and effective in
aiding language learning, and expressed their willingness to recommend it to their
peers, indicating the platform’s positive impact on the learning experience. The
technical issues encountered by some participants underscore the importance of
ongoing development and refinement to ensure a seamless user experience.
Participants’ engagement with ChatGPT, including their perceived engagement
levels, the most captivating features, and any potential drawbacks, offers insights
into the platform’s effectiveness in fostering engagement. Table 6.7 provides a com‑
prehensive overview of participants’ engagement feedback on ChatGPT, derived
from their responses to the Engagement section in Appendix B.
The mean engagement score reported by the experimental group was 7.9
(SD = 0.7), indicating a moderate to high level of perceived engagement with
ChatGPT. Participants highlighted real‑time feedback and the conversational flow
as the most engaging features of the platform. The engagement scores ranged from a
minimum of 6.7 to a maximum of 9.5, showcasing the experimental group’s diverse
spectrum of engagement experiences. Participants reported occasional irrelevant
responses as a distracting or unhelpful aspect of ChatGPT. This feedback under‑
scores fine‑tuning the platform’s response generation to enhance its relevance and
usefulness.
The findings suggest that the real‑time feedback and conversational flow of
ChatGPT were particularly effective in engaging participants, contributing to a
more interactive and dynamic learning experience. While the occasional irrelevant
responses were noted as an area for improvement, the overall engagement scores
indicate that ChatGPT successfully promoted engagement among learners.

Table 6.7 ChatGPT Engagement Feedback

Engagement Distracting/
Score Most Engaging Unhelpful
Group (Mean ± SD) Features Aspects Min Max

Experimental 7.9 ± 0.7 Real‑time feedback, Occasional 6.7 9.5

Conversational irrelevant
flow responses
 Revitalizing English Language Learning ◾ 107

The open‑ended feedback section gathered qualitative insights from participants

regarding their experiences and observations while using ChatGPT for language
learning. This unstructured feedback allows participants to express their thoughts
in their own words, providing rich and nuanced information. Several partici‑
pants shared open‑ended feedback, offering valuable suggestions for improvement.
Common themes among these suggestions included enhancing the response speed
of ChatGPT, expanding the variety of topics covered by the platform, and refin‑
ing the feedback mechanisms to offer more specific and targeted guidance. These
suggestions reflect participants’ desire for a more seamless and effective learning
experience, indicating areas where ChatGPT can be further developed and opti‑
mized. Additionally, participants expressed appreciation for the positive impact of
ChatGPT on their language learning journey. Many participants noted that the
platform had contributed to enhancing their conversational skills. This positive
feedback aligns with the engagement and motivation outcomes observed earlier in
the study, suggesting that ChatGPT’s interactive nature and conversational flow
indeed aid in improving participants’ language proficiency.
The open‑ended feedback highlights areas for improvement and underscores the
platform’s potential to influence language learning outcomes positively. Participants’
experiences and suggestions provide valuable insights into how ChatGPT can be
enhanced to meet learners’ needs and preferences better.
To sum up, the open‑ended feedback section captures participants’ diverse per‑
spectives, offering constructive suggestions for improvement and affirming the plat‑
form’s efficacy in enhancing language proficiency and conversation skills.

6.5 Discussion
The investigation into the effectiveness of ChatGPT in enhancing English lan‑
guage education through a quasi‑experimental covering engagement, motivation,
language proficiency, and user feedback has unveiled substantial insights that con‑
tribute significantly to the ongoing discourse on the integration of AI in education.
This section provides a comprehensive exploration of the key findings, establishes
pertinent connections with previous research, and conducts a thorough analysis of
the implications of the results.
Engagement and motivation, acknowledged as pivotal components of success‑
ful language learning (Dörnyei, 1998), emerged as key themes in this study. The
experimental group, actively utilizing ChatGPT, demonstrated a marked increase
in engagement compared to the control group. The mean engagement score of 4.2
(SD = 0.7) highlighted a noteworthy level of perceived engagement, suggesting the
platform’s efficacy in generating immersive learning experiences. The heightened
engagement was attributed to the real‑time feedback and conversational flow, iden‑
tified as engaging features. This finding aligns with Nikolic et al. (2023), who also
108 ◾ Innovations and Applications of Technology

underscored the significance of interactive attributes in chatbots for enhancing

engagement and encouraging active participation.
The concept of motivation, a driving factor in successful language acquisition,
emerged as another prominent theme in this study. The experimental group exhib‑
ited superior motivation levels, achieving an overall mean score of 7.4 (SD = 1.1).
The participants’ preference for “interest in the language” as their primary moti‑
vation highlights ChatGPT’s capability to tap into intrinsic motivational factors.
This finding resonates with the observations of Hwang and Chang (2023), who
emphasized the role of well‑designed chatbots in elevating learners’ motivation by
providing engaging and interactive learning experiences.
Language proficiency, a cornerstone of language learning (Setyosari et al.,
2019), presented a significant outcome. While the differences were nuanced, par‑
ticipants in the experimental group demonstrated slightly higher self‑assessed pro‑
ficiency across reading, writing, speaking, and listening skills compared to the
control group. This observation suggests the potential of regular interactions with
ChatGPT to contribute gradually to language skill enhancement. Golonka et al.
(2013) similarly highlighted the role of AI‑driven chatbots in facilitating language
practice and improvement.
User feedback, a crucial element for refining educational tools, offered compre‑
hensive insights into participants’ perspectives (Baker, 2016). Suggestions included
enhancing response speed, expanding topic coverage, and refining feedback mecha‑
nisms. The consistent mention of ChatGPT’s positive impact on improving con‑
versational skills reinforces its potential to strengthen language proficiency. This
observation aligns with Grassini’s (2023) emphasis on the transformative capacity
of AI tools like ChatGPT in reshaping education.
By contextualizing these findings within the broader context of research, this
study contributes significantly to the existing literature. Ahmadi’s (2018) recognition
of technology’s role in language learning resonates with our findings on ChatGPT’s
positive influence. The connection between our results of improved language pro‑
ficiency and the enhanced academic performance noted by Chowdhry et al. (2014)
underscores the efficacy of technology‑enabled learning. Furthermore, the alignment
of user feedback insights with Mageira et al.’s emphasis on enhancing AI chatbots to
effectively cater to educational needs adds credibility to our study (2022).
This study sheds light on ChatGPT’s potential in enhancing English lan‑
guage education and underscores the broader potential of AI‑driven tools in creat‑
ing immersive and effective learning environments. The congruence between our
results and existing research lends credence to the prospective role of AI technology
in education. As technological advancements continue to shape education, explor‑
ing AI applications, as ChatGPT exemplifies, remains pivotal in advancing lan‑
guage learning experiences.
Integrating AI‑driven tools like ChatGPT into educational settings pres‑
ents a promising pathway for enhancing student engagement, motivation, and
 Revitalizing English Language Learning ◾ 109

perceived language proficiency in EFL courses. The findings strongly suggest that
the experimental group, utilizing ChatGPT, consistently outperformed the con‑
trol group across multiple metrics. This aligns with prior research highlighting the
benefits of technology‑enhanced learning environments (Alzubaidi et al., 2016;
Arnau‑González et al., 2023). ChatGPT’s interactive nature and its provision of
real‑time feedback likely contributed to a more engaging learning environment,
encouraging students to actively participate and practice language skills (Ahmadi,
2018; Nikolic et al., 2023).
However, while the findings are encouraging, a cautious approach is nec‑
essary. A key limitation of this study is its confinement to a single university
setting with a small sample size, potentially affecting the generalizability of the
results. Additionally, relying on self‑assessment for evaluating language profi‑
ciency introduces the potential for bias, as students may not accurately gauge
their skills.
Looking forward, several intriguing avenues for future research beckon.
Exploring the long‑term effects of integrating ChatGPT into EFL courses, evalu‑
ating its impact across different age groups, and comparing its effectiveness with
other AI‑driven tools are all promising lines of inquiry. Questions surrounding the
sustained impact of ChatGPT on language proficiency, its differential effects across
diverse age groups and cultural contexts, and its comparative effectiveness and user
satisfaction concerning other AI‑driven language learning tools warrant rigorous
investigation.
As the educational technology landscape continues to evolve, tools like
ChatGPT offer a glimpse into the potential future of EFL learning. While initial
results are promising, dedicated research efforts are pivotal in harnessing the full
potential of AI‑driven tools, ensuring they serve as effective catalysts in the lan‑
guage learning journey.

6.6 Conclusion
In the rapidly advancing landscape of educational technology, the integration of
AI tools like ChatGPT into EFL courses has emerged as a promising avenue for
enhancing the learning experience. The findings underscore the significant poten‑
tial of ChatGPT in fostering increased student engagement and motivation. A
notable majority of participants not only found the chatbot easy to navigate but
also recognized its tangible benefits in bolstering their English language proficiency.
These positive outcomes resonate with the broader academic discourse, as high‑
lighted in the overview of existing research. Integrating technology, especially
AI‑driven tools, into educational settings has consistently fostered a more interactive
and engaging learning environment. As evidenced by prior studies, such environments
can significantly enhance motivation, a critical component of language acquisition.
110 ◾ Innovations and Applications of Technology

However, while the results are undeniably encouraging, it may be crucial to

approach them cautiously. The limitations, particularly the small sample size and
the study’s confinement to a single university setting, show the need for more exten‑
sive research. Such research should aim to validate these findings across diverse
educational backgrounds, age groups, and cultural contexts.
There are several intriguing avenues for future research. A deeper exploration
into how tools like ChatGPT impact specific facets of language learning, such as
reading comprehension, writing proficiency, and oral communication, would be
invaluable. Additionally, as the realm of AI chatbots continues to expand, com‑
parative studies assessing the effectiveness of various chatbots in EFL settings could
offer insights into best practices and optimal tool selection.
Furthermore, the role of individual learner differences, including learning styles,
intrinsic motivation levels, and initial language proficiency, could provide a more
nuanced understanding of how and when to deploy tools like ChatGPT better.
Such insights would be instrumental in tailoring interventions to cater to individual
student needs, maximizing the potential benefits of AI integration.
In conclusion, as we stand at the intersection of technology and education, tools
like ChatGPT offer a glimpse into the future of EFL learning. While the initial
results are promising, a concerted effort in research will be pivotal in harnessing the
full potential of AI‑driven tools, ensuring that they serve as effective catalysts in the
language learning journey.

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TECHNOLOGY- II
ASSISTED
LANGUAGE TESTING
AND ASSESSMENT
Chapter 7

Technology‑Based
Language Testing:
Principles and
Future Directions
Hung Phu Bui and Truong Cong Bang

7.1 Introduction
Technological developments have revolutionized second language education and
greatly influenced second language testing (Bui, 2023). It has provided an alterna‑
tive to the traditional in‑person testing system. Instead, technology‑assisted lan‑
guage tests can be administered to test‑takers who do not have to be physically
present at the registered test site (Suvorov & Hegelheimer, 2014). Also, artificial
intelligence can provide immediate constructive feedback for language learning and
development. However, many researchers (e.g., Ockey & Neiriz, 2021; Sadeghi,
2022) have raised several concerns about the current limits of technology‑assisted
language testing.
Although technology‑assisted language testing has attracted the attention of
applied linguists and practitioners, its challenges are worth examining and discuss‑
ing (Javed et al., 2019). Driven by a desire to provide practitioners with a compre‑
hensive landscape of technology‑assisted language testing, we critically review the
principles for the development and practices of online language tests. Then, we out‑
line the mechanisms of automated scoring of writing and speaking before summa‑
rizing existing problems and discussing the future directions for technology‑assisted

DOI: 10.1201/9781003473916-9115
116 ◾ Innovations and Applications of Technology

language testing. Practitioners’ insufficient understanding of the inherent problems

of online language tests may jeopardize examinees’ test completion and results.

7.2 History
The introduction of technology‑assisted language testing dates back to the 1980s
when applied linguists began to make use of item response theory (Dunkel,
1999). The first known test in the field might have been the computer adaptive
test (CAT) developed by Larson and Madsen (1985). Since then, a large body of
research has investigated different aspects of using technology in language test‑
ing and assessment. To date, technology‑assisted language testing and assessment
is widely integrated into education, with such international proficiency tests as
TOEFL iBT and Aptis. The emergence of artificial intelligence eases language
test designing and administration (Van Moere & Downey, 2016). Using auto‑
mated scoring technology, artificial intelligence can evaluate spoken and written
texts produced by second‑language speakers (Alderson, 2000; Shermis, 2014).
Also, it is easy for test developers to convert a text into a test of a multiple choice,
gap‑filling, or true or false format (Kane, 2012). Despite the development and
popularity of technology‑assisted language testing, researchers and practitioners
have raised concerns about the reliability and validity of online tests. Identifying
the possible strengths and weaknesses of technology in language assessment, we
argue that human examiners are over technology in that they are human; they are
able to make sense of emerging human‑relatedness and contextualize assessment
flexibly. By contrast, technology is over human examiners in that it is not human;
therefore, the testing system is objectivity‑oriented (Javed et al., 2019; Ockey &
Neiriz, 2021; Sadeghi, 2022).

7.3 Attributes
Technology‑assisted language testing refers to the use of technology to assist in
assessing language competences. Early developments in the field were mainly inter‑
ested in exploring attributes of computer‑assisted performance tests, used primar‑
ily for gauge or evaluate linguistic competences, compared to paper‑and‑pencil
tests and attempted to make online tests friendly to takers (Winke & Isbell, 2017).
Technological advancements have driven the field beyond its border and now include
artificial intelligence in language testing. Accordingly, the terms technology‑assisted
language testing and technology‑assisted language assessment are used interchangeably,
generally conceptualized as the use of technology to assess language abilities for
multiple purposes, e.g., to diagnose second‑language learners’ problems and under‑
stand and support the language learning process (Laghos & Zaphiris, 2009).
 Technology-Based Language Testing ◾ 117

Suvorov and Hegelheimer (2014) introduced a framework for describing tech‑

nology‑assisted language testing. This framework includes nine attributes: direc‑
tionality, delivery format, media density, target skill(s), scoring mechanism, stakes,
purposes, responses, and tasks. These attributes together contribute to the success
of technology‑assisted language testing.
Technology‑assisted language testing “can be linear, adaptive, or semi‑adap‑
tive” (Suvorov & Hegelheimer, 2014, p. 3). Linear tests may enable skipping or
reviewing questions. Test‑takers can consequently get back to the questions they
have not answered or double‑check the answers they have projected to the sys‑
tem. To introduce new items, the system then measures the test‑takers’ accomplish‑
ment for formerly given tasks. This mechanism is called adaptive testing, allowing
for the adaptiveness of test items. That means, the difficulty of the questions to
assign depends on whether the test‑taker has answered the already‑given questions
successfully.
This utilizes item response theory with dual principles: unidimensionality and
local independence. All the test items are independent but are about the same con‑
struct. Tests can be delivered via the computer or web. It is predicted that web‑based
language testing has the potential to develop further (Ockey, 2009). Test develop‑
ers may incorporate available resources (e.g., visuals and audio clips) into language
tests. They can be used to illustrate a specific test item or increase test authenticity.
Language skills can be assessed separately or integrated into one task. The test‑
ing industry shows the full potential of using technology‑assisted language tests to
measure English for general or academic purposes.

7.4 Principles
An extensive literature review shows many proposed frameworks for online assess‑
ment. To guide a transition to online assessment in educational settings, Bearman
et al. (2014) introduced Assessment Design Decisions Framework with six main
components categorized into three main stages of assessment. In the planning
phase, the assessment purpose and context are worth considering. During assess‑
ment, it might be necessary to consider what tasks should be provided and how
to assign them to learners or examinees. Interactions between the faculty and stu‑
dents are required, in which feedback is given where relevant. Learner outcomes
should probably be measured through confirmative assessment. It may be essential
for administrators and educators to consider if the learners achieve the outcomes as
expected (Bui & Nguyen, 2022). The assessment results, therefore, should be used
to modify the system. Jaam et al. (2021) used this theoretical three‑phase model to
explore the online assessment conducted at the national university in Qatar during
the COVID‑19 pandemic. The researchers concluded that the use of this frame‑
work contributed partly to the success of the study.
118 ◾ Innovations and Applications of Technology

Considering the possibility of academic fraud, Ngqondi et al. (2021) suggest

that proctoring is necessary for the success of an online test. The testing system
must authenticate test‑takers’ claims and monitor their activities during the test
(Amigud et al., 2016). Accordingly, a test‑taker has to use their provided username
and password to log in as an early examinee authentication step and then show their
identity form, facial identification, and fingerprint to the online proctor through a
webcam (Lilley et al., 2016). To monitor the examinee’s activities, it is necessary to
administer such activities as online proctoring, requesting claims, warnings, and
instructions. Requests, warnings, and instructions should be given in both oral
and written forms (Urosevic, 2019). For timing, the system can use a countdown
mechanism to ensure that the taker completes the test within the time allotted and
assures fairness among takers (Lilley et al., 2016). However, Ngqondi et al. (2021)
argued that ongoing monitoring should be used not only to investigate fraudulent
activities but also to assist students in need. As examinees may encounter prob‑
lems emerging from the testing system itself or examinee‑relatedness (e.g., techni‑
cal skills, understanding of instructions) (Suvorov & Hegelheimer, 2014), prompt
guidance is necessary for takers to accomplish the test (Ngqondi et al., 2021). Also,
anti‑fraud policies should be publicly announced to stakeholders, including test
delivery, scoring system, penalty for dishonesty, and monitoring system.
Draaijer et al. (2018) argued that policies should be the key factor in the success
of technology‑assisted testing. Administrative affairs and information communica‑
tion technology infrastructures should be prioritized as they guide the entire pro‑
cedure and affect the other components in the assessment system. In other words,
they should be the first things to establish before online exams are prepared and
administered.
Van Moere and Downey (2016) developed a framework for automated scor‑
ing mechanisms of writing and speaking. Regarding automated scoring of writ‑
ing, examinees need to write their compositions for an assigned writing task on
the computer or upload their written texts to an intended digital repository. The
Automated Essay Scoring may apply either the prompt‑specific or generic model.
The prompt‑specific scoring model occurs when the scoring model is devel‑
oped from a collection of assignment papers submitted by the target population.
Assignment papers, after submitted, are analysed to establish the scoring rubrics
and criteria, such as the range of lexical resources and grammar. According to Li
et al. (2020) and Ridley et al. (2021), this most common trained model can gen‑
erate holistic scores, called prompt‑specific holistic scoring. In educational settings,
students’ essays may not be graded but analysed to give corrective feedback by pre‑
dicting traits. This model is known as prompt‑specific trait scoring. Unlike the other
two models, cross‑prompt holistic scoring uses writing papers for non‑target prompts.
Thus, this model “relates to domain adaptation and transfer learning tasks, which
are widely studied in machine learning fields” (Uto, 2021, p. 4610). The fourth
prompt‑specific model is cross‑prompt trait scoring, associated with the scoring sys‑
tem based on specific language features of individual submission. These four models
 Technology-Based Language Testing ◾ 119

Table 7.1 Automated Scoring of Writing

Scoring Model Description

Prompt‑specific holistic Holistic scores, target prompts, grades

scoring generated

Prompt‑specific trait scoring Trait scores, target prompts, feedback

generated

Cross‑prompt holistic Holistic scores, non‑target prompts

scoring

Cross‑prompt trait scoring Trait scores, non‑target prompts

of automated scoring of writing can be classified into two main groups. The first
two models mainly rely on target prompts, but the scoring systems of the last two
models, construed as cross‑prompt scoring models, use non‑target prompts. Each
pair has a holistic and trait scoring system (Table 7.1).
Unlike the prompt‑specific model, the generic model is predetermined and
applied to all submitted answers. The scoring system mainly depends on the lan‑
guage features of the submitted text, such as the range of vocabulary and grammar
accuracy. In other words, while the generic scoring model relies on the surface fea‑
tures of the text, the prompt‑specific model can precisely explore the content and
the development and organization of ideas.
According to Van Moere and Downey (2016), the construction of a scoring
model should consist of a few phases. It initially determines variables in the con‑
struct to be measured. For instance, the range of grammatical structures may
include such variables as the frequency of a specific structure and the complexity
of structures used in the text. Then, texts written by the target population are anal‑
ysed and statistics are generated. Scoring models are constructed to predict writing
scores based on the predetermined variables and their weights. To assess essays,
the scoring system needs to include assessment of surface features and grammar
checker, latent semantic analysis, word class categorization, and N‑grams. The
assessment of surface features and grammar should be able to assess such features
as length, punctuation, sentence structure diversity, and text structure. Unlike
surface feature and grammar checker, latent semantic analysis, a natural language
processing technique, refers to the evaluation of meaning rather than forms (Foltz
et al., 2013).
The word class categorizer is able to identify the part of speech of individual
words of an essay to determine the diversity, complexity, and accuracy of the vocab‑
ulary and grammar used in that essay (Enright & Quinlan, 2010). The construction
of N‑grams is based on corpus analysis. Monograms (e.g., “good”), bigrams (e.g.,
“good house”), and trigrams (e.g., “a good house”) are then developed. Higher fre‑
quency N‑grams are identified as low quality. Nevertheless, although the expression
120 ◾ Innovations and Applications of Technology

“a laptop expensive” is less frequent, it is not an indicator of high quality as the word
class categorizer is determined as incorrect (Attali & Burstein, 2006).
The evaluation of speaking must be based on what the examinee says and how
they say it. Therefore, examiners must develop three main models: acoustic, lan‑
guage, and scoring. The accuracy of automated scoring depends mainly on these
models and test design. The acoustic model must be able to recognize test‑takers’
speech. Speech recognition is based on probabilities of phonetic features in relation
to orthographic representations (Hinton et al., 2012). The quality of devices (e.g.,
microphones), unwanted noise from the surroundings, and the examinee’s accent
may affect speaking scores. The current literature proposes that the sample data used
to train the acoustic model should be from the target population. Demographic
features should be considered when the test provider develops the rating criteria.
Like rating essays, rating spoken language should build language models, includ‑
ing frequencies of lexical items and accuracy (Balogh et al., 2012). Several scholars
(e.g., Bernstein et al., 2010; Xi et al., 2008) have proposed that the scoring model
development should be based heavily on speech recognition and fluency. Therefore,
speech variables may be the best predictors of spoken language proficiency.

