ASSIGNMENT -2 FOR BE&EE

(EE1161)

BY PALLETI KRISHNA MANUDEEP REDDY

ROLL NUMBER – 24CHB0A41
1.SENSORS AND TRANSDUCERS:

TRANSDUCER:
A transducer is a device, which responds to the physical condition or chemical state of
a substance and converts it into an output signal. The output signal may be an electrical
or mechanical parameter, which can be easily measurable. If a transducer produces
mechanical signal as its output then it is called a mechanical transducer. The transducers
that produce electrical signals as output are called electrical transducers. Sometimes two
transducers connected in cascade may produce an electrical quantity in the output
terminals.
SENSORS:

A sensor is a device that detects and responds to physical, chemical, or biological inputs
from the environment, such as temperature, pressure, light, motion, or humidity, and converts
these inputs into an electrical signal or other measurable output.

Different types of sensors are, thermal sensors, optical sensors, pressure sensors.

A sensor detects a signal or change in the environment and detects it and coverts it into a
readable signal
and provides and output signal in a form suitable for reading or monitoring.
 Thermocouples
A thermocouple is a temperature-sensing device consisting of two dissimilar metal
wires joined at one end (the junction). When there is a temperature difference
between the hot junction and the other ends of the wires cold junction, a voltage
called thermoelectric EMF is generated, which is directly proportional to the
temperature difference. This phenomenon is known as the Seebeck effect.

Working principle of thermocouple:

thermocouple works on the principle of seebeck effect which is, when two
dissimilar metals joined at two points creates a voltage proportional to the
temperature between them.
Applications of thermocouple:

• Used as industrial furnaces.

• In gas turbines.
• In food and beverage processing

Advantages:
cost effective, reliable and simple to use.

Disadvantages:
Requires a reference junction and calibration for accuracy.
 Thermistor
A Thermistor is a type of resistor whose resistance varies with
temperature. It is widely used as a temperature sensor in circuits which
depend on temperature. Thermistors are highly sensitive to
temperature changes and come in two primary types based on their
resistance-temperature relationship. These two types are:

1.NTC(Negative temperature coefficient):

Resistance to decrease in temperature

2.PTC(Positive temperature coefficient):

Resistance to increase in temperature
Working principle of thermistor:

A thermistor is temperature sensor which works on the principle in which its

resistance changes with significantly temperature.

Applications of thermistor:
• Temperature sensing in appliances like air conditoners and refrigerators.
• Monitoring of temperature of a battery.
• Protection from overcurrent in circuits.

Advantages:
Fast response, small size, low cost, high sensitivity to small temperature changes.

Disadvantages:
Limited temperature ranges.
Resistance temperature detector
A resistance temperature detector is a temperature sensor that measures
Temperature by relating the resistance of the metal with temperature. The
resistance increases linearly with temperature which makes it highly
accurate and stable over wide range of temperature measurement.

Working principle:
A resistance temperature detector works on the principle that the electrical
resistance of a metal changes