7.5 Challenges in Technology‑Assisted
Language Assessment
When approaching the domain of technology‑enhanced language assessment, we
are confronted with several critical challenges that require careful consideration.
These obstacles encompass various areas, including validity and reliability, equity
and accessibility, security and integrity, adaptability and universality, and ethical
considerations. Each area presents its unique challenges, necessitating strategic
approaches and solutions.

7.5.1 Validity and Reliability

The success of language evaluation tools depends on the essential aspects of their
reliability and validity. As Oh and Song (2021) highlighted, engaging in a com‑
prehensive development process is essential to establish a solid foundation. This
requires conducting a comprehensive requirements analysis, undertaking exten‑
sive literature reviews to inform design principles, undergoing iterative design and
revision stages, obtaining expert evaluations, and subjecting the tool to rigorous
usability testing. This systematic methodology is the foundation for achieving the
precision and dependability expected of the assessment instrument.
In addition, Oh and Song (2021) emphasize the significance of scrutinizing
numerous data sets. This includes delving into conversational nuances, analysing
error rates in speech recognition, and measuring learners’ response times. These
 Technology-Based Language Testing ◾ 121

metrics are crucial for assessing the effectiveness and efficiency of the language
assessment system. Researchers and developers can obtain a deeper comprehen‑
sion of the performance and precision of the evaluation tools by delving into these
nuances.
To provide additional context, it is essential to note that Oh and Song’s (2021)
work accords with a field‑wide consensus. Mezzadri and Sisti (2019) also concur
that a comprehensive and systematic validation and reliability testing approach is
essential for technology‑enhanced language assessment.

7.5.2 Equity and Access

Accessibility and impartiality are the fundamental imperatives of language testing.
Test‑takers from diverse backgrounds, including those with disabilities, should have
an equal opportunity to demonstrate their linguistic proficiency. This notion aligns
with the concerns scholars raised in the relevant academic field (e.g., Fairbairn
& Spiby, 2019; Langenfeld, 2020; Resdiana & Yulientinah, 2023; Stapleton &
Blanchard, 2021). According to Fairbairn and Spiby (2019), integrating accessi‑
bility features, including text‑to‑speech and speech‑to‑text capabilities, assumes a
position of indispensability.
As Cassell (2023) emphasizes, the design and implementation of these sys‑
tems must seamlessly consider ethical and societal considerations, such as pri‑
vacy and security. Nurturing confidence and upholding the integrity of language
assessment require balancing accessibility and privacy. Furthermore, it is essential
to acknowledge that incorporating these accessibility aspects not only provides
advantages to those with disabilities but also serves a broader range of individuals.
For instance, non‑native speakers of the language to be assessed may find these
features helpful in navigating the assessment procedure. This inclusivity is consis‑
tent with the overarching objective of establishing a fair assessment environment
for all test‑takers.

7.5.3 Security and Integrity

While addressing issues of equity and access is pivotal in creating an inclusive lan‑
guage assessment environment, it is equally crucial to fortify the security and integ‑
rity of online assessments. This challenge becomes particularly salient in the digital
era, where preempting dishonest practices assumes critical significance. The detec‑
tion and prevention of fraudulent actions require robust technology and method‑
ologies. This matter has been emphasized by the apprehensions expressed in many
sources (e.g., Fairbairn & Spiby, 2019; Langenfeld, 2020; Resdiana & Yulientinah,
2023; Stapleton & Blanchard, 2021). The ongoing progression of technology neces‑
sitates a corresponding adaptation of security standards due to the concurrent
development of deceptive techniques.
122 ◾ Innovations and Applications of Technology

A noteworthy technological advancement in this realm involves the incor‑

poration of biometric authentication methods, such as facial and voice recogni‑
tion. These measures add an extra layer of security by verifying the identity of the
test‑taker, thus mitigating the possibility of impersonation or fraud (Park & Kim,
2022). Furthermore, the adoption of secure browser environments and remote proc‑
toring solutions has gained prominence. These technologies monitor test‑takers in
real‑time, utilizing features like screen recording and webcam monitoring to deter
and detect any illicit behaviour during the assessment process (Atoum et al., 2017;
Balash et al., 2021; Ghizlane et al., 2019; Stapleton & Blanchard, 2021). These
developments collectively represent a concerted effort to fortify the integrity of lan‑
guage assessments in the digital sphere.

7.5.4 Adaptability and Universality

Developing assessments that accurately measure proficiency in various contexts
is a persistent challenge in language testing (Fairbairn & Spiby, 2019). Oh and
Song (2021) argued that incorporating adaptive and personalized learning strate‑
gies is a significant step forward in addressing the challenge. This approach tailors
assessments to individual learners, providing a more accurate evaluation. Adaptive
assessments dynamically adjust the difficulty of questions based on the learner’s
responses, ensuring a balanced difficulty level. This customization accommodates
the unique learning trajectory of individuals, resulting in a more accurate reflection
of their proficiency. Additionally, technology enables assessments to be adminis‑
tered globally, overcoming logistical barriers. This widens access and fosters inclu‑
sivity in the evaluation process. Research by MacGregor et al. (2022) and Bhole
et al. (2020) supports the effectiveness of adaptive testing, particularly for learn‑
ers with diverse linguistic backgrounds, highlighting the potential for personalized
learning to improve language proficiency tests.
In summary, adaptive and individualized learning can improve language pro‑
ficiency assessments, especially in diverse educational settings. It accommodates
diverse learning styles and increases accessibility, fostering a more inclusive evalu‑
ation procedure.

7.5.5 Ethical and Social Considerations

As the prevalence of technology‑assisted language assessment increases, it is essen‑
tial to consider the ethical and social implications (Cassell, 2023). This includes
protecting the privacy and security of learners’ data during its collection and
storage and mitigating any potential biases in automated assessment systems.
Additionally, efforts should be made to ensure that all students have equitable
access to technology (Langenfeld, 2020). It is recommended that comprehensive
policies and guidelines be established to regulate the ethical, transparent, and
 Technology-Based Language Testing ◾ 123

accountable use of technology in language testing moving forward. This will serve
as a crucial framework for responsibly incorporating technology in brand assess‑
ment practices.

7.6 Directions for Future Development in

Technology‑Assisted Language Testing
In determining the future of technology‑assisted language testing, it is essential to
identify critical avenues with substantial potential for advancing assessment tech‑
niques. Among these, the integration of artificial intelligence (AI) and machine
learning (ML) stands out as a particularly promising frontier, a sentiment shared
by researchers (e.g., Liao, 2023; Settles et al., 2020). As described in the following
section, this integration not only addresses concerns regarding the reliability and
validity of assessments but also introduces innovative dimensions for accommodat‑
ing individual test‑takers’ unique proficiency levels and learning styles.

7.6.1 Incorporation of AI and Machine Learning

Incorporating AI and ML is a significant development in language assessment. As
supported by academics, this integration has the potential to profoundly trans‑
form automated scoring systems, thereby enhancing the reliability and precision of
assessments. Individual test‑takers at unique proficiency levels and with learning
preferences can be accommodated by intelligently applying AI and ML technolo‑
gies to testing systems (Liao, 2023; Settles et al., 2020). This transformative strategy
improves the accuracy of assessments and fosters a more inclusive and individual‑
ized testing environment.

7.6.2 Personalization and Adaptive Testing

A significant leap forward in technology‑assisted language testing rests within
personalization and adaptive testing. This methodology, proposed by Bhole et al.
(2020), Cheng et al. (2021), and Settles et al. (2020), entails adapting assessments
to individual students’ unique skills and needs. Assessments can dynamically adapt
to the test‑taker’s skill level using AI and adaptive testing algorithms. This modi‑
fication assures a more accurate and pertinent evaluation of language proficiency.
As advocated by Bhole et al. (2020) and Cheng et al. (2021), this assessment
method represents a significant advancement in the field. It enables assessments to be
precisely calibrated to the test‑taker’s skill set, resulting in a nuanced understanding
of their language proficiency. This personalized approach contains great potential
for enhancing the effectiveness and precision of language testing methodologies.
124 ◾ Innovations and Applications of Technology

7.6.3 Integration of Multi‑Modal Assessment

The seamless integration of multi‑modal assessment methods constitutes a sig‑
nificant development in technology‑assisted language testing. This strategy, which
Nguyen and Hegelheimer (2022) and Magal‑Royo et al. (2021) support, incorpo‑
rates real‑world tasks into language assessments to improve language proficiency
evaluation. Incorporating authentic tasks into assessments may enable examinees to
demonstrate their linguistic abilities within contexts that mimic the complexities of
real‑world situations.
According to Magal‑Royo et al. (2021), this integration improves the validity of
assessments and fosters a more thorough understanding of test‑takers’ language pro‑
ficiency. It acts as a bridge between theoretical knowledge and its practical imple‑
mentation, harmonizing testing methodologies with the demands of real‑world
situations.
Additionally, Magal‑Royo et al. (2021) propose expanding technology‑assisted
language testing beyond conventional proficiency assessments, which opens up
new evaluation options. This forward‑thinking perspective suggests that it is pos‑
sible to use technology to evaluate linguistic abilities in specialized contexts, such
as professional settings or specific industries. This expansion expands the scope
and influence of language testing, providing unique insights into an examinee’s
ability to employ language skills in various real‑world contexts. This extension
could be useful for identifying the nuanced proficiencies required in special‑
ized disciplines, thereby improving the efficacy of language assessments in these
domains.

7.6.4 Enhanced Feedback Mechanisms

According to Gu et al. (2021) and Horák and Gandini (2019), personalized feed‑
back systems represent a significant advancement in technology‑assisted language
assessment and play a vital role in fostering students’ linguistic development. These
systems provide students with valuable evaluations and individualized instruction,
transcending mundane evaluations to become dynamic instruments for enhancing
language proficiency.
Chen et al. (2021) and Leppänen et al. (2022) explore the advantages of cus‑
tomized feedback mechanisms. They explain how this individualized approach
accommodates individual learning styles and improvement areas, resulting in a
more efficient language acquisition procedure. This personalized feedback provides
a distinct advantage to language learners by addressing their learning approaches
and specific areas for improvement.
In conclusion, incorporating customized feedback mechanisms represents a sig‑
nificant advancement in technology‑assisted language assessment, providing stu‑
dents with individualized tools for improving their language skills. The research
of Chen et al. (2021) and Gu et al. (2021) highlights the numerous benefits of this
 Technology-Based Language Testing ◾ 125

method, highlighting its effectiveness in catering to individual learning styles and

improvement areas. This personalized feedback mechanism could revolutionize lan‑
guage assessment and acquisition strategies.

7.6.5 Cross‑Disciplinary Collaboration

As Riekki and Kuure (2018) proposed, collaborative efforts among language
experts, technologists, and educators are essential for driving innovation in assess‑
ment instruments. This interdisciplinary synergy capitalizes on various disciplines’
unique strengths to ensure that language assessment systems’ evolution remains
well‑informed, well‑balanced, and highly effective. By combining the knowledge
of language specialists who understand the nuances of linguistic assessment with
that of technologists who are familiar with cutting‑edge tools and educators who
understand pedagogical requirements, these collaborations generate rigorous and
adaptable solutions. This collaborative approach has been observed to produce reli‑
able assessment instruments compatible with evolving educational paradigms and
international linguistic standards.

7.7 Conclusion
Consolidating the investigation of technology‑assisted language assessment reveals
that this field offers a range of opportunities interwoven with obstacles. Principal
considerations include validity and dependability, equity and accessibility, security
and the prevention of dishonest practices, adaptability and universality, all under‑
pinned by ethical considerations.
The discussed advancements and innovations have significant implications for
the future of language assessment. Using AI, ML, and other sophisticated technolo‑
gies has substantial potential for reforming language proficiency assessment.
When considering the path forward, it is imperative to uphold a steadfast
commitment to the ethical, equitable, and inclusive implementation of technol‑
ogy‑assisted language assessment. By effectively addressing obstacles and capitaliz‑
ing on favourable conditions, it is possible to lay the foundation for a future period
in which language assessment attains enhanced accuracy, accessibility, and congru‑
ence with the diverse needs of learners across the globe.
This chapter aims to provide an exhaustive overview of the landscape of tech‑
nology‑assisted language testing, exploring the current challenges confronting the
field and imagining future developments that promise more effective, personalized,
and inclusive language assessment practices. We are in a position to shape a future
in which language testing accurately reflects the dynamic and diverse nature of lan‑
guage acquisition and proficiency due to our careful consideration of these central
issues and emergent technologies.
126 ◾ Innovations and Applications of Technology

Acknowledgement
This publication was funded by the University of Economics Ho Chi Minh City
(UEH University) and University of Economics and Law, Ho Chi Minh City,
Vietnam (VNU).

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Chapter 8

Technology‑Assisted
Task‑Based Second
Language Assessment
for Learning
Lien Thi Xuan Cao, Huy Van Nguyen,
and Hung Phu Bui

8.1 Introduction
Assessment is widely documented as a cornerstone of education; it is as a pivotal
tool to gauge students’ understanding, growth, and competencies (Eisner, 1993;
Newton, 2007). The landscape of classroom assessment has shifted significantly
in recent decades. Traditionally, classroom assessment comprised both summative
and formative assessments, serving the dual purpose of evaluating learning out‑
comes and guiding instructional decisions (Bui, 2023; Dixson & Worrell, 2016).
However, with time, formative assessment has emerged as the cornerstone of class‑
room assessment, gaining recognition as the most critical component. This shift
results from recognizing the powerful impact of formative assessment on student
learning. Formative assessment, in its essence, has evolved into assessment for learn‑
ing, a dynamic approach that not only assesses but actively supports and enhances
the learning process (Bui & Nguyen, 2022). Bui (2023) emphasizes “formative and
summative evaluation tells where a student is standing on the way to his destination

130 DOI: 10.1201/9781003473916-10

 Technology-Assisted Task-Based Second Language Assessment ◾ 131

of learning, how much he is ahead or behind his classmates, to what extent the
behavioral changes occurred in him are acceptable, how far he can apply his pres‑
ent acquired knowledge to his future life or learning situations, at what point he
is facing any difficulty and why and so on” (p. 777). Consequently, this transition
has paved the way for the emergence of learning‑oriented assessment, where the
primary focus is on fostering continuous improvement and growth in students’
knowledge and skills, creating a more student‑centered and outcomes‑driven edu‑
cational environment.
In recent years, the educational landscape has witnessed a revolutionary shift
toward task‑based learning, an innovative approach that encourages active engage‑
ment, critical thinking, and practical application of knowledge (Ellis, 2003; Willis
& Willis, 2007). Amidst this transformation, technology has emerged as a pow‑
erful enabler, offering new avenues for assessing students dynamically and effi‑
ciently (Ramadhan et al., 2021). According to Lai and Li (2011), Ziegler (2016),
and Mulyadi et al. (2021), the integration of learning technologies into task‑based
language learning has been regarded as a practical instructional approach that
can offer a variety of benefits to language students. As a trajectory driven by the
convergence of task‑based pedagogy and technological advancements, the emer‑
gence of technology‑based task‑based assessment has become an inevitable trend in
language education. Early studies found that integrating educational technologies
and task‑based language teaching can make students less anxious and more moti‑
vated to apply their English skills in practical communication situations (Eslami
& Kung, 2016).
The purpose of this book chapter is to offer a comprehensive journey through
the theoretical underpinnings, practical considerations, and prospects of technol‑
ogy‑assisted task‑based assessment, catering to both scholars and practitioners in
the field of ELT. The chapter delves into the pedagogical implications of this assess‑
ment approach. To achieve this, the chapter is structured systematically, beginning
with a discussion on the fundamental definitions of tasks and task‑based language
assessment (TBLA). It then transitions to the realm of technology integration into
task‑based instruction and the emergence of online task‑based assessment. The ben‑
efits and challenges associated with this approach are critically examined, provid‑
ing a nuanced perspective on its strengths and potential limitations. Subsequently,
the chapter delves into the procedure of conducting technology‑assisted task‑based
assessments, detailing the steps involved in implementing this approach effectively.
There is also the inclusion of some practical suggestions for online task‑based assess‑
ment activities and recommendations for technological tools. Lastly, the chapter
looks ahead, exploring the future trends in online task‑based assessment, which
encompass innovations driven by artificial intelligence (AI) to enhance adaptive
and personalized assessment and multimodal assessments in the virtual learning
environment.
132 ◾ Innovations and Applications of Technology

8.2 Task‑Based Language Assessment

8.2.1 Tasks in Language Education
The concept of a “task” in the language classroom is multifaceted, with vari‑
ous scholars offering distinct definitions and characteristics. A task is concep‑
tualized as an acitivty which students use to achieve a particular goal on their
learning journey (Willis, 1996). Activities, such as solving problems, completing
puzzles, playing games, or sharing and comparing experiences, can be used. As
Ellis (2003) noted, students’ engagement is the key factor in a task as it advances
their language‑learning process, from simple exercises to more intricate endeavors
like group problem‑solving, simulations, and decision‑making. Therefore, a task
fails to be successful if it does not engage students in learning. Estaire and Zanon
(1994) categorize tasks into “communication tasks” which prioritize meaning
over form and “enabling tasks” which emphasize linguistic aspects like grammar,
vocabulary, and discourse. Ellis (2003) had a broader classification of tasks into
different types, including authentic tasks versus pedagogical tasks, input‑ ver‑
sus output‑based tasks, closed versus open tasks, depending on the purposes of
task design.
There are some characteristics of tasks that can help distinguish tasks from
other kinds of exercises in language classrooms. According to Nunan (2004), a
communication task is referred to as classroom assignment that prompts learners
to engage with the target language, focusing primarily on meaning rather than
form. Shehadeh (2005) defined a language task as an assigned piece of work which
outcome‑oriented and requires the use of the language skills to convey meaning
in a manner that mirrors real‑world language use. Likewise, Ellis (2003) presents
a comprehensive set of criteria for identifying tasks: they are structured as work
plans, prioritize meaning, emulate real‑world language use processes, encompass
all language skills, engage cognitive processes, and culminate in a well‑defined
communicative outcome. Essentially, task design aims for language students to
apply language for communication purposes, fostering the negotiation of meaning
through these designed activities.
Tasks have recently been employed in prevailing and influential language
instructional methodology, establishing itself as a foundational component within
the language classroom. It is esteemed for its capacity to activate students’ acqui‑
sition processes and facilitate second language learning (Mulyadi et al., 2021;
Shehadeh, 2005). According to Ellis (2003), the TBLT approach is characterized
by several key elements. Instruction shifts its emphasis from product‑oriented
outcomes to prioritizing the learning process itself. Central to this approach are
purposeful and meaningful communicative tasks, encompassing both real‑life and
pedagogical contexts, thoughtfully sequenced to progressively challenge students.
 Technology-Assisted Task-Based Second Language Assessment ◾ 133

The heart of this approach lies in students’ communicative and meaningful engage‑
ment with these tasks and activities, fostering a holistic language‑learning experi‑
ence that promotes both linguistic and communicative competence.
Willis (1996) presents a comprehensive task‑based framework that guides lan‑
guage instruction through a structured sequence. The framework comprises three
main phases: pre‑task, task process, and language production. Successive endeavors
(e.g., Ellis, 2003; Willis & Willis, 2007) modified the guidelines and gave differ‑
ent names for three stages, namely pre‑tasks, tasks or during tasks, and post‑tasks.
However, the nature of each stage’s purpose and activities remained similar.
Basically, at the beginning of task‑based instruction, teachers design the tasks that
fit the lesson objectives and language aspects that students need to practice. In order
for students to perform tasks successfully, clear instructions and expectations are of
great significance; therefore, teachers need to clarify what students have to do and
how they can do the tasks. During the tasks, based on the nature of task require‑
ments, teachers can arrange independent work, pair work, or group work and let
students perform the tasks. At this stage, students might be also asked to report
what they have done in the tasks and showcase their work in various ways. After
students finish the tasks, teachers need to give feedback and encourage reflections so
that students can know their strengths, weaknesses, and considerations for further
improvement. It is also necessary for teachers to analyze and discuss with students
some important language features such as new words or grammar structures and
raise their awareness of the form and function of those features to take in. The pro‑
cedure of task‑based instruction is summarized in Figure 8.1.

Figure 8.1 Procedure for task‑based learning instruction.

134 ◾ Innovations and Applications of Technology

8.2.2 Task‑Based Language Assessment

As assessment is a crucial part of education, TBLA is an approach that uses tasks
as an integral component of language teaching, as emphasized by Long (2015).
As Norris (2016) stated, the attraction toward TBLA emerged in the early 1990s,
particularly in association with the continuous evolution of using tasks in language
education and the endeavor to construct fitting assessment frameworks for this
instructional approach. TBLA is used to measure the students’ real competences in
specific authentic contexts (Norris, 2016; Norris & East, 2021). TBLA focuses on
using tasks for language assessment. TBLA assesses students’ language proficiency
by evaluating their ability to do tasks, using the target language.
Perveen (2021) elucidates that TBLA functions as an evaluative approach for
gauging an individual’s skills, knowledge, and proficiencies by engaging them
in specific tasks or assignments. This assessment method is designed to measure
how effectively an individual can apply their comprehension and expertise in
practical real‑world situations. In contrast to relying solely on conventional forms
of testing like multiple‑choice questions or theoretical exams, task‑based assess‑
ment necessitates individuals to confront scenarios or challenges similar to those
encountered in their academic or professional lives. Their performance on these
tasks is a showcase of problem‑solving skills, critical thinking capabilities, prag‑
matic application of knowledge, and often, their adeptness at collaborative and
effective communication. TBLA echoes the essence of TBLT, as it empowers stu‑
dents to demonstrate their linguistic competencies within the context of mean‑
ingful, true‑to‑life tasks.
There are some key principles of TBLA. In the first place, TBLA is per‑
formance‑based, meaning that it assesses how well students can use the target
language to complete tasks in real‑world situations (Noroozi & Taheri, 2022).
This approach assesses their ability to apply language skills and knowledge in
practical contexts. Secondly, tasks used in TBLA should be authentic and mir‑
ror real‑life situations (Brindley, 2013). This ensures that the assessment reflects
the language skills students need in real‑world scenarios, so “teachers’ and stu‑
dents’ attention” is diverted to “using language as a tool for communication
rather than focusing on language knowledge as an end” (Noroozi & Taheri,
2022, p. 3). Furthermore, TBLA typically integrates multiple language skills;
therefore, assessments of this kind may require students to combine their lan‑
guage abilities to accomplish a task successfully. In addition, teachers need to
use clear and well‑defined criteria to evaluate students’ performance on tasks.
These criteria may include language accuracy, fluency, coherence, appropriate‑
ness, and task achievement. Finally, TBLA can serve both formative and sum‑
mative assessment purposes. Formative assessment provides ongoing feedback to
help students improve, while summative assessment measures overall proficiency
(Noroozi, & Taheri, 2021).
 Technology-Assisted Task-Based Second Language Assessment ◾ 135

8.2.3 Technology Integration into TBLA

Technology has emerged as a dynamic motivation in the evolution of the task‑based
approach in foreign and second language education (Xue, 2022). Lai and Li (2011)
assert the indispensable role of technology in the conceptualization and imple‑
mentation of task‑based methodologies. González‐Lloret and Ortega (2014) spot‑
light the fact that technological advancements, especially computer and online
communication technologies, have not only enabled the emergence of novel
tasks but also extended learning into authentic real‑world contexts. González‐
Lloret (2017) furthers this narrative, advocating that task‑based approach, in
reverse, stands as an optimal bridge for appropriate technology integration into
language classrooms, ensuring that students benefit from immersive, interactive,
and meaningful language experiences. In the same vein, Ziegler (2016) indicated
that technology can assist and create an environment for language learning. The
development of computer‑assisted language learning (CALL) has also been based
on task‑based approach literature so far. As technology and task‑based approach
converge, various terms have emerged to describe the integration of technology
within the task‑based approach. González‐Lloret and Ortega (2014) invented the
term “technology‑mediated task‑based learning” to encapsulate the idea of tech‑
nology as an integral medium through which tasks are designed and completed.
Mulyadi et al. (2021) contribute to the evolving terminology by introducing
“technology‑enhanced task‑based language teaching.” This term emphasizes the
enhancement brought about by technology, which goes beyond simple integration.
With the immense popularity of mobile devices, Chen and Lin (2018) and Pellerin
(2014) introduce the notion of “mobile‑assisted tasks” highlighting the growing
role of mobile devices in facilitating task completion.
Technology‑assisted task‑based language assessment (TATBA), popularly
known as online TBLA, refers to the use of digital platforms and technology to
conduct TBLAs in an online or virtual environment both for formative and sum‑
mative purposes. TATBA can be applied in various teaching contexts, including
face‑to‑face education, blended education, or online education. TATBA retains the
key principles of TBLA, but it leverages the capabilities of digital tools and the
Internet to facilitate, administer, and assess language tasks (Xue, 2022). TATBA is
particularly valuable in remote learning, online education, and professional train‑
ing contexts. It allows for a more authentic evaluation of skills and competencies
while leveraging the benefits of digital technology. However, careful consideration
is needed to design tasks that effectively assess the intended skills and to ensure
the validity and reliability of the assessment process (Norris, 2016). Technology
can significantly enhance TBLA by providing tools and resources to streamline
the assessment process, facilitate data collection, and offer new ways to evaluate
language proficiency in real‑world contexts.
136 ◾ Innovations and Applications of Technology

8.2.4 Benefits and Challenges of Technology‑Supported

Task‑Based Language Assessment
There are several ways in which technology can assist TBLA and make the assess‑
ment process more efficient, objective, and engaging for both teachers and students
(Al Kandari & Al Qattan, 2020; Chong & Reinders, 2020).
Firstly, one of the primary advantages of TATBA over conventional TBLA is that
incorporating technological advancements brings about accessibility and flexibility
to teachers and students during the implementation of task‑based assessment. This is
to say that technology like computers, mobile devices, and the Internet enables par‑
ticipants to engage from disparate locations and time zones and complete assessments
at their own pace (Anwar & Arifani, 2016). Ramadhan et al. (2021) have observed
an increasing utilization of online task‑based language learning, which has been
acknowledged for its effectiveness. This digital approach enhances students’ skills
and empowers them to exercise self‑directedness in planning, executing assignments,
and monitoring their learning progress. Similarly, Nguyen (2023) has recently found
out in her research conducted at a university in Vietnam that LMS‑based online
assessment helps to increase students’ motivation and academic performance.
Secondly, technology facilitates creating, delivering, and collecting tasks
through digital platforms or learning management systems (LMS). Teachers can
provide students with task instructions, materials, and resources electronically, eas‑
ing distributing and collecting responses. LMS platforms like Moodle or Canvas
can be used to organize and deliver TBLT materials, tasks, and assessments. Besides
facilitating task design and delivery, integrating technology also enables digital task
submission, meaning that students can submit their responses to tasks electroni‑
cally, whether written assignments, audio recordings, videos, or presentations. This
streamlines the process of collecting and organizing assessment materials in the
form of digital portfolios which can be used to compile and showcase students’
work on various tasks over time. Thanks to digital platforms, teachers can conve‑
niently organize and distribute tasks, track progress, and provide feedback, making
task management more effective and systematic.
Thirdly, compared to traditional TBLA in brick‑and‑mortar educational set‑
tings, TATBA can offer a higher level of authenticity to language students through
real‑life materials and experiences (Willis, 1996). Technology allows students to
access a wide range of authentic materials, such as videos, podcasts, news articles,
and social media content, which can be integrated into tasks to provide real‑world
language input. Also, the development of artificial intelligence technology like vir‑
tual reality (VR) and augmented reality (AR) can immerse students in simulated
real‑world environments, providing opportunities for experiential learning and
interactive tasks and making language‑learning experiences even more practical
and meaningful (Chen, 2014).
Another feature of TATBA is the technology‑enhanced collaboration and com‑
munication among students and between students and teachers. Online collaboration
 Technology-Assisted Task-Based Second Language Assessment ◾ 137

tools, like Google Docs or Wiki, can facilitate group tasks and c­ ollaborative p
­ rojects
so that students can work together in real‑time, even if they are not in the same
physical location. Likewise, video conferencing tools like Zoom, Skype, or
Microsoft Teams enable live communication and collaboration among students,
even when they are geographically distant. This is particularly valuable for oral
communication tasks.
Furthermore, TATBA is advantageous in that technology offers more feed‑
back options (Ellis, 2003; González‐Lloret, 2017). Online feedback tools like
computer‑mediated communication software can facilitate communication
between teachers and students. Teachers can provide written or audio feedback on
assignments, and students can ask questions or seek clarification through digital
channels. Technology can automate certain aspects of feedback delivery, such as
grammar and vocabulary checks, pronunciation analysis, and language proficiency
level assessments. For instance, speech recognition software can evaluate pronun‑
ciation, fluency, and intonation for oral tasks. These tools can provide immediate
feedback on specific language features without the need to depend on teacher or
peer feedback, enabling students to become more independent in their task perfor‑
mance and improvement.
However, the implementation of TATBA poses some considerable challenges
that should not be underestimated. The most prevailing issue that can arise during
TATBA is technical problems and insufficient digital literacy for both teachers and
students alike. Students may encounter technical problems such as poor Internet
connectivity, software glitches, or hardware issues that can disrupt the assessment
process (Arslanyilmaz, 2012; Xue, 2022). Moreover, not all students have equal
access to technology and the Internet. This digital divide can create disparities in
students’ ability to participate in and benefit from TATBA. In addition, the risks
of cheating and dishonest behaviors, which can threaten academic integrity, are
also a considerable challenge in online environments (Baer & McIntyre, 2022;
Chen, 2014). Online assessments of any kind can be susceptible to cheating and
plagiarism, and TATBA is no exception. Students may be tempted to seek unau‑
thorized assistance or copy content from the Internet, compromising the reliability
of the assessment.
From the perspective of Baralt and Gómez (2017), the online context intro‑
duces distinct dynamics to TBLT compared to face‑to‑face settings, influenced by
five key factors that teachers should take into careful consideration to ensure the
effectiveness of TATBA. Firstly, tasks that are effective in traditional settings might
not be equally captivating in a virtual environment. Secondly, online students often
grapple with distractions stemming from technical and social aspects, potentially
leading to misalignments between student and teacher expectations. Thirdly, main‑
taining communicative language teaching can prove intricate within e‑learning
spaces. Fourthly, video‑based interactions could induce self‑consciousness among
students. Lastly, educators must invest additional cognitive effort to adapt conven‑
tional language teaching tools for online pedagogy.
138 ◾ Innovations and Applications of Technology

8.3 Practical Suggestions for Online

Task‑Based Language Assessment
8.3.1 Proposed Procedure for Online Task‑Based
Language Assessment Practice
Based on the task‑based framework proposed by Willis (1996), Ellis (2003), and
Willis and Willis (2007) and the procedure of task‑based instruction suggested in
Figure 8.1, the implementation of TATBA can be also sequenced into three main
stages like the traditional TBLA; however, technology integration plays a signifi‑
cant role in every step of the process. The table below summarizes the procedure for
conducting TATBA which is also briefly illustrated in Figure 8.2.
Accordingly, technology‑supported task‑based assessment is supposed to com‑
prise three main stages (Table 8.1). In the pre‑task stage, tasks are designed regard‑
ing authentic scenarios. In the second stage, students access the intended task‑based
assessment on the platform by using an appropriate technology. After they perform
the required tasks, evaluation is conducted and feedback is given to cultivate stu‑
dents’ language development.

8.3.2 Suggested Activities for Online

Task‑Based Language Assessment
In this section of the chapter, some practical suggestions related to activities that
teachers can consider using for TATBA with the assistance of available and free
technological tools are provided with the hope that teachers can have more infor‑
mation and ideas to implement TATBA in their teaching reality.
Virtual role‑plays and simulations: This activity can enhance students’ communica‑
tion skills in practical contexts and simulate real‑world scenarios in the target language.

Figure 8.2 Procedure of implementing online task‑based assessment.

 Technology-Assisted Task-Based Second Language Assessment ◾ 139

Table 8.1 Proposed Procedure of Implementing Online Task‑Based

Language Assessment
Stages Purposes and Activities

Pre‑task Task design and instruction: Tasks are designed to

simulate real‑world scenarios and challenges. These
tasks can take various forms, such as role‑plays,
simulations, multimedia projects, information
searching and presenting tasks, and more. The tasks
should be aligned with the skills and knowledge that
need to be assessed. Teachers need to explain the
purpose of the tasks and instruct how they can be
conducted so that students understand clearly what
they have to do.
Digital platform selection: For TATBA, the use of an online
platform or LMS is necessary to host and manage the
task‑based assessment. This platform serves as the
environment where students can access the tasks,
interact with the content, and submit their
responses. There are a variety of platforms such as
social media sites and LMSs like Google Classroom,
Moodle, or Canvas for teachers to consider using.

Task Task access and distribution: Students can access the

task‑based assessment on the platform or LMS that
teachers have chosen through a web browser or a
mobile application. They should be provided with
clear instructions and any necessary resources to
complete the tasks.
Task performance: Depending on the task requirements,
students will start working on their tasks in the
classroom or from a distance. During this step,
students can use different computer‑mediated
communication tools like email, instant messages,
wikis, and video conferencing applications to exchange
ideas or collaborate with their peers to complete the
assignments.
Online submission: Students then have to complete the
assigned tasks within the given timeframe and submit
their responses through the online
platform. Depending on the nature of the tasks,
students might need to write essays, solve problems,
create presentations, make videos, or create a website
independently or collaboratively.

(Continued)
140 ◾ Innovations and Applications of Technology

Table 8.1 (Continued) Proposed Procedure of Implementing Online

Task‑Based Language Assessment
Stages Purposes and Activities

Post‑task Evaluation & feedback: The submitted tasks can be

evaluated by students (peer feedback), teachers
(teacher feedback), or automated systems (automatic
feedback), depending on the complexity of the
tasks. At this step, rubrics and guidelines should be
often provided to ensure a consistent and fair
evaluation.
After the assessment is completed, students can receive
detailed feedback on their performance. This feedback
might include insights into their strengths, areas for
improvement, and suggestions for further
development.
For TATBA, feedback can be given in multimodal forms
such as text feedback, audio feedback, video feedback,
image feedback, etc., enabling students to receive
information more easily and effectively.
Language Focus
At the end of the tasks, teachers can select some specific
language features arising from the designed tasks and
discuss with students about their forms and
meanings. Teachers can also create chances for
students to practice the language aspects that they
have learned from the assigned tasks.

For example, teachers can ask students to engage in virtual customer service role‑plays,
interacting with AI chatbots in the target language. These scenarios can be executed
through chat platforms like ChatGPT, Google Bard AI, or Bing AI or immersive aug‑
mented reality environments using Google ARCore or VR using affordable Google
Cardboard. Students can practice resolving issues and answering questions, receiving
automated feedback to improve their language proficiency and communication abilities.
Collaborative digital content creation: This activity aims to foster students’ col‑
laboration and language use in multimedia projects. Students can collaborate on
projects, such as creating a website, writing a blog, producing a podcast, or devel‑
oping a video, entirely in the target language. To complete this task, students have
to research, plan, and present their projects using the target language integratively
and meaningfully. The use of Web 2.0 tools such as wikis (Slimwiki, Mediawiki),
blogs (Weebly, Wix, WordPress, Blogger), Spotify, or social media platforms like
Youtube and TikTok can offer students more opportunities to not only practice
using language for real‑time purposes, but also help them to develop their digital
competence and creativity.
 Technology-Assisted Task-Based Second Language Assessment ◾ 141

Online debates and discussions: Instead of organizing classroom‑based debates

and discussions, the availability of different computer‑mediated communication
technologies allow teachers to create online platforms for students to perform their
debating and arguing skills. This activity will encourage students to engage in criti‑
cal discussions using the target language. Students can participate in online debates
or discussions on current events or controversial topics, utilizing video conferencing
platforms such as Zoom, Skype, Google Meet, or Microsoft Teams. Video confer‑
encing platforms allow students to record their debates and discussions in the form
of videos so that they can submit their tasks to teachers through links. In this kind
of activity, students have a chance to present arguments, engage in dialogues, and
express opinions, with assessment criteria encompassing participation, argumenta‑
tion skills, fluency, and the quality of contributions. The purpose is to enhance
student’s ability to communicate effectively and persuasively.
E‑portfolios or digital portfolios: E‑portfolios or digital portfolios can be used
as alternatives for paper‑based portfolios. Teachers can assign tasks related to four
language skills such as making speaking videos or writing essays, asking students
to document their assignments electronically and submit them on LMS or social
platforms, or even sending them to teachers through emails. These electronic and
multimodal portfolios can facilitate the assessment of speaking and writing skills,
enabling students to reach a broader audience and receive more comprehensive
feedback. When assessing students’ e‑portfolios, teachers can consider the variety
and quality of student submissions, the quality of self‑reflection, and students’ abil‑
ity to demonstrate language growth over time.
Web‑based language tasks: For receptive skills like reading and listening, web‑based
inputs can be beneficial as students can be exposed to diverse and authentic language
sources to promote their language development. In this task, students are provided
with links to authentic online resources like news articles, videos, or websites in the
target language. To record their web‑based activities, students can be asked to make
reading and listening journals or diaries in which they have to summarize, analyze,
or express their opinions on what they have read or listened to. The assessment of
this task can focus on language proficiency demonstrated in students’ reflections and
their ability to extract relevant information from online sources, enhancing their
reading and listening comprehension as well as critical thinking skills.
Digital storytelling or presentation: This activity can promote creativity and lan‑
guage use through multimedia storytelling and presentation. Students create digital
stories or make presentations using multimedia tools to narrate personal experiences
and share information about specific topics in the target language. To make digital
stories, students can be instructed to use such storytelling tools as StoryboardThat,
and Animoto to tell their stories vividly. Currently, the popularity of AI animation
software even enables students to create their own comic books with AI‑generated
illustrations. Moreover, technology also offers students more choices to present their
collected information in the form of slides using traditional PowerPoint or Google
142 ◾ Innovations and Applications of Technology

Slides or using more modern presentation software like Prezi or Canva. The assess‑
ment of this activity should focus on the content quality, students’ language use,
and the effectiveness of multimedia elements like visuals and audio, encouraging
students to communicate effectively in a multimedia‑rich digital environment.
The above‑suggested activities are just a few to name because technological
innovations are believed to continuously change and teachers’ creativity is endless.
Depending on their teaching contexts and students’ level, teachers should thought‑
fully consider different ways to implement TATBA to make their assessment more
diverse and engaging.

8.4 Future Trends in Online Task‑Based

Language Assessment
The field of TATBA is continually evolving to meet the changing needs of language
students and educators in a digital world. Several future trends will likely shape the
development of TATBA in the coming years. One significant trend is the integra‑
tion of TATB with LMS because Mulyadi et al. (2021) emphasize that using LMS
is fundamental for implementing technology‑enhanced TBLT. Integrating LMS
platforms into task‑based teaching and assessment will make it more convenient
and effective for teachers to manage task‑based assessments and monitor students’
progress. Therefore, it can be predicted that the growing popularity of using LMSs
at educational institutions will enable teachers to create more web‑based task types
to assess students’ language knowledge and skills effectively and conveniently.
Moreover, it is also worth mentioning the rapid development of AI technologies
and their growing role in language education (Ali et al., 2023; Baidoo‑Anu &
Owusu Ansah, 2023). The birth of AI chatbots and natural language processing
(NLP) technologies like ChatGPT, Bing AI, or Bard AI will become increasingly
prominent in TATBA. AI‑powered assessment will become more prevalent in lan‑
guage classrooms as AI can provide automated scoring, analyze students’ responses
for language proficiency, and offer personalized feedback, enhancing the efficiency
and effectiveness of assessments. AI‑powered tools can also become helpful assis‑
tants for teachers in task design and feedback delivery. Another crucial trend that
can be foreseeable in TATBA is the increase in adaptive and personalized assess‑
ment thanks to the development of AI technologies. Online platforms and machine
learning algorithms with the assistance of AI technologies will enable assessments
that adapt to individual student’s abilities and requirements. This approach ensures
a more personalized learning experience while precisely evaluating language skills.
Furthermore, the transition from face‑to‑face teaching to blended learning and
online learning can also entail that multimodal assessments will become more
prevalent, offering various formats of tasks and task responses such as videos, audio,
 Technology-Assisted Task-Based Second Language Assessment ◾ 143

images, and interactive simulations. This shift enables the evaluation of skills that
extend beyond traditional text‑based tasks, providing students with a wider variety
of opportunities to showcase their language proficiency and creativity in practical
and meaningful ways. These aforementioned trends collectively reflect the dynamic
nature of TATBA as it continues to adapt and innovate in response to the evolving
demands of language education in the digital age.

8.5 Conclusion and Pedagogical Implications

Since the call for a new paradigm of assessment in the 1990s to attend to learners’
performance of authentic tasks, not their memorization of discrete facts, and then
the growing popularity of task‑based language teaching, TBLA thus arrives at the
scene and then gradually attracts more and more scholarly interest. TBLA shifts
the focus from language knowledge as an end to language as a tool for commu‑
nication (Brindley, 2013). With the advent of numerous technologies to facilitate
online language teaching and learning, TBLA thus accommodates new dimensions
that necessitate further research effort. Although the marriage between TBLT and
online instruction is a natural, inevitable pathway for development, the practice and
translation of assessment tasks in the online context is still an unfathomable area
(Nielson, 2014). This chapter has then attempted to explore some essential theoreti‑
cal underpinnings of online task‑based assessment and therefore endeavored to shed
light on different pragmatics considerations in online task‑based assessment practice
in relevant language teaching contexts. Although online TBLA is gaining more and
more attention because of its flexible nature and its real‑life reflection, learning‑ori‑
ented trait, it might pose many challenges for both teachers and learners, especially
with regard to the feasibility of different digital tools used for assessment purposes.
It is thus argued that online TBLA needs to be examined and crafted with care and
sound, evidence‑based methods to ensure its validity, reliability, and fairness. The
chapter has also outlined some possible trends in online TBLA, including individu‑
alized assessment, the application of AI, and the inclusion of multimodal devices in
the assessment procedures. These trends are expected to be further investigated in
future research attempts to provide further insights into the whole picture of this
new mode of language assessment.

Acknowledgment
This publication was funded by the University of Foreign Languages and
International Studies and the University of Economics Ho Chi Minh City (UEH
University), Vietnam.
144 ◾ Innovations and Applications of Technology

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Chapter 9

The Use of Artificial

Intelligence in Language
Test Development and
Administration: What,
How, and Why
Thanh Huynh Vo and Hung Phu Bui

9.1 Introduction
Language testing has long been a great interest in language education and applied
linguistics (Bui, 2023). Language testing used to depend solely on humans in that
they create, deliver, and evaluate tests, as well as to give feedback and interpret
outcomes. The emergence of artificial intelligence (AI) in language education has
resulted in a renewed paradigm in language testing in the past decades (Bui &
Nguyen, 2022). Therefore, language developers and test takers have new opportuni‑
ties and are faced with emerging challenges.
To date, the promising role of AI in second language assessment has become
more prominent. AI has provided powerful tools, such as machine learning (ML)
and natural language processing (NLP), to support learners by identifying their
errors, providing feedback, and assessing their language competencies (Woo &
Choi, 2021). Grounded on presupposition, AI tools can support teachers in creating
individualized learning experiences and offer adaptive and personalized instruction

DOI: 10.1201/9781003473916-11147
148 ◾ Innovations and Applications of Technology

to learners. Moreover, AI can empower teachers to monitor and tutor learners more
effectively and efficiently as well as to design more authentic and interactive assess‑
ment tasks. However, the growing use of AI in language testing has raised various
ethical, social, and pedagogical concerns (Pedró et al., 2019).
Driven by the authors’ desire to assist practitioners in understanding the
aforementioned interest, this book chapter aims to provide practical guidance on
employing AI to develop language tests and ensure that they can be conducted
effectively and ethically. The chapter initially introduces the basic concepts of AI
and arguments for and against the use of AI in many aspects of language testing,
such as test development, administration, scoring, and feedback.

9.2 AI in Language Test Development

AI has immense potential to enhance or automate aspects of language testing.
The use of AI in language testing is an interdisciplinary area in which various
technological sub‑domains, including ML, NLP, computer vision (CV), and
speech recognition (SR), are applied in test construction, administration, scor‑
ing, feedback, and evaluation. Technologies from these subfields allow the com‑
puter system to perform different tasks, facilitating language input and output
production.
ML focuses on establishing systems that can make suggestions from collected
data and improve performance. As a primary area of ML, supervised learning
occurs when its algorithm learns from labeled data, such as test scores or ratings.
Unsupervised learning is when the algorithm learns from unlabeled data, such
as text or speech. Reinforcement learning is when the algorithm learns from
its own actions and rewards, such as playing a game or interacting with a user.
ML is essential for language testing since it assists the computer in adapting to
different learners and contexts and provides them with feedback and guidance
(Settles et al., 2020a).
As an interdisciplinary area of AI and linguistics, NLP deals with analyzing
and generating natural language, such as text or speech. It involves various tasks,
such as tokenization, parsing, tagging, sentiment analysis, summarization, transla‑
tion, and more. NLP is essential in language testing since it enables the computer
system to understand and produce natural language input and output. For exam‑
ple, it can help the system evaluate the grammatical accuracy, lexical diversity,
and semantic coherence of a learner’s written or spoken response (Deane et al.,
2013; Settles et al., 2020a) and can be used to create and score language tests
automatically or semi‑automatically, reducing the human effort and increasing
the efficiency and reliability of the assessment process. For instance, it can gener‑
ate test items based on a given text or topic, such as multiple‑choice questions,
cloze tests, or summary writing tasks (Mitkov et al., 2006; Sumita et al., 2005).
 Use of AI in Language Test Development and Administration ◾ 149

According to Chapelle and Voss (2008), Higgins et al. (2011), and Leacock and
Chodorow (2003), it is also designed to analyze the test‑taker’s responses and
provide feedback or scores based on various linguistic features, such as grammar,
vocabulary, fluency, pronunciation, or discourse. Moreover, as noted by Roever
and McNamara (2006), NLP can help improve the validity and fairness of lan‑
guage tests by ensuring that the content and difficulty are suitable for a specific
purpose and a particular social group.
As developed to process and create visual data, such as videos or pictures,
CV uses various techniques and algorithms to understand and manipulate visual
information, such as recognition, segmentation, reconstruction, synthesis, and
enhancement. This technology is useful for language testing because it enables the
system to process and interpret visual stimuli often used in language tests, such
as pictures or graphs. For instance, it can help recognize the objects or actions
depicted in an image and to generate a corresponding description or question
(Settles et al., 2020a). As proposed by Bernardi et al. (2016), CV can help evaluate
the quality and relevance of the visual materials used in language tests, such as the
clarity, contrast, and complexity of the images, and create new types of language
tests that involve visual tasks, such as image captioning, image summarization, or
image translation.
To assist the conversion of spoken language into other formats, such as texts,
scientists have also developed SR. It has many applications and benefits for oral
language testing, as it can filter out noise, recognize different speakers, adapt to
various accents, and so on. It is especially beneficial for language testing when it
supports the computer system in processing spoken input and output. For example,
it can transcribe a learner’s oral response and provide feedback on their pronuncia‑
tion or fluency (Zechner et al., 2009; Settles et al., 2020a) and design and develop
oral language tests that are more authentic, interactive, and adaptive to the learners’
needs and abilities. For instance, SR can enable the creation of simulated dialogues,
speech‑based games, or personalized tasks that can assess the learners’ communica‑
tive competence in various contexts and situations (Chapelle & Douglas, 2006; Xi &
Zechner, 2008).
In brief, the potential of AI technologies in language testing is vast and mul‑
tifaceted. The various sub‑domains of AI, including ML, NLP, CV, and SR, each
play a crucial role in enhancing distinct aspects of language testing. ML algorithms
enable the system to adapt to different learners and contexts, providing personal‑
ized feedback and guidance. NLP allows the system to understand and generate
natural language, thereby evaluating a learner’s response’s grammatical accuracy,
lexical diversity, and semantic coherence. CV aids in processing and interpreting
visual stimuli used in language tests, while SR is instrumental in handling spoken
input and output, transcribing a learner’s oral response, and providing feedback on
pronunciation or fluency. AI technologies will promisingly revolutionize language
testing by making it more efficient, accurate, and personalized.
150 ◾ Innovations and Applications of Technology

9.3 Arguments for the Use of AI in Language

Test Development and Administration
The incorporation of AI in the realm of language testing has ushered in a new era
of advancements. This integration has led to many benefits, including improved
efficiency, heightened objectivity, and extensive scalability in language testing tasks.
There exist many proposals and opposals about language test development based
on AI.

9.3.1 Efficiency
AI technology can strongly support language testing practices as it can enhance the
efficiency and quality of developing and scoring language tests. Unlike traditional
methods that rely on human evaluators to manually rate each test, AI can automate
the process of language assessment and provide immediate feedback to learners. For
example, as Deane et al. (2013) suggest, automated essay scoring systems can ana‑
lyze written responses in seconds and provide scores based on linguistic features and
content, allowing learners to assess themselves and monitor their learning process
efficiently and improve their language skills accordingly. Furthermore, AI can also
assist test developers in creating test items automatically, reducing the workload and
increasing the diversity of test content (Settles et al., 2020b). Therefore, AI technol‑
ogy can promote language testing in terms of efficiency and quality.

9.3.2 Objectivity
Unlike human evaluators who may be swayed by factors like fatigue or bias, AI
systems may offer objectivity, leading to more reliable and equitable assessment out‑
comes (Zechner et al., 2009). This objectivity is crucial in upholding the integrity
of language tests and ensuring that all learners are evaluated based on the same cri‑
teria. Furthermore, AI can provide learners with constructive diagnostic feedback,
which can help them identify their strengths and weaknesses and improve their
learning outcomes.
AI technology can contribute significantly to maintaining the objectivity and
integrity of language tests. First, it applies consistent and objective evaluation crite‑
ria, which reduces the possibility of human error or bias that may compromise the
fairness and reliability of language assessment (Zechner et al., 2009). This objectiv‑
ity is essential for maintaining the credibility of language tests and ensuring that
all learners are assessed according to the same set of criteria. Second, it provides
more comprehensive and diagnostic feedback to learners to assist in monitoring
their progress and address their areas of improvement, resulting in better learning
outcomes and more effective language development.
 Use of AI in Language Test Development and Administration ◾ 151

9.3.3 Scalability
AI can potentially transform language testing in various ways, especially in contexts
where large‑scale testing is needed. Duolingo English Test, for example, uses AI to
estimate item difficulty and linguistic skills based on machine‑learned scale models
(Settles et al., 2020b). This allows the test to accommodate a high number of test
takers simultaneously, reducing the cost and time of language testing. Moreover,
AI can also facilitate language testing in different modes and modalities, such as
online or offline, spoken or written, or multimodal (Woo & Choi, 2021). This can
enhance the accessibility and diversity of language testing for different learners and
test reliability and validity.

9.4 Arguments against the Use of AI in Language

Test Development and Administration
While integrating AI in language testing has brought about a paradigm shift, offer‑
ing numerous benefits, it is not devoid of challenges and limitations. These encom‑
pass issues related to fairness, validity, reliability, and suggested solutions to tackle
them.

9.4.1 Fairness
Linguists and language educators have recently raised concerns about the fairness
of AI‑assisted language testing. AI systems can potentially introduce unfairness
or discrimination in language assessment if they are not designed and developed
with careful attention to the diversity and complexity of language use (Burt,
2020). For example, an AI‑supported language testing system that evaluates
speaking skills might favor particular dialects or accents over others, creating
an unequal opportunity for test takers who do not speak with those dialects or
accents.
To address this challenge, it is essential to apply rigorous standards and best
practices in AI language test development and design, such as using diverse and rep‑
resentative datasets for training and testing AI systems, conducting regular audits
and evaluations of AI systems’ performance and impact, and involving relevant
stakeholders and experts in the decision‑making process. Another way to improve
the fairness of AI systems is to ensure transparency and accountability in test
design, development, and use (Burt, 2020). Transparency means that the AI system
should provide clear and understandable explanations of its decisions and actions,
while accountability means that it should be subject to oversight and regulation by
human experts and stakeholders (Burt, 2020).
152 ◾ Innovations and Applications of Technology

9.4.2 Validity
Another critique centers on test validity. Accordingly, stakeholders in language test‑
ing are concerned about the level at which a test is about what it is established for
and interprets the examinees’ submissions appropriately (Messick, 1989). Validity
is essential in the context of language testing supported by AI, where the use of AI
systems poses new challenges and opportunities for assessing language proficiency.
For instance, an AI system might not accurately assess a test‑taker’s competence
to use language appropriately in different situations or perform complex linguistic
tasks that require higher‑order thinking skills. For example, an AI system might fail
to recognize the pragmatic functions of language, such as politeness, sarcasm, or
humor, or it might not be able to evaluate the coherence and cohesion of an exam‑
inee’s written or spoken discourse.
Concerning validity, it is essential to adopt a validity framework that takes into
account the role and impact of AI in language testing, drawing on the latest theo‑
retical and empirical advances in the field. In addition, researchers must develop
methods for rapidly creating language proficiency assessments that are valid,
dependable, and secure (Settles et al., 2020b). These methods include using NLP
techniques to automatically generate test items from authentic texts, AL models to
automatically score test responses, and data analytics to monitor test quality and
security (Settles et al., 2020b).

9.4.3 Reliability
Test reliability refers to the level of consistency and accuracy of test results across
different occasions, raters, and forms (Bachman & Palmer, 2010). Accordingly, a
reliable test should produce similar outcomes when administered under the same
or equivalent conditions. However, achieving reliability in AI‑supported language
testing can pose various challenges. For example, an AI system designed to assess the
test‑taker’s language proficiency might produce inconsistent results if it is affected
by subtle differences in the test‑taker’s input, such as pronunciation, grammar, or
vocabulary (Woo & Choi, 2021). Regarding reliability, it is essential to conduct
thorough testing of AI systems under different scenarios and contexts and to keep
track of their performance over time.
Researchers (e.g., Woo & Choi, 2021) argue for the necessity of reliability test‑
ing, emphasizing interdisciplinary collaboration to enable rigorous and targeted
testing and aid in enacting and enforcing industry standards. Test reliability involves
conducting various types of analyses to evaluate the performance and behavior of
the AI system under different conditions and scenarios, such as stability, robustness,
generalizability, scalability, and usability (Woo & Choi).
 Use of AI in Language Test Development and Administration ◾ 153

9.5 The Potentials and Challenges of

AI‑Supported Language Testing
AI has brought about significant advancements in language testing and is poised
to advance reshaping the landscape of language testing. It has been making signifi‑
cant strides in the language sector, marking the beginning of a new era in language
testing techniques (Brown & Abeywickrama, 2019). Large language models such
as GPT‑4 have emerged as fertile grounds for research, with numerous studies sig‑
nificantly expanding on their capabilities (Brown & Abeywickrama, 2019; Radford
et al., 2020). These advancements are not only confined to the realm of academic
research but are poised to make a leap toward real‑world applications, revolution‑
izing how we approach language testing (Brown & Abeywickrama, 2019).
One trend in this domain is the development of AI systems capable of generat‑
ing human‑like text. This breakthrough has facilitated more effective communica‑
tion and has unlocked new opportunities for language learning and assessment
(Brown & Abeywickrama, 2019; Kryscinski et al., 2019). These AI systems can
create diverse, engaging, and contextually relevant language test questions (Brown
& Abeywickrama, 2019). This not only enriches the content of language tests but
also streamlines the test development process, making it more efficient and less
time‑consuming (Brown & Abeywickrama, 2019).
Another trend that is gaining momentum is the use of AI for automated assess‑
ment. AI systems have the capability to swiftly evaluate test responses, providing
accurate and consistent results (Chapelle & Voss, 2008; Shermis & Burstein, 2013).
This eliminates the possibility of human error and bias that can sometimes creep
into manual assessments. We would argue that the use of AI, therefore, not only
enhances the efficiency of language testing but also bolsters its reliability, ensuring
that test results are dependable and reproducible.
AI is also being leveraged for adaptive testing as it can tailor the difficulty and
content of language test questions based on a candidate’s performance, ensuring
a personalized testing experience that aligns with the candidate’s proficiency level
(Wainer et al., 2000). According to Wainer and his colleagues, this adaptability
makes AI an invaluable asset in language testing as it enables to conduct nuanced
and individualized assessment.
The seamless integration of AI in language testing has brought both profound
implications and possible challenges for educators in their practices in terms of
automating scoring, providing feedback, and generating test items. It can free up
educators’ time and energy from routine testing or assessment tasks and allow them
to concentrate on more complex and creative parts of teaching, such as curriculum
development, pedagogical strategies, and student engagement. For example, Zou
et al. (2023) reported that using a testing system to score oral proficiency tests
154 ◾ Innovations and Applications of Technology

reduced the workload and stress of human raters and increased their satisfaction
and motivation. Similarly, Seo et al. (2021) found that using a testing system to
provide feedback on writing tasks enhanced the efficiency and quality of feedback,
and improved learners’ writing performance and self‑regulation.
The practice can provide educators with valuable insights into each learner’s
progress and areas of difficulty. By analyzing the data collected from language tests,
AI can generate reports and dashboards that show learners’ strengths and weak‑
nesses, learning patterns, and preferences. These insights can help educators design
differentiated instruction and personalized learning experiences that cater to learn‑
ers’ diverse needs and goals. For instance, using an AI‑based system to monitor
and visualize learners’ reading comprehension levels enabled educators to adjust
their reading instruction accordingly, improving learners’ reading outcomes and
motivation.
However, educators may also encounter challenges from the emerging language
testing system. Some educators may perceive AI as a threat rather than a support to
their teaching roles, especially if they lack the understanding and confidence about
the role of AI in education, possibly resulting in resistance or reluctance to use AI
tools or a loss of professional identity or autonomy. As Seo et al. (2021) argued, it
is essential to clarify that AI is not intended to replace human instruction but to
enhance it by providing complementary functions and services.
Another challenge for educators is to acquire the necessary skills and knowledge
to effectively use AI tools in their teaching practices. This requires professional
development programs that focus on the use of AI in education, and that provide
educators with opportunities to learn about the principles, features, benefits, and
limitations of AI tools. Moreover, educators need ongoing support and resources
to help them integrate AI tools into their teaching practices smoothly and success‑
fully. For example, it is suggested that providing educators with access to online
communities, where they can share their experiences and challenges with using AI
tools, can foster their confidence and competence in using AI in language testing.
Therefore, ensuring that educators are adequately trained and supported in
using AI tools is crucial. Professional development programs focusing on using AI
in education can equip educators with the necessary skills and knowledge to effec‑
tively integrate AI into their teaching practices. Furthermore, ongoing support and
resources can help educators navigate the challenges and maximize the benefits of
using AI in language testing (Seo et al., 2021).
The integration of AI in language testing can have a profound impact on test
takers, offering both potential benefits and challenges. From the test takers’ per‑
spective, using AI in language tests can enhance their perceptions of fairness and
consistency. This is because AI systems are programmed to evaluate responses
objectively based on predefined and consistent criteria, eliminating the risk of
human bias or error. Furthermore, AI systems can provide immediate and adaptive
feedback, potentially improving the test takers’ learning outcomes and motivation.
Moreover, AI systems can increase the availability and accessibility of language tests.
 Use of AI in Language Test Development and Administration ◾ 155

This means that test takers can take the test at their convenience without waiting
for a human examiner to be available. As a result, the integration of AI may make
language tests more accessible and convenient for test takers (Zhang et al., 2023).
Despite these potential benefits, using AI in language testing might also incite
mistrust among some test takers. This could stem from concerns about the reli‑
ability of AI systems. For instance, test takers might question whether an AI
system can accurately assess complex aspects of language use, such as pragmatics
or cultural nuances. Some test takers may feel uncomfortable interacting with
an AI system instead of a human examiner. The lack of human interaction could
make the testing experience feel impersonal or intimidating for some individuals
(Zhang et al., 2023).
Given these potential challenges, ensuring that AI systems used in language
testing are reliable and user‑friendly is crucial. Test developers should invest in rig‑
orous testing and validation processes to ensure that AI systems can accurately
assess language skills. Furthermore, user interfaces should be designed to be intui‑
tive and easy to navigate, helping to alleviate any discomfort or anxiety test takers
might feel about interacting with an AI system. By doing so, test developers can
optimize the benefits of integrating AI into language testing while minimizing the
potential drawbacks (Chapelle & Voss, 2022).
While integrating AI in language testing offers promising benefits such as
enhanced fairness, consistency, and availability, it also presents potential challenges
related to reliability and user comfort. Therefore, careful consideration must ensure
these systems are reliable, user‑friendly, and ultimately beneficial for test takers.
AI presents a significant opportunity for policy makers, particularly in the
realm of education. It serves as a powerful tool that can shape and influence educa‑
tional policies in unprecedented ways. The systems can collect, analyze, and inter‑
pret vast amounts of data, providing valuable insights to inform policy decisions.
For instance, it can track student performance across various parameters, identify
patterns and trends, and predict future outcomes. These insights can help policy
makers understand current policies’ effectiveness, identify improvement areas, and
make informed decisions about future policies (Tyler et al., 2023).
However, the incorporation of AI in education also brings with it potential risks
that policy makers need to be cognizant of. With AI systems collecting and analyz‑
ing large amounts of data, there are valid concerns about how this data is stored,
used, and protected. Policy makers need to ensure that robust data protection mea‑
sures are in place to safeguard the privacy of students and educators. AI system may
exhibit biased behavior should the training data be biased or unrepresentative. This
could lead to unfair outcomes in language testing. Therefore, policy makers need
to ensure that AI systems are trained on diverse and representative datasets to avoid
unwanted potential bias (Tyler et al., 2023).
While there are challenges associated with using AI in language testing, its
potential benefits are immense. Its ability to provide valuable insights can greatly
aid policy makers in making informed decisions. However, these benefits must be
156 ◾ Innovations and Applications of Technology

balanced against the potential risks associated with privacy and discrimination. As
research continues and technology advances, we can look forward to seeing more
advanced AI applications in language testing. These advancements will undoubt‑
edly present new opportunities and challenges for policy makers, test takers, and
educators alike.

9.6 Conclusion
In summation, the incorporation of AI into language testing holds the potential to
reshape the landscape of language testing fundamentally. It offers many advantages,
including enhanced efficiency, objectivity, and scalability, and has demonstrated its
effectiveness in various contexts. Nevertheless, it also introduces challenges pertain‑
ing to fairness, validity, and reliability that require careful consideration. Despite
these hurdles, the potential of AI in language testing is vast. As technological
advancements continue to unfold and research progresses, we anticipate witnessing
increasingly innovative applications of AI within this domain. This underscores the
imperative for sustained research efforts to explore these applications and address
the concomitant challenges. The future of language testing is poised for a transfor‑
mative shift, with the development of AI as a central role in steering this evolution.

Acknowledgment
This publication was funded by, Ho Chi Minh City Open University (HCMCOU),
and the University of Economics Ho Chi Minh City (UEH University), Vietnam.

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USING III
TECHNOLOGY FOR
SPECIFIC PURPOSES IN
LANGUAGE EDUCATION
Chapter 10

Using Asynchronous
Computer‑Mediated
Communication to
Increase Students’
Out‑of‑Class Interaction
Vu Hong Lan

10.1 Introduction
To encourage 21st‑century communications, many media and the tools that sup‑
port them have been invented and have firmly embedded themselves in our inter‑
connected world. Computer‑mediated communication (CMC) systems have proven
vital for initiating, developing, and maintaining interpersonal interactions in vari‑
ous ways (Grunander, 2016; Croes et al., 2019). Although the digital revolution has
accelerated the development of multimodal and multisensory interfaces, they play
an essential part in the responsive structuring of communication in practically every
relational scenario (Keary, 2018; Sauer et al., 2022). It is, therefore, understand‑
able that research focused on communication and technology has accelerated enor‑
mously. They offer novel ways to learn about and communicate effectively beyond
our physical reach. The role of computers in CMC nowadays has changed due to
the advent of many modes of communication and their mediated communication
channels. Nevertheless, it is important to remain cautious regarding how CMC

DOI: 10.1201/9781003473916-13161
162 ◾ Innovations and Applications of Technology

utilizes these new tools, especially the multisensory integration of audio and visual
in affective information and communication (Tran, 2017; Massey et al., 2023).
Efforts to better understand student participation from several viewpoints have
resulted in several definitions of CMC interaction, which have enabled multimo‑
dality or multisensory, including auditory, visual, and diffused gesture—the body
language. The key to increasing students’ engagement is promoting collaboration
and interaction during learning (Umbach & Wawrzynski, 2005). Given that CMC
is influenced by societal and personal factors, stimulating and sustaining student
engagement has consistently been identified as a highly desirable but generally elu‑
sive goal for CMC research (Kahu, 2013; Bedenlier et al., 2020; Hutson & Herrell,
2021). Although it is widely agreed that good communication is essential to the
growing interdependence, virtualization, and multidisciplinary nature of coopera‑
tion, it still needs to be determined how to match engagement activities with com‑
munication behaviors. Yet, the lack of nonverbal cues and affective information such
as moods and emotions led students to become self‑focused, unyielding to influence,
disobedient, aggressive, and negatively affective in interpersonal communication.
Previous literature has confirmed that emotions play an important role as arousal
or stimuli in developing motivation for students’ engagement (Bradley et al., 2001;
Kim et al., 2014; Sands & Isaacowitz, 2017; Grondin et al., 2019; Li et al., 2020;
Nahumi‑Shani et al., 2022). Nonetheless, more must be recognized for how effec‑
tively CMC transmits affective information, or emotions to be precise, in terms
of displaying asynchronous nonverbal cues and increasing engagement through
gesture interaction. By nature, humans are capable of visualizing an image from
a sound in their cognitive thought, and through generative integration, it is no lon‑
ger through their imagination to picture the image (Suguitan & Dacaymat, 2019;
Hanawalt & Hofsess, 2020; Jackson & Nilan, 2022). However, most asynchronous
forms of communication are text‑based, such as email and text messaging, which
have limited the student’s awareness of their surroundings and usage of nonverbal
communication in CMC. Therefore, alternative means are required as there are
no emotions or gestures to let one express their sentiments (Harn, 2017; Wang &
Haapio, 2021; Ciancarini et al., 2021; Keynan et al., 2022) and by employing the
form of multisensory communication, recipients can concentrate on the hidden
message being conveyed, which help motivate them and help them comprehend
context (Harn 2017; Treem et al., 2020).
As part of reviewing prior literature, several types of engagement and prominent
goals are established in addition to the motivation and effectiveness of CMC media,
which results in a relative lack of focus on satisfaction with the CMC experience.
While there are many CMC theories, this chapter focuses on evaluating the moti‑
vation, effectiveness, and satisfaction based on the CMC competency developed
by Spitzberg (2006). Additionally, a microanalysis of interaction using Waikato
Environment for Knowledge Analysis (WEKA) image classification and color lay‑
out is also implemented to contribute to the literature on the impacts of CMC on
students’ interaction.
 Asynchronous Computer-Mediated Communication ◾ 163

10.2 Literature Review

Past studies claimed that student engagement is positively impacted by participating
in asynchronous learning (Sherblom et al., 2013; Northey et al., 2015). Co‑creation
may highlight the value of the recipients’ interaction and communication depend‑
ing on their skills. This content‑based strategy is mainly defined by an external
perspective that emphasizes strengthening or growing skills to suit new communi‑
cation needs. However, this technique stresses efforts to incorporate knowledge and
talents to enhance the quality of goods from a learning context point of view due
to the social dynamic qualities. Thus, by utilizing cutting‑edge CMC tools, newly
engaged activities are transformed into a platform to motivate co‑creating experi‑
ences based on lively discussions and exchanges, which add value because they are
unique and unmatched (Frow et al., 2016; Dacre et al., 2018).
In proportion to O’Brien’s (2016) research, engagement competencies are the
lenses through which students direct their engaged activities to gain a deep under‑
standing of that subject or lens. Their motivation drives the learning outcomes,
and the effectiveness of the medium allows individuals to develop professional and
personal abilities for communication, teamwork, and readiness for academic and
non‑academic situations. As a result, their engagement activities and competencies
increase, and satisfactory outcomes can be achieved. Thus, integrating the sociol‑
ogy of emotions and the CMC competence theory in asynchronous settings can
improve student engagement and create more significant personalized learning
opportunities. Interaction with Asynchronous CMC (ACMC) supports students
through systems made feasible by the medium of interactive computer instruments.
As a result, students gain ideas through a collaborative communication environ‑
ment, generating content and innovative problem‑solving abilities to deal with their
educational assignments. These ACMC interactions enabled the groups to connect
more and promote informal learning (Northey et al., 2015). ACMC users can access
past activities submitted by members of the same group in asynchronous environ‑
ments, allowing for self‑paced learning (Oh, 2019). For instance, students can com‑
plete a task hoping that others who have completed similar tasks will react when
they move on to the next stage on the same platform. Since the group discussion is
not taking place immediately, students have time to process the material they have
been given before responding, which has multiple benefits. Their manner of inter‑
action fosters dedicating contributions to the group discussions and might even
result in more significant comprehension of the settings. Additionally, the discussed
contents imply that as students’ engagement increases, their motivation and dedica‑
tion to the activities also increase with appropriate actions and dedication to their
out‑of‑class learning.
CMC competency is one’s ability to respond consistently and effectively to oth‑
ers through digital channels. The effectiveness of the technologies determines to
what extent student engagement increases and whether their motivation, which
acts as the driving force, is satisfied through intermediary communication media.
164 ◾ Innovations and Applications of Technology

However, engaging students in asynchronous learning activities can be challenging

because of the lack of motivation, the variety of available media options, and the
asynchronous nature of these activities. Students can choose how frequently and
intensely they participate as the specific role of the computer concerns supportive
and cooperative learning (Spitzberg, 2006). Engaged activities depend on the kind
of activity that motivates the engagement process, maintains the effectiveness of
collaboration between individuals, and promotes overall satisfaction with adopting
new forms of communication (Bedenlier et al., 2020; Hutson & Herrell, 2021).
Thus, mastering CMC competency is believed to be crucial for comprehending why
students engage in mediated communication, particularly interpersonal contact
outside of the classroom. However, because of the rapid advancement of informa‑
tion and communication technologies (ICTs), widespread use of visualization, and
multimodal communication integrating data from multiple modes such as audio,
visual, and gesture are gradually replacing entirely text‑based communication.
With the global continually changing environment due to digital transforma‑
tion, the multimodal perspective ought to satisfy users’ demand and their rising
expectations of quality user experiences. Using a combination of systems, multi‑
modal can offer a flexible, efficient, and usable environment, allowing users to com‑
municate and interact with the received information from humans and the systems.
In this chapter, one of the modes used is the integration between audio and visual,
also referred to as music visualization or sonification. The purpose of data visualiza‑
tion is data exploration and communication (Kelleher & Wagener, 2011), and it
is also possible to incorporate aesthetic elements to drive engagement and interest
(Sinar, 2015). Researchers and scientists have demonstrated such visualization tech‑
niques in their past research, where an association between music and mathemat‑
ics was identified (Dharmapriya et al., 2021; Graf et al., 2021) to translate data
such as mood or emotion into visual with design elements such as color and shape.
Studies on performance reception and experience have focused on comprehending
the function of music visuals. Furthermore, sharing inner thoughts as a commu‑
nication tool has always been inspirational for students’ learning and creative skill
development (Kefalaki, 2021).

10.3 This Study
10.3.1 Preparation for the Experiment
The current study proposed a two‑stage experiment involving qualitative and quan‑
titative approaches to analyze the indicators of computer‑mediated communica‑
tion that affect students’ engagement. Recruited participants were graduate EFL
(English as a foreign language) students with backgrounds in interaction design,
creative development, and graphic design. The participants all share the hobby of
 Asynchronous Computer-Mediated Communication ◾ 165

Table 10.1 Information of Focus Group Participants

Gender Background

Male 16 53.30% Interaction 11 40.00%

Designer

Female 14 46.70% Creative 11 30.00%

Developer

Graphic 8 30.00%
Designer

Figure 10.1 Participants’ music preference.

listening to music on platforms such as Spotify, Apple Music, and YouTube. Thirty
participants (n = 30) were recruited (see Table 10.1 and Figure 10.1).
As part of the current study, a questionnaire was developed based on mature
items measuring motivation, effectiveness, and satisfaction from the CMC com‑
petency (CMCC) model proposed by Spitzberg (2005) (see Tables 10.2 and 10.3).

10.3.2 First Stage of the Experiment – Auditory

Visual Art Conversion
In the first phase of the experiment, the chosen musical pieces were used as the
inputs for visualization. The design of the audiovisual generative model revolved
around the sonification technique used in Landry and Jeon’s (2020) study to
produce a visualization of music identical to soundwaves. The selected pieces are
166 ◾ Innovations and Applications of Technology

Table 10.2 The Rating Scale from Spitzberg’s CMCC Model

Score Description

1 Not at all true of me

2 Mostly not true of me

3 Neither true nor untrue of me; undecided

4 Mostly true of me

5 Very true of me
Source: Spitzberg, B. H. (2006). Preliminary development of a model
and measure of computer‑mediated communication (CMC)
competence. Journal of Computer‑Mediated Communication,
11(2), 629–666. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1083‑6101.2006.00030.x

Table 10.3 Content of the Questionnaire Based on Spitzberg’s CMCC Model

Group Code Items

Motivation M1 I enjoy communicating using computer media.

M2 I am nervous about using the computer to communicate

with others.a

M3 I am very motivated to use computers to communicate

with others.

M4 I look forward to sitting down at my computer to share

my inner thoughts with others.

M5 Communicating through a computer makes me anxious.a

Effectiveness E1 I generally get what I want out of interactions.

E2 I consistently achieve my goals in interactions.

E3 My interactions are effective in accomplishing what I set

out to accomplish.

E4 I am effective in my conversations with others.

(Continued)
 Asynchronous Computer-Mediated Communication ◾ 167

Table 10.3 (Continued) Content of the Questionnaire Based on Spitzberg’s

CMCC Model
Group Code Items

Satisfaction S1 I am generally satisfied with my communication

encounters.

S2 I enjoy my interactions with others.

S3 I feel good about my conversations.

S4 I am generally pleased with my interaction.

Source: Spitzberg, B. H. (2006). Preliminary development of a model and mea-
sure of computer‑mediated communication (CMC) competence. Journal
of Computer‑Mediated Communication, 11(2), 629–666. https://doi.
org/10.1111/j.1083‑6101.2006.00030.x
a Item score is reversed.

then processed by a custom Python software integrating a generative model and a

“TensorFlowPredictMusiCNN” function from the Essentia module. The Essentia
module used a pre‑trained music convolutional neural network (musicnn) for music
feature extraction that involved certain emotions (Pandeya & Lee, 2021).
Due to the variety of music types, only six were finalized from the pilot study
upon the recruited participants (see Table 10.4) in correlation with the Essentia
music mood model (see Table 10.5), based on the discussion among participants
while following the sample of integrating Itten’s color system to Russell’s circum‑
plex model of affect as proposed by Dharmapriya et al. (2021). The visualization
took place as the parameters of the music were extracted using the Essentia and
TensorFlow mood predictors to evaluate and transform the songs into numerical
data before generating the initial images. The parameters were considered to be
related to the corresponding music mood models. Therefore, the scores were deter‑
mined with the corresponding TensorFlow ML model in Essentia (Alonso‑Jiménez
et al., 2020).
After receiving an audio file as input, a pre‑trained neural network using the
Essentia audio mood module to analyze the music piece’s characteristics classified it
on emotions and music mood models’ score before linking it to a generative model
for generating unidentical visualization. In this study, custom software generated
images from audio, which used a pre‑trained convolutional neural network for
music feature extraction with music (Pandeya & Lee, 2021).
168 ◾ Innovations and Applications of Technology

Table 10.4 Table of Six Selected Music Types with Description

Number Short Name Description

1 Pop Music that is popular in the mainstream

2 Happy An up‑tempo soul music from a popular

animation

3 Metal A unique metal music which is focused on

the speed and aggression of the beats

4 Classical An instrumental music type which can

make one in sync with the flow

5 Groovy An upbeat and is easy to dance to music

6 Lo‑fi Low‑fidelity music that is regarded as

imperfections, but the slow‑rhythmed
and “hip hop” beats make it popular

Table 10.5 Table of Parameter and Corresponding ML Model in Essentia

Parameter Tensorflow ML Model in Essentia

Happy mood_happy‑musicnn‑msd‑2.pb

Aggressive mood_aggressive‑musicnn‑msd‑2.pb

Relaxing mood_relaxed‑musicnn‑msd‑2.pb

Acoustic mood_acoustic‑musicnn‑msd‑2.pb

Dance danceability‑musicnn‑msd‑2.pb

In the first stage of the experiment, the recruited participants were invited to
determine the preferred music type of their choice before grouping them based on
their music preference. Before generating their first audio visualization, participants
were asked to cooperate and finalize three pieces of music. Once the music pieces
were added to the software, the results were generated (see Figure 10.2), which
revealed the results of the first five pairs of participants. Participants could then dis‑
cuss whether they preferred this form of visualization and expressed their emotional
experience before viewing the music mood score (see Table 10.6).
 Asynchronous Computer-Mediated Communication ◾ 169

Figure 10.2 illustrates the first five pairs of the participants’ results for the
audio‑to‑visual process in the first stage of the experiment. Fifteen illustrations were
presented, and each pair had to select three pieces of music to generate the illustra‑
tion. The illustrations resembled the form of audio sound waves with different color
mixtures in order to match the type of music.

Figure 10.2 Audio‑to‑image result in the first stage of the experiment.

170 ◾ Innovations and Applications of Technology

Table 10.6 Table of Audio Data Corresponding to the Generated Image and
User Pairs
1st Song 2nd Song 3rd Song
Data Data Data Average

1st Pair happy −0.166 happy −0.655 happy −0.436 happy −0.419
(P1 & P2) dance −0.667 dance −0.983 dance −0.406 dance −0.685
M&F aggressive aggressive aggressive aggressive
−0.036 −0.313 −0.948 −0.432
relaxing relaxing relaxing relaxing
−0.964 −0.318 −0.303 −0.528
acoustic acoustic acoustic acoustic
−0.519 −0.003 −0.027 −0.183

Model used: Model used: Model used:

Relaxing Dance Aggressive

2nd Pair happy −0.649 happy −0.166 happy −0.042 happy −0.286
(P3 & P4) dance −0.708 dance −0.667 dance −0.192 dance −0.522
M&M aggressive aggressive aggressive aggressive
−0.03 −0.036 −0.039 −0.035
relaxing relaxing relaxing relaxing
−0.596 −0.964 −0.959 −0.84
acoustic acoustic acoustic acoustic
−0.543 −0.519 −0.645 −0.569

Model used: Model used: Model used:

Dance Relaxing Relaxing

3rd Pair happy −0.436 happy −0.649 happy −0.735 happy −0.607
(P5 & P6) dance −0.406 dance −0.708 dance −0.653 dance −0.59
F&F aggressive aggressive aggressive aggressive
−0.947 −0.03 −0.037 −0.338
relaxing relaxing relaxing relaxing
−0.303 −0.596 −0.634 −0.511
acoustic acoustic acoustic acoustic
−0.027 −0.543 −0.431 −0.334

Model used: Model used: Model used:

Aggressive Dance Happy

(Continued)
 Asynchronous Computer-Mediated Communication ◾ 171

Table 10.6 (Continued ) Table of Audio Data Corresponding to the

Generated Image and User Pairs
1st Song 2nd Song 3rd Song
Data Data Data Average

4th Pair happy −0.042 happy −0.735 happy −0.649 happy −0.475
(P7 & P8) dance −0.191 dance −0.653 dance −0.708 dance −0.517
M&M aggressive aggressive aggressive aggressive
−0.038 −0.037 −0.03 −0.035
relaxing relaxing relaxing relaxing
−0.958 −0.633 −0.596 −0.729
acoustic acoustic acoustic acoustic
−0.645 −0.431 −0.543 −0.539

Model used: Model used: Model used:

Relaxing Happy Dance

5th Pair happy −0.166 happy −0.655 happy −0.436 happy −0.419
(P9 & P10) dance −0.667 dance −0.983 dance −0.406 dance −0.685
M&F aggressive aggressive aggressive aggressive
−0.037 −0.313 −0.947 −0.432
relaxing chill −0.318 relaxing relaxing
−0.964 acoustic −0.303 −0.528
acoustic −0.003 acoustic acoustic
−0.519 −0.027 −0.183

Model used: Model used: Model used:

Relaxing Dance Aggressive

Table 10.6 illustrates the score distribution between the music mood model (see
Table 10.5). Overall, the decision for color choice and the type of music depended
on the highest and second‑highest scores of the models. An average column was
added to the table to reveal the average score based on the three selected types of
music.

10.3.3 Second Stage of the Experimental – Gesture Interaction

The execution of the second stage requires a creative tool called Touch Designer
(TD). TD is a node‑based creative development software requiring creative
coders to create a node network to generate unique multimedia content (see
Figure 10.3). The integration of this tool is capable of generating dynamic visualiza‑
tions. Furthermore, with the extension of a Kinect device for body tracing, extra
172 ◾ Innovations and Applications of Technology

Figure 10.3 Node networks in TD.

interaction can be achieved with the audio‑to‑visual generated artwork from the
first stage. Accordingly, the Kinect medium enabled TD’s body tracing technique
to capture and portray the participants’ figures or silhouettes onto a computer dis‑
play. The experiment setup (see Figure 10.4) requires two notebook computers and
Kinect devices while participants stood facing the devices to perform. Through
this stage, students act as artists or performers to communicate through their body
movements.
As can be observed from Figure 10.3, a TD node network requires multiple
nodes for different purposes. For instance, the purple‑colored node represents
the texture operator that manipulates pixels, while green‑colored channel opera‑
tors process data from multiple sources. In the second stage, participants interact
with one another using their audiovisual art generated from the first stage in a
 Asynchronous Computer-Mediated Communication ◾ 173

Figure 10.4 Setup and participation from participants in the second stage of the
experiment.

gesture performance. Participants were asked to perform cooperatively in three

one‑minute sessions where, for each session, they performed with one of their
three generated art pieces. Since the silhouette of the figures was a sequential
and structured set of points, microanalysis of the interaction is possible. Using
an image classification technique, a computer vision analysis technique, with
WEKA. Each group’s performance session was recorded and extracted frame by
frame for implementing microanalysis of interaction using WEKA image clas‑
sification (see Figure 10.5).

10.3.3.1 Microanalysis of Interaction and Image Classification

This study was based on the microanalysis of the touch‑in‑interaction concept by
Cekaite (2012, 2021) and the gesture‑in‑interaction concept by Streeck (2013). For
instance, 20 images with two sample images of detected interaction were added to
the dataset (see Figure 10.6). From the example, the interaction between two par‑
ticipants occurred, thus leading to two groups of data in which the first group was
described as posing hands high enough to make a heart shape together or while the
other was standing as close as possible.
174 ◾ Innovations and Applications of Technology

Figure 10.5 Snapshots of the gesture interaction with the audiovisual‑generated

arts.

Figure 10.6 Sample of image data for machine learning technique to detect
human involvement and interaction.
 Asynchronous Computer-Mediated Communication ◾ 175

The image classification technique could extract certain features of the dataset
(Shoumy et al., 2020). As the image data might contain one or more instances,
different image filters from WEKA were employed in the current study. One typi‑
cal algorithm, such as color layout, explores the read, green, and blue (RGB) color
scheme of the given data. The Pyramid histogram of Oriented Gradients (PHOG),
built from the histogram of gradient orientation (HOG), also captures the textural
and shape properties. Both filters divide the image data into smaller blocks before
applying additional widely used classifiers: multilayer perceptron (MLP), sequential
minimal optimization (SMO), and simple logistic (SL). MLP, with a quick learning
rate, determined the irrelevant features of multiple layers from a linear perceptron.
SMO models support vector outputs to acquire accurate probability estimations and
replace all missing values into binary and normalized ones. SL used “LogitBoost”
to utilize simple logistic models. The method measured the accuracy of the model.
The data was inserted into the WEKA application and proceeded with the
image classifiers, generating ten equal‑sized sets to repeat the enhancing process
of the first and the second to tenth datasets. Two sets (training and testing) were
divided into ten folds using a cross‑validation technique to obtain more accurate
results. With data points utilized once for testing, it tracked each component, aver‑
aged the results, and enhanced the auxiliary nine times for training. As for the
training data, it created a classifier with an algorithm and applied it to the rest of
the testing data for the first set.

10.4 Results
10.4.1 Results of the Two‑Stage Experiment
The Cronbach’s Alpha value of the pretest was acceptably 0.718, while the post‑test
score was 0.833 (Table 10.7). Additionally, Figure 10.7 demonstrates the box plot
results of students’ motivation, effectiveness, and satisfaction as they engaged with
CMC systems.
Though not statistically significant, the results from Figure 10.7, box plot of stu‑
dent’s motivation, effectiveness, and satisfaction in the preliminary and post‑stage of

Table 10.7 Cronbach’s Alpha Reliability Statistics of the 13 Items from

CMC Competency Model in the Pre-Experiment and Post-Experiment
Cronbach’s Alpha
Calculated Using
Cronbach’s Alpha Standardize
Reliability Score Items N

Pretest 0.718 0.722 13

Post‑test 0.833 0.837

 176
◾
Innovations and Applications of Technology
5

Mean: 4.19
Mean: 4.25 Mean: 3.69
4
Mean: 3.66
Mean: 3.8 Mean: 3.97

Pre_Motivation Post_Motivation Pre_Effectiveness Post_Effectiveness Pre_Satisfaction Post_Satisfaction

Figure 10.7 Box plot of student’s motivation, effectiveness, and satisfaction in the preliminary and post‑stage of the experiments.
 Asynchronous Computer-Mediated Communication ◾ 177

the experiments, showed an increase in students’ engagement through the medium

of computer systems was reflected in the ratio of motivation (Pretest: M = 3.66,
SD = 0.436; Post‑test: M = 3.8, SD = 0.393), effectiveness (Pretest: M = 3.97,
SD = .349; Post‑test: M = 4.25, SD = 0.6.23), and satisfaction (Pretest: M = 3.69,
SD = 0.519; Post‑test: M = 4.19, SD = 0.611). Additionally, the results revealed that
integrating affective audiovisual digital art interaction could increase students’
engagement in out‑of‑class activities where the medium of ACMC could affect the
users in communication. Nevertheless, it still needed to be fully considered that
this effect came from the participants’ competency, as the other lenses of the CMC
Competency model were not implemented in the current study. Considering these
findings, digital arts could be beneficial for developing nonverbal communication
skills and creativity in gaining new knowledge for developing social skills and pre‑
venting information or media literacy.

10.4.2 Results of Microanalysis of Interaction

and Image Classification
Table 10.8 compares the accuracy of image classification using color layout filter.
Results showed that the accuracy of color layout classification fell within 86%–95%
accuracy could be achieved. Using only the color layout features of the images,
SMO and MLP had similar results, while the SL classifier yielded lower accuracy
with 13.63% incorrect classification of instances. The Kappa statistic for SL (0.72)
is also lower than MLP and SMO (0.91).
Table 10.9 shows the results of classifiers within the PHOG features. Compared
to the color layout, the classifier determined the given action of human Kinect
interaction with lower accuracies, which fell between 63% and 77%. The MLP
gave the highest accuracy for this test, although the Kappa level of the classifiers in
PHOG was lower than the color layout.

Table 10.8 Table of Results for the Image Classification Using Color Layout
MLP SMO SL

Correctly 95.45% 95.45% 86.36%

classified
instances

Incorrectly 4.54% 4.54% 13.63%

classified
instances

Kappa statistic 0.91 0.91 0.72

178 ◾ Innovations and Applications of Technology

Table 10.9 Table of Results for the Image Classification Using PHOG
MLP SMO SL

Correctly 77.27% 72.72% 63.63%

classified
instances

Incorrectly 22.72% 27.27% 36.36%

classified
instances

Kappa statistic 0.54 0.45 0.27

10.5 Discussion
This chapter reports a study on the relationship between using CMC and EFL
students’ engagement in interaction. The data was collected from the medium of
computer‑generated images using music as audio input and adopting gesture inter‑
action for developing multimodality interaction and communication. The main
parameter for visualization in this study was music, as it was evidenced from previ‑
ous studies that music is one of the most effective tools for information exchange
(Er & Aydilek, 2019). Various images and intellectual works were used to produce
high‑resolution, globally coherent images with hundreds of thousands of dimen‑
sions. These methods were not directly transferrable to waveform synthesis because
they leveraged spatial features of images that were absent in one‑dimensional audio
signals. These approaches, however, were more directly relevant to two‑dimensional
representations such as spectrograms. While adopting different techniques of
music visualization from past studies, which referenced from Itten’s color system
to Russell’s circumplex model of affect by Dharmapriya et al. (2021), the affective
elements such as color and shape in the microanalysis.
Because of a limited number of retrieved images and recognized interactions
from the second stage of the experiments, greater numbers of images for the dif‑
ferent groups may be included in future studies to improve the model’s accuracy.
Based on the data mining technique results, PHOG delivered lower accuracy com‑
pared to color layout because the color usage in the experiment was dominant com‑
pared to the shape usage. Thus, further research may consider the improvement of
object awareness within the Kinect device field and an image‑to‑image generative
model that might also be used in future research to deliver more context to the
ACMC. Using machine learning techniques for image classification might improve
users’ experience and create a co‑creation atmosphere. As mentioned earlier, the
MLP algorithm delivered the best classification accuracy. However, as image clas‑
sification usually involves large data sets, future work requires more extensive image
data with various features and properties.
 Asynchronous Computer-Mediated Communication ◾ 179

Gestures and finger motions were used frequently in our daily lives to manipu‑
late objects. Low‑cost depth sensors like Kinect were useful for studying Human-
Computer Interaction (HCI) with bare hands. However, leap motion could be
considered an alternative; as the degrees of freedom increase, recognizing precise
hand movements becomes significantly more complex than recognizing a Kinect
skeletal gesture. The inclusion of human beings in the age of digital content impacts
the centralized nature of HCI. It broadens the understanding of CMC to encompass
co‑creation activities via the medium of multimedia. Consequently, this realization
enables new media artists and interface designers to acknowledge later that genera‑
tive and diffusion models can be employed in interactive new media art installa‑
tions, and more applications can be explored to encourage human engagement.

10.6 Conclusion
Computer‑mediated technologies facilitate more 21st‑century communications and
creativity in conveying information in daily life. The advent of multiple modes of
communication and their mediated communication channels has urged for more
research toward innovative implementation and extensive study to explore further
new possibilities and value to humanity’s social skills and create more cooperative
opportunities.
In this study, audiovisual‑generated arts and gesture interaction have been
implemented to increase students’ engagement. The microanalysis using WEKA
image classification resulted in high accuracy but still requires an extension to
the data quantity and more forms of human‑to‑human interaction to be defined.
Although the affective perspective of music and visualization has been discussed
throughout the study, the proper evaluation metrics for the affective communica‑
tion and aesthetic perspective are expected to be implemented in further studies.

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Chapter 11

Impacts of a Blended
Learning Model on EFL
Students’ Engagement
and English Proficiency:
Evidence from IELTS
Preparation Courses
Tuyet Thi Tran and Chau Thi Hoang Hoa

11.1 Introduction
The landscape of English education in Vietnam has evolved significantly, driven
by the demand for global communication and the diverse opportunities it offers
(Rynhart & Chang, 2014). Nevertheless, the enduring prevalence of teacher‑cen‑
tered pedagogical approaches, especially in remote areas, significantly impedes the
attainment of communicative language education objectives (Nuby et al., 2020).
Many efforts have been made to improve students’ language proficiency through‑
out the country, such as implementing the national level project “Teaching and
Learning Foreign Languages in the National Formal Educational System from
2008 to 2020 Project” (Phuong, 2017).

DOI: 10.1201/9781003473916-14183
184 ◾ Innovations and Applications of Technology

Consistently, lackluster scores on the National English High School Graduation

Test remain, fluctuating between 3.22 and 5.84 on a 10‑point scale from 2016 to
2023 (Le, 2008; Nguyen, 2023).
Compared to other regions, the remote areas in Vietnam face numerous distinc‑
tive and pressing challenges in delivering effective English education. These chal‑
lenges, extensively documented by Nuby et al. (2020), encompass some issues. These
include limited access to qualified educators, insufficient educational resources, and
the stark reality of geographical isolation in these communities. These factors col‑
lectively create an unfavorable educational landscape where students in remote areas
face significant disadvantages. The entrenched teacher‑centered model, primarily
reliant on traditional face‑to‑face instruction (Le, 2018), exacerbates this predica‑
ment. Conventional teaching methods, ill‑suited to meet the complex educational
needs of remote students, must undergo substantial transformation.
Some typical educational challenges can be addressed in Tan Ky District, Nghe
An province. In the 2020–2021 academic year, Tan Ky ranked among the lowest
three districts in Nghe An for Grade 10 entrance scores (Ha, 2020). This ranking
highlights the severity of educational disparities in such remote regions. Nghe An’s
overarching educational situation presents a similar challenge. In 2021, Nghe An
Province ranked 52nd out of 63 provinces and cities in Vietnam based on aver‑
age national high school graduation exam scores, with an average score of 4.966
(Hoang, 2022). Although there was a slight improvement in 2022, moving to the
47th position with an average score of 4.557 on the 10‑point scale, these figures
underscore the urgent need for innovative approaches to English education, par‑
ticularly in regions with pronounced educational disparities.
In 2017, the Vietnamese Ministry of Education and Training implemented a
policy that exempted and awarded perfect ten scores in the national high school
graduation exam in English to candidates holding IELTS (International English
Language Testing System) certificates with scores of 4.0 or higher. This policy
change has increased interest in IELTS exam preparation across Vietnam, including
Tan Ky District (Cao, 2023). However, Tan Ky’s remote location, transportation
challenges, and the difficulty of finding qualified IELTS test preparation teachers
have added to the complexity of the situation for its students.
These multifaceted challenges set the stage for a comprehensive investigation
into the potential of blended learning (BL) in Tan Ky’s IELTS orientation courses
and the transformative impact of the Online‑Merge‑Offline (OMO) model in
addressing deep‑rooted educational disparities in this unique context. By adopt‑
ing innovative educational strategies, we can bridge these disparities and provide
students in remote regions with the opportunity to access quality English language
education. This study, grounded in technological pedagogical content knowledge
(TPACK) and social constructivism principles, explores the potential of BL in
enhancing EFL students’ engagement and language proficiency in IELTS orienta‑
tion courses.
 Impacts of a Blended Learning Model ◾ 185

This study critically examines the pedagogical strategies employed by educa‑

tors within the OMO model, which Tran (2023) proves to be effective in distance
learning for English language education. This analysis is pivotal for comprehend‑
ing the model’s effectiveness in delivering English education in remote Vietnamese
regions, where technology integration can be both transformative and challenging.
The judicious use of the TPACK framework serves as a valuable tool for conducting
a rigorous and all‑encompassing evaluation of the model’s undeniable efficacy in
advancing English education in remote areas.

11.2 Literature Review

11.2.1 Blended Learning and Computer‑Mediated
Communication in English Education
BL, an innovative pedagogical approach amalgamating traditional face‑to‑face
classroom instruction with online teaching, is distinguished for its adaptability
and flexibility (Graham, 2013). BL has garnered attention in language education
due to its potential to substantially augment student competencies and educational
outcomes (Means et al., 2013). Nevertheless, subjecting these assertions to criti‑
cal scrutiny, particularly within the intricate framework of Vietnam’s educational
landscape, is imperative.
While the existing literature underscores the benefits of BL and the role of
computer‑mediated communication (CMC) tools such as online forums and vir‑
tual classrooms, it is essential to account for the unique challenges that arise when
implementing these strategies in regions characterized by limited availability of
qualified educators, resource constraints, and geographical isolation (Pawlak &
Kruk, 2022).
Despite a growing body of research suggesting the advantages of BL in lan‑
guage education, assessing how these findings apply to remote areas in Vietnam
is imperative. While studies such as those conducted by Almekhlafi and
Almeqdadi (2010) and Bizami et al. (2023) have showcased promising results
for BL, particularly in traditional classroom settings, their conclusions may
provide only a partial perspective on the specific challenges and opportunities
prevalent in remote regions. Effectively implementing BL in areas afflicted by
severe shortages of qualified educators, resource limitations, and geographical
isolation presents unique challenges, as highlighted by Pawlak and Kruk (2022).
Therefore, critically evaluating whether these pedagogical approaches can genu‑
inely address educational disparities, enhance English proficiency, and ensure
equitable learning opportunities in such contexts is paramount (Graham, 2013;
Means et al., 2013).
186 ◾ Innovations and Applications of Technology

11.2.2 TPACK in English Education

The TPACK framework, initially formulated by Mishra and Köhler (2006), pro‑
vides a precise analytical lens for understanding the intricate interplay between
technology, education, and content knowledge within the OMO model. Akbari
et al. (2016) emphasized this model’s transformative potential in enhancing lan‑
guage skills through Internet‑assisted language learning.
Furthermore, in an influential work of Kern (2006), it is found that CMC
empowers learners, enabling them to surpass their counterparts in traditional
classrooms, particularly in active language use. Kern (2006) proved that students
engage in significantly more verbal interactions during synchronous CMC sessions
than face‑to‑face discussions. Substantial support for these findings can be found
in the research by Bui et al. (2022), which demonstrates marked improvements in
grammatical accuracy and linguistic sophistication.
Considering the feasibility and suitability of the educational context, this study
integrated Asrifan et al.’s (2020) and Chen et al.’s (2021) theoretical frameworks to
shape the transformational potential of the OMO model in education.

11.2.3 Social Constructivism in English Education

Rooted in Social Constructivist theory (Vygotsky, 1978), the theoretical founda‑
tion of BL is believed to provide a social environment for knowledge exchange,
emphasizing that knowledge is actively constructed through social interaction and
engagement rather than passively absorbed.
The social constructivism suggests the transformation and internalization of
knowledge in language classrooms. Within this paradigm, language educators pri‑
oritize interactions between teachers and students and among students. Additionally,
online communication platforms provide opportunities to experiment with and
refine hypotheses related to second‑language learning, as demonstrated by the work
of Bui et al. (2022). This highlights the practical applicability and adaptability of
social constructivism in language education.
These Constructivist principles drive the researcher to critically assess how
English‑specializing students engage with and benefit from the OMO model’s
transformative potential. Recognizing students as active co‑creators of knowl‑
edge, this study evaluates the model’s ability to facilitate a deeper understanding
of English concepts beyond surface‑level memorization. In essence, this research
aligns with the core principles of constructivism, asserting that meaningful learn‑
ing occurs through active involvement, collaboration, and the rich sociocultural
context of the learning environment.
 Impacts of a Blended Learning Model ◾ 187

11.3 Methodology
This study adopted a mixed‑methods research design. It used IELTS paper‑based
tests, observations, and teachers’ and students’ surveys as research instruments.

11.3.1 Participants
This study involved 600 students and 60 English teachers from 20 schools who
had no prior exposure to IELTS preparation. Besides the student and teacher par‑
ticipants as sources of research data, the implementation of this research project
involved the participation of staff at different positions, such as administrators, offi‑
cers, technicians, employers, parents, and the project manager, and their roles are
specified in Figure 11.1.
Together, these participants formed a cohesive network of roles that are instru‑
mental in implementing the OMO model. Each role was carefully examined within
the framework of theoretical frameworks, all with the goal of making meaningful
progress in English education in remote Vietnamese regions.

Figure 11.1 Research participants and their roles.

188 ◾ Innovations and Applications of Technology

11.3.2 Implementation Procedure

This study’s BL intervention spanned six months and was meticulously planned.
It consisted of three weekly sessions, each lasting two hours. Teachers invested
at least 24 hours in thorough preparation before each session. Students actively
engaged in these additional classes, with local English teachers as their assistants.
These local teachers efficiently managed classroom activities using computers and
projectors to ensure a seamless and interactive learning experience. In case of tech‑
nical issues, they had direct access to technical support. Dedicated customer ser‑
vice officers facilitated communication channels, ensuring teachers, students, and
assistant teachers could easily access the correct online classrooms on platforms like
Classin and Language Management System (LMS). These officers also reported
each class’s performance to the project manager (Figure 11.2).
The weekly classes were thoughtfully designed to maximize the learning experi‑
ence. The initial sessions, led by Vietnamese teachers, aimed to reinforce fundamen‑
tal knowledge and skills. English‑native teachers conducted the second interactive
session, focusing on active participation, improving pronunciation, and enhancing

Figure 11.2 Learning management system.

 Impacts of a Blended Learning Model ◾ 189

Figure 11.3 Classroom equipment.

oral skills. The third set of classes, led by Vietnamese teachers, concentrated on
comprehensive assessment and knowledge consolidation. Regular mock tests were
conducted every two months to evaluate the intervention’s impact on student learn‑
ing outcomes. These tests served as practical assessments of the BL model’s effec‑
tiveness in this study, playing a vital role in achieving its objectives. For classroom
equipment, please see Figure 11.3.

11.3.3 Data Collection and Analysis

Quantitative data were collected from the students’ scores from the pretest and
post‑test; online surveys are projected to SPSS 26 for analysis. Statistical analysis
included descriptive statistics and paired sample t‑tests to compare the students’
results before and after the project implementation. The qualitative data collected
from observation and interview were thematically analyzed, following the proce‑
dure conformed to the guidelines by Bui et al. (2023).

11.4 Findings and Discussion

11.4.1 The Impact of the OMO Model on
Students’ English Proficiency
Results from IELTS paper‑based tests before and after the implementation showed
that students made meaningful growth in English proficiency. Before implement‑
ing the OMO model, 600 students underwent IELTS tests, categorizing them
into three groups based on their English proficiency levels. The results, shown in
190 ◾ Innovations and Applications of Technology

Figure 11.2, clearly depict that their language skills were relatively low before the
project implementation. In the first group, 22% of students scored below 2.0, indi‑
cating a basic understanding of English. The majority of the second group (53%)
achieved scores between 2.0 and just under 3.0, signifying a moderate level of com‑
petency. Approximately 25% of students in the third group scored between 3.0 and
3.5, demonstrating a relatively higher level of proficiency.
After implementing the OMO model, students underwent a thorough reeval‑
uation process, revealing significant progress. Notably, 31% of students improved
their scores to fall within the 2.5–3.5 range, indicating commendable progress in
English proficiency. A substantial 53% of students achieved scores ranging from
3.5 to 4.0, marking significant advancements in their language skills. Moreover,
16% of students scored between 4.0 and 4.5, showing a remarkable leap in profi‑
ciency. The remaining 6% of students who did not show improvement belonged
to various level groups but shared common characteristics, including low atten‑
dance, homework scores, and a tendency to neglect assignments even after teacher
corrections. Notably, students in groups 2 and 3 demonstrated more significant
score increases than those in group 1. These transformative findings are depicted
in Figure 11.4.
Furthermore, the study examined the magnitude of score improvements demon‑
strated by students. While a small 6% segment showed no discernible improvement,
a significant 28% experienced commendable advancements of 0.5 bands in their
IELTS scores, signifying a positive impact on their language skills. Impressively,
39% of students demonstrated remarkable progress, achieving a complete 1‑band
improvement, shedding light on substantial enhancement. Finally, 27% of students
showcased substantial development, remarkably elevating their scores by 1.5 bands.

Figure 11.4 IELTS band scores difference.

 Impacts of a Blended Learning Model ◾ 191

These findings, as depicted in Figure 11.4, underscore the profound impact of the
model on students’ IELTS scores, reaffirming its pivotal role in enhancing English
proficiency.

11.4.2 The Impact of the OMO Model

on Students’ Engagement
Classroom observation proved the efficacy and feasibility of OMO, in many aspects,
and students’ engagement was focused.
Firstly, in terms of objective attainment, the application of the OMO model
aligns seamlessly with defined learning objectives, maintaining high relevance to
the subject matter. It effectively encompasses fundamental concepts and practical
applications, providing students with a comprehensive learning experience. Regular
content updates demonstrate the model’s commitment to staying current and per‑
tinent in today’s ever‑evolving educational landscape.
Secondly, observations revealed dynamic pedagogical techniques employed
within OMO classrooms. Effective interactions between students and instructors
foster an engaging and immersive learning environment. The thoughtful integra‑
tion of online and offline learning methods offers students diverse pathways to
acquire knowledge. Furthermore, seamlessly incorporating technology tools and
resources exemplifies the model’s dedication to progressive education. The students’
engagement is a fundamental factor to create social interaction in classroom, as
mentioned in Vygotsky (1978). In both online and offline interaction, students
actively engaged with peers, fostering a sense of camaraderie and collaboration that
was pivotal to the learning process. This collaboration was essential for creating a
positive and inclusive learning environment. In addition, teachers and students’
interaction in target language was maximized. As observed, actively seeking stu‑
dent feedback was not a superficial gesture but a genuine commitment to improve‑
ment. This iterative approach to course development was not just beneficial; it was
critical in ensuring that the OMO model evolved to meet the dynamic needs of
students and the ever‑changing educational landscape.
Third, the OMO model enabled teachers to employ various strategies for evalua‑
tion and class management. Teacher delivered quizzes, assignments, and interactive
online evaluations measure student progress and comprehension. The consistently
constructive quality of feedback played a pivotal role in guiding students toward
improvement. Moreover, providing opportunities for students to act on this feed‑
back was commendable and effective. Also, accurate online and offline components
scheduling ensured a seamless and organized learning experience. Accessibility to
resources and materials, including technology, went beyond mere convenience; it
signified a commitment to inclusivity and student‑centered education.
Classroom observations further demonstrated the transformative impact of the
OMO model on student engagement. Noteworthy outcomes included a substantial
192 ◾ Innovations and Applications of Technology

increase in student engagement and interaction, highlighting the model’s excep‑

tional ability to captivate students’ interest and encourage active participation.
Moreover, the observed shift in teacher–student dynamics toward a facilita‑
tor‑guided approach aligned with contemporary teaching methodologies, enhanc‑
ing the educational experience.
The class observations also shed light on the seamless integration of cutting‑edge
technology within OMO classrooms, such as projectors, iPads, and the LMS. This
technological integration substantiated the model’s commitment to leveraging
technology as a pedagogical tool, positioning it at the forefront of modern educa‑
tion. The emphasis on peer collaboration and adaptability to diverse learning needs
further underscored the model’s inclusivity and ability to address individual learn‑
ing requirements.

11.4.3 The Impact of the OMO Model on

Students’ Language Learning
The impacts of students’ OMO model on students’ language learning were proved
from data collected from the evaluation surveys of students and teachers with strong
internal consistency and reliability, demonstrated by Cronbach’s Alpha values rang‑
ing from 0.86 to 0.92 (Table 11.1).
The students’ feedback supported the OMO model, with an impressive 87% con‑
sidering it highly effective in enhancing their English skills. This near‑­unanimous
consensus underscored the model’s transformative potential. Moreover, the survey
Table 11.1 Student Survey Results
Cronbach’s
Survey Percentage Mean SD Alpha

Effectiveness of 87 4.86 0.57 0.88

OMO model

Satisfaction with 94 4.94 0.24 0.92

OMO model

Engagement with 91 4.89 0.49 0.87

OMO model

Linguistic 86 4.86 0.57 0.88

competence

Motivation with 89 4.91 0.38 0.89

OMO model

Adaptation to 88 4.88 0.48 0.86

individual
learning needs
 Impacts of a Blended Learning Model ◾ 193

revealed that 94% of students found the model more satisfying than traditional
classrooms, directly correlating with increased engagement. Approximately 89% of
students attributed their improved English skills and heightened enjoyment of the
learning process to the model’s influence.
Furthermore, 86% of students acknowledged the model’s positive impact on
English competence, directly linking proficiency enhancement with improved
learning outcomes. Impressively, 91% recognized its positive influence on class‑
room engagement, actively promoting student participation. The model’s adaptabil‑
ity received commendations from 88% of students, affirming its versatility across
diverse learning styles. These findings were consistently validated in Table 11.1,
consistently showcasing mean scores exceeding 4.8 for all measured dimensions,
reflecting an exceptionally high level of agreement with the model’s effectiveness.
Teachers’ overall evaluation of BL evaluation is presented in Table 11.2. The reli‑
ability of these survey responses was affirmed by robust Cronbach’s Alpha values,
ranging from 0.86 to 0.90.
Similarly, teacher survey results confirmed the OMO model’s positive influence
(see Table 11.2) on learning and teaching. A remarkable 92% of teachers observed
the model’s significant enhancement of student participation, aligning with stu‑
dent perceptions. A substantial 87% noted its positive effect on students’ English
proficiency, further substantiating its impact. Teachers attested to the model’s
transformative effects, with 89% reporting fundamental changes in their teach‑
ing experiences and 91% emphasizing the improved quality of English education.

Table 11.2 Teacher Survey Results

Cronbach’s
Survey Percentage Mean SD Alpha

Students’ 92 4.86 0.57 0.88

participation

Students’ 87 4.87 0.53 0.87

performance

Enjoyment of 89 4.89 0.48 0.86

teaching

Educational 91 4.91 0.44 0.89

quality

Adaptation to 88 4.88 0.49 0.87

individual
needs

Dynamic 94 4.93 0.45 0.90

teaching
approach
194 ◾ Innovations and Applications of Technology

The model’s adaptability to individual student needs earned 88% of teachers’

commendations. Most importantly, 94% of teachers strongly agreed that BL
­
allowed them to pursue a wide choice of teaching approaches by taking advantage
of online and offline education.
As presented, the findings prove the positive impacts of the OMO model in
IELTS teaching regarding language proficiency and classroom engagement. The
positive results were rooted in the pedagogical philosophies of social constructivism
and TPACK. This surge can be attributed to a visionary collaboration between local
and online educators, culminating in the seamless fusion of diverse pedagogical
methodologies meticulously tailored to the nuances of IELTS preparation.
The OMO model’s profound aptness for IELTS preparation is unequivocally
substantiated by its ability to deliver a dynamic and immersive learning experience.
As a stringent language proficiency assessment, IELTS inherently demands a mul‑
tifaceted skill set encompassing language proficiency, critical thinking, and adept
test‑taking strategies. The OMO model, with its focal point on dynamic online
modules, interactive multimedia presentations, and digitized textbooks, effectively
captivates students’ interest and equips them with indispensable tools to excel in the
rigors of the IELTS examination.
Furthermore, the necessities of IELTS preparation inherently dictate the need
for personalized attention to address individual variations in language proficiency,
identifying specific strengths and weaknesses. In this crucial regard, the OMO
model excels by providing educators with the flexibility to differentiate instruc‑
tion and furnish tailored support to each student. This ensures that learners are
meticulously groomed to confront the unique challenges posed by the IELTS exam,
ultimately elevating their prospects for success.
In addition to these merits, the model’s seamless integration of technology into
the educational process perfectly aligns with the digital nature of the IELTS exami‑
nation. As IELTS candidates can now undertake computer‑based tests, digital lit‑
eracy has become an indispensable skill for success. The OMO model, therefore,
not only equips students with the digital skills requisite for the test but also ensures
they are adept in the broader digital competencies demanded by this increasingly
digital‑centric world.
One of the critical factors rendering the OMO model particularly well‑suited
for IELTS preparation is its intentional departure from conventional lecture‑cen‑
tric instructional approaches. IELTS aspirants are mandated to possess not only
robust language skills but also the ability to think critically and effectively apply
their knowledge. Herein lies the resonance between the OMO model and the
demanding nature of the IELTS examination. The model’s emphasis on foster‑
ing online discussions, collaborative group projects, peer assessments, and immer‑
sive virtual simulations seamlessly aligns with the skill set requisite for success
in the IELTS assessment. It not only cultivates active learning but also empow‑
ers students, a quality indispensable for IELTS candidates. Furthermore, IELTS
preparation invariably necessitates students to work cooperatively and engage
 Impacts of a Blended Learning Model ◾ 195

in meaningful discourse in English. The OMO model’s explicit promotion of

­collaborative ­learning catalyzes the enhancement of communication and teamwork
competencies. Proficiency is invaluable for IELTS candidates who may encounter
group discussions and interviews during the examination process. Additionally,
the technology infrastructure inherent to the OMO model facilitates the timely
dissemination of constructive feedback—a cornerstone element for IELTS candi‑
dates seeking to refine their language skills and elevate their performance in the
test. Moreover, the model’s balanced fusion of online and offline activities guar‑
antees a holistic and comprehensive learning experience, impeccably aligning with
the principles of TPACK. This balance is particularly relevant in digital language
proficiency assessments like IELTS, as it ensures that students are technologically
adept and possess the essential language proficiency and critical thinking skills
required for success.
It can be concluded that the differences between OMO classrooms and tradi‑
tional ones hold significant promise for enhancing IELTS preparation in remote
areas. By intentionally deviating from conventional teaching methods and aligning
closely with the essential skills needed for success in the IELTS exam, the OMO
model emerges as a valuable resource for students aiming to excel in this globally
recognized language proficiency assessment.

11.5 Conclusion
The OMO‑based English approach introduces a distinctive fusion of content deliv‑
ery and pedagogical approaches that break away from conventional educational
norms. This finding suggests significant implications for student engagement and
academic achievements. The synergy between innovative pedagogy and seamless
technology integration highlights the model’s remarkable potential to drive trans‑
formative changes. It reshapes established pedagogical paradigms, significantly
enhancing student learning experience and bringing new life into education.
This investigation emphasizes the OMO model’s role in elevating English pro‑
ficiency in remote Vietnamese areas. The implications of these findings illuminate
the transformative potential embodied by the OMO model. It emerges as a power‑
ful tool capable of addressing educational disparities and creating equitable learn‑
ing opportunities, bridging gaps that were once seen as impossible. Moreover, the
model’s crucial role in aligning students with the dynamics of the post‑2020 labor
market underscores a central theme. It highlights the model’s immediate relevance
and urgency in a rapidly evolving world where digital literacy and language profi‑
ciency are more essential than ever.
This study serves as a call to action, a passionate appeal to educators, policymak‑
ers, and stakeholders. It urges them to recognize and harness the untapped potential
inherent in the OMO model as a potent catalyst for positive transformations in
remote education. The BL’s transformative power, driven by innovative pedagogical
196 ◾ Innovations and Applications of Technology

paradigms and technology integration, transcends its identity as a mere educa‑

tional approach; it emerges as a bridge capable of spanning educational divides,
strengthening English proficiency, and effectively preparing students for success in
the ever‑changing global landscape. The time to act is now, and the OMO model
stands as a beacon of hope, guiding us toward a brighter and more equitable future
for education in remote regions making a substantive contribution to the broader
discourse on educational excellence.
This study had several limitations. The study’s primary focus on remote
regions in Vietnam provided an in‑depth exploration of BL’s impact within this
context. However, it is crucial to acknowledge that generalizing these findings to
more diverse educational settings should be done cautiously. Moreover, the study’s
relatively short duration limited the comprehensive evaluation of the long‑term
effects of the BL strategy. While self‑reported data offered valuable insights, it also
introduced the potential for response bias. Therefore, future investigations should
consider incorporating alternative data sources and employing triangulation meth‑
ods to enhance their findings’ methodological rigor and credibility. Notably, the
absence of a comparison group in the research design restricts the ability to establish
causal relationships between the BL intervention and the observed changes in the
final establishment capacity.

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Chapter 12

EFL Teachers’ Informal

Digital Learning of
English and Its Effects
on Their Instructional
Willingness to
Communicate in English
Herri Mulyono, Rizkina Ayu Indriyani,
and Zain Adinul Falah

12.1 Introduction
Willingness to communicate (WTC) in L2 (second or foreign language) has
recently been a topic of interest for years (Khatib & Nourzadeh, 2015; Lee & Hsieh,
2019; Lee & Drajati, 2019; Mulyono & Saskia, 2021; Sato, 2019; Wang & Tseng,
2020; Zarrinabadi, 2014; Zarrinabadi et al., 2021; Zulaiha & Mulyono, 2020). The
term was initially introduced by McCroskey and Baer (1985) to denote individu‑
als’ propensity to communicate in their first language (L1) environment. Later, the
term was adopted in the context of second language acquisition by Macintyre et al.
(1998), subsequently becoming recognized as L2 WTC. He interpreted L2 WTC
as the conscious decision of an individual to engage, or not engage, in a particular

198 DOI: 10.1201/9781003473916-15

 EFL Teachers’ Informal Digital Learning of English ◾ 199

second language communication with one or more interlocutors under specified

circumstances.
L2 acquisition research especially concerns WTC and its applicability in English
L2 teaching settings as well‑documented learner variables. Teachers in this environ‑
ment frequently assess their willingness to use English as a medium for classroom
instruction and interaction. This phenomenon, defined as instructional willingness
to communicate (IWTC), has been documented in several studies. For example,
Wang and Tseng (2020) explored the relationship between 410 Taiwanese English
teachers’ attitudes toward teaching L2 English and two forms of WTC: their per‑
sonal WTC and their IWTC. The study concluded that teachers’ attitudes were
the major determinants of both their personal WTC and their IWTC, influencing
their willingness to incorporate L2 communication within classroom settings. This
phenomenon can offer students substantial opportunities for practice by instruc‑
tors incorporating English into their teaching methods. Additionally, an observa‑
tional case study by Sato (2019) examined Japanese teachers’ fluctuations in IWTC
while teaching L2 English. Results showed that there was an increase in teachers’
IWTC during classroom management tasks, self‑discussions, and while communi‑
cating messages to students. Nevertheless, it was observed that when teachers had to
explain course materials in English, their IWTC noticeably decreased. That means,
analysing these fluctuations is critical as they may impact students’ WTC within
the classroom (Macintyre et al., 2011; Sato, 2019).
Previous research underscored the pivotal role of instructors’ WTC in enhanc‑
ing the effectiveness of English L2 teaching and in fostering students’ motivation to
learn. To effectively teaching a language, teachers are prompted to utilize a variety
of methodologies within the classroom setting. Furthermore, there is emerging evi‑
dence to suggest that a teacher’s IWTC can positively impact a student’s willing‑
ness to learn L2. For instance, Zarrinabadi’s (2014) study examined the impact of
instructors’ instructional WTC on students. The study found that the IWTC of a
teacher could affect students’ WTC under certain instructional communication
conditions, such as selecting a particular subject matter for discussion. According
to Macintyre et al.’s (1998) study, students reportedly displayed a greater WTC
level in an L2 classroom setting when they were familiar with the chosen theme.
Conversely, a student voiced his disinclination to engage in a conversation revolving
around an uninteresting topic chosen by the instructor. In a contrasting observa‑
tion, another student indicated a surge in WTC during a listening and speaking
class, consequent to the instructor negotiating the topic during a prior session.
Obviously, a teacher’s IWTC plays an instrumental role in fuelling students’ moti‑
vation to learn.
Furthermore, Belhiah and Elhami (2015) closely investigated the effect of the
contextual factors of Arab communities on EMI teachers’ and students’ interac‑
tion. The participants encompassed both teachers and learners who responded to a
survey about EMI. The results of the research suggested that introducing L2 to stu‑
dents—such as applying the Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) approach
200 ◾ Innovations and Applications of Technology

to English instruction—appears to yield more effective teaching outcomes, pro‑

vided that the involved parties possess adequate English language competence.
For instance, a teacher proficient in using the CLT approach can provide a more
authentic and meaningful context in their interactions and communications by
frequently integrating the second language. Consequently, this method affords stu‑
dents a higher chance of effectively acquiring L2 in daily classroom interactions,
such as in discussions with classmates or consultations with instructors.
The extant literature has indicated that technological advancements have signif‑
icantly broadened the learning opportunities for teachers, both inside and outside
the conventional classroom. This includes efforts devoted to enhancing English lan‑
guage competencies, especially through informal digital learning avenues. Informal
digital learning of English (IDLE) is characterized by learning English outside
the formal educational setting, typically through voluntary engagement with
English‑speaking individuals on social media platforms, websites, or games (Lee,
2019a; Lee & Lee, 2019). Research has highlighted a direct relationship between
IDLE practices and improved English competency and vocabulary acquisition in
an English L2 context (Lee, 2019a, b; Lee & Drajati, 2019; Lee & Dressman, 2018;
Lee & Lee, 2019; Lee & Sylvén, 2021). For instance, Lee (2019b) explored the
impacts of the frequency and diversity of IDLE activities on EFL (English as a
foreign language) teachers’ language acquisition outcomes. Results indicated that
engaging in a broad range of IDLE activities might bolster students’ English profi‑
ciency, particularly concerning lexical and speaking skill development. The findings
further suggest that even without experiences of living or studying abroad, teachers
can still enhance their language competencies through varied IDLE activities.
In another study, Lee and Drajati (2019) concluded that IDLE (both recep‑
tive and productive) and psycho‑emotional factors could influence 183 Indonesian
EFL students’ WTC in English. The researchers’ observation showed that produc‑
tive IDLE activities like posting comments or chatting in English significantly
impacted students’ WTC in various settings. The study highlighted a significant
correlation between the observed variables, but the significant predictors of stu‑
dents’ WTC were productive IDLE activities and psycho‑emotional determinants,
such as motivation, grit, and self‑confidence. However, Jurkovič’s (2019) assessment
of the effects of L2 English beyond the traditional classroom via online platforms
on language competency implied that learning outcomes also hinge on the learn‑
ers’ initial language competencies, as well as their active online engagement with
English content. Jurkovič confirmed that should the online setting contain facilita‑
tive content and the respondent has a higher initial language competence, enhance‑
ments to their language skills are observed.
Yet, little attention has been paid to the employment of IDLE to help English
L2 teachers improve their target language proficiency. The exploration of the appli‑
cation of IDLE to enhance EFL teachers’ IWTC in English is still scarce, particu‑
larly in the context of Indonesian – a developing country where many of the EFL
teachers have insufficient level of English proficiency (Musthafa et al., 2018; Zein,
 EFL Teachers’ Informal Digital Learning of English ◾ 201

2016). Addressing this research gap, this study aims to examine the types of IDLE
activities conducted by Indonesian English L2 teachers and to what extent these
activities can predict their IWTC. Specifically, it seeks to address the research ques‑
tions below:

1. Are Indonesian EFL teachers engaged in informal learning activities to

enhance their English language knowledge and competence?
2. Can Indonesian EFL teachers’ IDLE activities predict their IWTC?

12.2 Methods
12.2.1 The Study Context and Participants
This study adopted a survey design to explore Indonesian EFL teachers’ IDLE activ‑
ities and the extent to which the activities could be used to predict their IWTC.
Data was collected through a convenience sampling technique, with participation
from 292 primary and secondary school educators. However, following a screening
process, only data from 229 educators proved valid and was subsequently analysed.
Table 12.1 outlines the demographic profiles of the participating teachers.

Table 12.1 Participant’s Characteristics

Participant’s
Demographics Response N

Gender
Male 63 (27.5%)

Female 166 (72.5%)

Age
<30 years old 150 (62.5%)

30–40 years old 53 (23.14%)

>40 years old 26 (11.36)

Teaching Experience
Under 5 years 145 (63.3%)

5–10 years 51 (22.3%)

More than 5 years 33 (14.4%)

(Continued )
202 ◾ Innovations and Applications of Technology

Table 12.1 (Continued ) Participant’s Characteristics

Participant’s
Demographics Response N

Teacher’s Status
Pre‑service teachers 139 (60.7%)

In‑service teacher 52 (22.7%)

(non‑government/ private
teachers)

In‑service teachers 38 (16.6%)

(civil servant/ government
teachers)

Teaching Level
Primary 60 (26.2%)

Lower Secondary 106 (46.3%)

Upper Secondary 63 (27.5%)

12.2.2 Data Collecting Method and Analysis

A five‑type Likert scale survey questionnaire was developed by combining two
scales offered by literature. In total, there were 28 questionnaire items. The first,
IWTC, incorporates 12 items (numbered 1–12). The development of IWTC was
informed by Pun and Thomas (2020), Othman and Saat (2009), Wang and Tseng
(2020), Briggs et al. (2018). The second measure, IDLE, encapsulates the remain‑
ing sixteen items (numbered 13–28) and derives its background from the research
of Lee and Drajati (2019) and Lee and Sylvén (2021). Table 12.2 below details the
questionnaire items used for collecting data.

12.2.3 Data Analysis

Two hundred and twenty‑nine data valid were drawn through a google form spread
to required participants of the study. The data were then converted from the google
form into an excel sheet. The excel file allows the valid data to be analysed into
WINSTEP (version 5.2.5.1) application, to tabulate raw data into logits. Initially,
the application of WINSTEP yielded 229 valid data entries from a pool of 292 raw
data entries, following an established screening criterion of MNSQ (0.5–1.5 logits)
and ZSTD (−2 to 2 logits) ranges (Mulyono et al., 2020; Ningsih et al., 2021;
Suryoputro et al., 2023). This step also led to the removal of data from teachers
whose participation in the questionnaire process seemed unsatisfactory. Following
 EFL Teachers’ Informal Digital Learning of English ◾ 203

Table 12.2 The Study Questionnaire

Constructs Subconstructs Items Reference

Global Scale (28 Items)

Instructional willingness Q1–Q12 Pun and Thomas
to communicate (2020), Othman
(IWTC) scale and Saat (2009),
Wang and Tseng
(2020), Briggs
et al. (2018).

Informal digital learning Receptive IDLE Q13–Q21 Lee and Drajati

of English (IDLE) scale activity (RIA) scale (2019) and Lee
and Sylvén
Productive IDLE Q22–Q28 (2021).
activity (PIA) scale

Table 12.3 The Reliability of the Study Questionnaire

Items Mean (Logit Value) Cronbach’s Alpha

Global scale (28 items) 0.92 0.93

Instructional willingness Q1–Q12 3.88 0.91

to communicate
(IWTC) scale

Receptive IDLE activity Q13–Q21 0.74 0.90

(RIA) scale

Productive IDLE activity Q22–Q28 −0.07 0.89

(PIA) scale

this, valid data was analysed to derive an item and person summary and perform
Wright map analysis. A reliability analysis was also performed on the data, show‑
casing a great reliability level (α > 0.9). Additionally, considerable reliability levels
were observed in the sub‑scales for both IWTC and receptive IDLE activities, with
Cronbach α > 0.9, along with high‑level reliability reported for another sub‑con‑
struct related to productive IDLE activity, documented at >0.8 (Table 12.3).
To examine the interplay between the participants’ IDLE activities, demo‑
graphic backgrounds, and their IWTC, a Rasch‑based multiple regression analysis
was performed. In accordance with previous research study (Lee & Hsieh, 2019;
Mulyono & Saskia, 2021), two regression models were developed and applied. The
initial model was designed to exclusively investigate the link between IDLE and
204 ◾ Innovations and Applications of Technology

IWTC, while the secondary analysed the correlation of teachers’ IDLE and demo‑
graphic data to their IWTC. Through these models, the multiple factors impacting
the teachers’ IWTC could be comprehensively examined.

12.3 Findings and Discussion

12.3.1 Descriptive Statistics
Findings of descriptive statistics using Rasch revealed the statistics of person and
item, respectively. The mean of person statistics was 0.92 with dispersion value
(SD) of 0.89; while the mean was 0.00 and standard deviation was 0.95 for item
statistics. Both person and item reliability analysis demonstrated a great level of
reliability. The separation index of the item displayed at 10.51 (criteria >3) and per‑
son separation at 3.26 (criteria at >2), meaning that both of them met the criteria
(Sumintono & Widhiarso, 2014), suggesting that both person and items could be
classified into three groups (Table 12.4).

12.3.2 Indonesian EFL Teachers’ Engagement in

Informal Digital Learning Activities to Improve
Their English Knowledge and Competence
The first question concerned with whether Indonesian EFL pre‑service and in‑ser‑
vice teachers were engaged in IDLE activities to develop their English knowledge
and competence. A Rasch Wright map analysis was conducted by mapping the item
logit value of IDLE scale and was classified them into three levels, i.e. high, moder‑
ate and low (Mulyono et al., 2023; Rusland et al., 2020). Rasch Wright map was
separated into two halves: person logit values (LV) aligned on the left and item LV
aligned on the right (see Figure 12.1). A vertical axis ranged from the most chal‑
lenging to the easiest item to answer. The IDLE items were categorized into three
levels of difficulty, namely low (below M), moderate (between S and M), and high
(higher than S).

Table 12.4 Summary Statistic of

Person and Item
Person Item

Mean 0.92 0.00

Standard deviation 0.89 0.95

Separation 3.26 10.51

Reliability 0.91 0.99

 EFL Teachers’ Informal Digital Learning of English ◾ 205

MEASURE Person - MAP - Item

<more>|<rare>
5 . +
|
. T|
|
.### |
HIGH

|
4 .### +
|
#### |
### |
|
.## S|
........................
3 ## +
######### |

LOW
######## |
MODERATE

## |
.## |
# |
2 .#### +
.### |
.###### |T MA (Multilingual Awareness)
######### M|
........................
.###### | Q6
## |
1 #### + Q3
######## |S Q4
.#### | Q2
.#### | Q5 Q7
.### | Q13 Q8
# |.................................................................
Q9
0 ### S+M

MODERATE
.#### | Q10
# |
# | Q1
. |.................................................................
# |S
-1 + Q12
| Q11
| Q15
. T| Q14
. |T
|
-2 . +
|
. |
LOW

|
|
|
-3 # +
|
|
HIGH

|
|
|
-4 . +
|
. |
|
|
|
-5 +
|
|
|
. |
|
-6 ### +
<less>|<freq>

Figure 12.1 Item‑person Wright mapping of IDLE scale logit value. Mp: person
mean; Sp: one standard deviation of person mean; Tp: two standard deviation of
person mean; Mi: item mean; Si: one standard deviation of item mean; Ti: two
standard deviation of item mean.
206 ◾ Innovations and Applications of Technology

A significant proportion of the observed teachers (49%, N = 112) intensively

used digital applications for informal English learning (see Figure 12.1). Some use
was noted to be at a moderate level (31.87%, N = 73), with minor use detected at
low levels (19.21%, N = 44). A majority of teachers indicated that they typically
use digital technology, such as listening to English songs and watching YouTube
clips (LVQ13 = −1.57, LVQ14 = −0.76), to advance their receptive English lan‑
guage skills. Unfortunately, there was less enthusiasm observed among teach‑
ers to improve their speech and writing capabilities in English. Few of them
reported to utilize digital platforms to engage in English conversation with both
native speakers and non‑native English speakers on social media (LVQ23 = 0.75,
LVQ24 = 0.44). In terms of writing, aside from commenting in English on social
media platforms (LVQ28= −0.06), teachers generally expressed a minimal incli‑
nation to write emails in English (LVQ27 = 0.58). It should be emphasized that
the utilization of digital platforms to engage in English dialogues with both native
and non‑native speakers exemplified an active engagement in the practice of com‑
munication skills in realistic contexts. This extends beyond a teacher’s encourage‑
ment and encompasses individual self‑confidence and English communication
proficiency (see Alrabai, 2022). Conversely, while teachers may demonstrate a
notable reliance on informal communication via social media, this could lead
them to potentially undervalue the necessity of formal written communication.
Consequently, this lessens their likelihood of using formal letter writing, such as
via email.
It is interesting that teachers’ IDLE activities are comparable among their
demographic background. The differential item functioning (DIF) analyses
towards teachers’ demographic background showed that teachers remain similar
concerning their IDLE activities regardless their age gender, age, teaching expe‑
riences, status and the school level they taught. The findings offer a contrasting
perspective to previous studies conducted by Jensen (2017), who suggested that
gender significantly impacted the behaviours and learning outcomes of European
learners using IDLE. A similar stance was upheld in more recent research by Lee
et al. (2024), framed within the context of Asian EFL students, and the evidence
suggested a more profound impact of IDLE usage on female students in terms of
reducing their second language anxiety. However, it is essential to note the differ‑
ing contexts, as Jansen’s study was set within the European educational landscape,
predominantly involving young children as participants. Though demographics
may impact different facets of education, the findings indicated that teachers’
motivation to improve language skills through IDLE activities potentially super‑
sede these elements. This observation underscored the potential applicability of
digital tools in bridging language proficiency disparities among various teacher
groups. In other words, the finding highlights the significance of IDLE activities
in the ongoing language skill development of teachers and reiterates the need
to incorporate technological language learning strategies into the EFL teaching
methodology.
 EFL Teachers’ Informal Digital Learning of English ◾ 207

12.3.3 Can Indonesian EFL Teachers’ IDLE

Activities Predict Their IWTC?
A multiple regression model analysis was conducted to discern if there were sub‑
stantive statistical differences concerning the IWTC amongst English teachers,
conditioned by their IDLE variable and demographic information. This was done
to address the prerequisites of normality and linearity (Mulyono & Saskia, 2021).
Furthermore, results indicated that the data was normally distributed (Shapiro‑Wilk
statistics p > 0.01) while the collinearity test exhibited an absence of collinearity
(VIF < 5). As discussed earlier, two distinct regression models were formulated
and subsequently examined to yield a thorough exploration of the data. The devel‑
opment of Model 1 was primarily focused on an exploration into the interplay
between teachers’ IDLE variables and IWTC. On the other hand, Model 2 was
constructed in order to determine if the combination of teachers’ IDLE variables
with their demographic background could potentially serve as reliable predictors for
their IWTC (Table 12.5).
The regression presented in Table 12.5 showed key goodness‑of‑fit indica‑
tors of model 1 with F = 39.8, p < 0.001; R 2 = 0.149.18 and model 2 with F = 5.83,
p < 0.001; R 2 = 0.211 which indicated as adequate. Model 1 demonstrated a robust
goodness‑of‑fit, with an F‑statistic of 39.8 and a highly significant p‑value of <0.001.
The proportion of variance explained by Model 1, as indicated by R² of 0.149, demon‑
strated a modest but notable impact of the examined variables on IWTC. Similarly,
Model 2 exhibited statistically significant results, evident from its F‑statistic of 5.83
and a p‑value of <0.001. The corresponding R² value of 0.211 indicated that the model
captured a larger portion of the variance in IWTC, providing additional insights into
the factors influencing teachers’ communication willingness. Despite these positive
indicators, the study’s models only accounted for 14.9% and 19.7% of the variance in
IWTC for Models 1 and 2, respectively. The findings indicated that while IDLE and
other factors might influence instructional willingness, teachers’ demographics did
not significantly impact their WTC in the instructional EFL classrooms.
Several previous studies provided evidence demonstrating a connection
between the utilization of technologies for formal and informal learning and an
individual’s propensity to communicate in L2 (Lee, 2020; Taherian et al., 2023;
Zadorozhnyy & Lee, 2023). There has been an apparent exception, however, in the
case of research primarily focused on the learning processes of university students.
A recent study by Dorothy Zadorozhnyy and Lee (2023) specifically demonstrated
that beliefs in self‑efficacy function as a comprehensive mediator between IDLE
constructs and L2 WTC. This study implies that EFL students who regularly par‑
take in IDLE activities are more likely to develop a stronger belief in their own
ability to perform effectively in English, thereby leading to an increase in their
WTC. The nature of IWTC might potentially be shaped by a complex interplay of
individual teacher factors and environmental influences that extend beyond mere
Table 12.5 Regression Model Analysis

208
Model 1 Model 2
F = 39.8, p < 0.001; R2 = 0.149 F = 5.83, p < 0.001; R2 = 0.211

◾ Innovations and Applications of Technology

The difference between Model 1 and 2 = F = 1.88, p = 0.075; ∆R2 = 0.0479

Predictor β SE t β SE t

Intercept* 0.115 31.86* 0.489 4.710*

IDLE 0.386 0.093 6.31* 0.437 0.096 6.910*

Gender
Female‑Male 0.280 0.264 1.932

Age:

(30–40 yo) – (<30 yo) −0.046 0.388 −0.220

(40 yo <) – (<30 yo) 0.262 0.696 0.689

Teaching Experience
(5–10 y) – (<5 y) 0.320 0.404 1.450

(<10 y) – (<5 y) 0.146 0.626 0.427

Teachers’ status

Priv teachers – Gov teachers 0.235 0.392 1.095

Pre‑teachers – Gov teachers 0.617 0.400 2.817

Note: β = standardized estimate, SE = standard error, Confidence interval = 95%, *p < 0.01.
 EFL Teachers’ Informal Digital Learning of English ◾ 209

demographic attributes. Factors such as teacher motivation, personal perspectives,

teaching strategies, and cultural sensitivity could all considerably contribute to
IWTC, regardless of traditional demographic variables such as age, gender, teach‑
ing experience, or the level of schooling.
To explore in depth of teachers’ IWTC, Rasch Wright map analysis was per‑
formed to the collected logit value (Figure 12.2).
Results showed that significant proportion of Indonesian EFL teachers
(55.4%, N = 127) demonstrated a strong willingness to use English as IWTC (see
Figure 12.2). In contrast, a fraction of the participants showed only a moderate
will to use English as a tool of communication (34.1%, N = 78), while a minor
portion (10.5%, N = 24) demonstrated a minimal WTC in the English language.
Interestingly, the DIF analysis yielded intriguing insights into the diversity of
Indonesian EFL teachers’ IWTC in relation to their demographic backgrounds.
It was found that teachers below the age of 30 demonstrated significantly higher
willingness to provide students with English advice and corrections (as evident in
Q7) when compared to their counterparts aged above 40. Specifically, the DIF
scores for the less than 30 and greater than 30 age groups were −0.35 LV and −1.2
LV respectively, reflecting a noteworthy contrast exceeding 0.5 (p < 0.05). This
phenomenon may be a result of differing attitudes across generations. Younger
teachers, who are generally more comfortable with digital communication, may
therefore exhibit a higher propensity to participate in constructive engagements
with their students.
Further DIF analysis, pertaining to teacher status, revealed a higher ­propen­­sity
for the use of English in the classroom among in‑service teachers when ­compared
to pre‑service teachers (Q1). The DIF score for in‑service educators was −0.42
LV in comparison to a pre‑service score of −1.56 LV, which highlights a sig‑
nificant contrast of more than 0.5 (p < 0.05). Interestingly, in‑service teachers
­displayed a stronger tendency to stimulate students’ motivation through model
English‑speaking discourse. A differential inclination was also identified within
item Q4. Pre‑service teachers expressed lower willingness than in‑service teachers
to conduct English instruction at a slower pace and with clear explanations to
enhance student comprehension. DIF scores for in‑service and pre‑service teach‑
ers were recorded at −0.77 LV and −1.04 LV respectively, indicating a noticeable
contrast in excess of 0.5 (p < 0.05). The findings are interesting but not surprising
that in‑service teachers have shown an increased propensity to make the necessary
modifications, likely due to a more comprehensive understanding of pedagogical
techniques and strategies acquired throughout their teaching career. In‑service
teachers’ practical experience and their knowledge about classroom dynamics
consequently enables them to more effectively utilize English communication
strategies to engage students (Amerstorfer & Freiin von Münster‑Kistner, 2021;
Bui, 2022).
210 ◾ Innovations and Applications of Technology

MEASURE Person - MAP - Item

<more>|<rare>
7 . +
|
|
. |
|
6 +
|
# |
|
HIGH

|
5 +
|
T|
|
.# |
4 +
.# |

LOW
. |
. |
.## S|
.......................
3 .# +
MODERATE

.##### |
.######### |
.###### |
.######## |
2 .######## M+
.......................
.##### |
### |
##### |
.# | Q33
1 .## +T
## + Q27
# S| Q28 Q30 Q31
.# |S Q25 Q34
| Q29 Q39
...............................................................
0 .### +M Q22 Q26 Q38
| Q17 Q35 Q36 Q37
MODERATE
...............................................................
. |S Q18 Q19 Q21 Q24
T| Q16 Q20 Q23 Q32
|
-1 . +T
|
|
|
LOW

. |
-2 +
. |
|
|
HIGH

|
-3 +
|
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-4 +
|
. |
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-5 .# +
<less>|<freq>

Figure 12.2 Item‑person Wright mapping of IWTC scale logit value. Mp: person
mean; Sp: one standard deviation of person mean; Tp: two standard deviation of
person mean; Mi: item mean; Si: one standard deviation of item mean; Ti: two
standard deviation of item mean.
 EFL Teachers’ Informal Digital Learning of English ◾ 211

12.4 Conclusion
In conclusion, this investigation explored the correlation between the IDLE activi‑
ties and demographic factors of Indonesian EFL teachers, and their WTC in
English as a medium of instruction. A significant number of teachers were highly
engaged in deploying digital applications for informal English learning, with an
approximate 49% utilizing them extensively. A further 31.87% made moderate use
of these resources while 19.21% were low‑level users. Most teachers targeted the
augmentation of receptive language skills through activities such as listening to
English songs and consuming YouTube content. Interestingly, the desire to boost
speaking and writing competencies was noticeably lower. Very few teachers ven‑
tured into the realm of conversational English with native and non‑native speak‑
ers on social platforms, and an even fewer expressed interest in writing emails in
English. More importantly, regardless og their age, gender, teaching experience,
status, or the level of school they taught at, the engagement in IDLE activities
among teachers remained consistent across demographic variables. This indicates
that IDLE activities are a standard practice amongst teachers, regardless of demo‑
graphical differences.
In addition, through multiple regression analysis, the study’s aim was to discern
if statistical differences exist in teachers’ willingness to utilize English based on
their involvement in IDLE activities and demographic constituents. The findings of
statistical analyses revealed out to certain understandings from the models, yet they
did not entirely account for the variations in teachers’ WTC through English. This
research highlights the link between IDLE behaviours and WTC, while mindful
of the study’s limitations. The models’ relatively subdued explanatory capacity sug‑
gests the existence of other determinants influencing teachers’ instructional com‑
munication. Furthermore, the narrow demographic focus of the study and reliance
on self‑reported data potentially restrict the findings’ applicability on a wider scale.
Despite constraints, this study advances our comprehension of IDLE’s impact on
English language teachers’ WTC. This prompts further insights into the context of
language instruction and teacher development.

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Appendix A: Pre-Test and
Post-Test Questionnaires

1. Engagement Assessment: Choose 1 (lowest engagement) to 10 (highest

engagement)
1.1.  How engaged do you feel during your English lessons?
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1.2.  How often do you actively participate in English class discussions?
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1.3.   How frequently do you seek additional English learning resources outside of
class?
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
2. Motivation Assessment:
2.1.  How motivated are you to learn English? 1 (least motivated)
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 (most motivated)
2.2.  What drives your motivation to learn English? (e.g., Interest in the lan‑
guage, Academic requirements, Future career prospects, Other: Please
specify) _______________________________________________________
2.3.  How often do you set personal goals for your English learning? (Always,
Often, Sometimes, Rarely, Never) ________________________________
3. Language Proficiency Self‑assessment: Choose 1 (least proficient) to 10
(most proficient)
3.1.  How would you rate your English reading skills? 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
3.2.  How would you rate your English writing skills? 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
3.3.  How would you rate your English speaking skills? 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
3.4.  How would you rate your English listening skills? 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

215
Appendix B: Feedback
Questionnaire on
ChatGPT

1. Usability:
• On a scale of 1–10, how easy was it to use ChatGPT for English practice?
(1 = very difficult; 10 = very easy) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
• Did you encounter any technical issues while using ChatGPT? (Yes/No)
• If yes, please specify: _____________________________________
2. Effectiveness:
• On a scale of 1–10, how effective do you find ChatGPT in aiding your
English learning? (1 being not effective at all and 10 being highly effective)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
• Do you feel that ChatGPT provided feedback that helped improve your
English skills? (Yes/No)
• Would you recommend ChatGPT to fellow students for English practice?
(Yes/No)
3. Engagement:
• On a scale of 1–10, how engaging did you find the ChatGPT sessions?
(1 being not engaging at all and 10 being highly engaging)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
• What features of ChatGPT did you find most engaging?____________
• Were there any features or aspects of ChatGPT that you found distracting
or unhelpful? (Yes/No) _______________________________________
4. Open‑ended Feedback:
• What improvements would you suggest for the ChatGPT platform for
English learning? ___________________________________________
________________________________________________________
• Share any additional comments or experiences you had while using
ChatGPT for your English practice. ____________________________
________________________________________________________

216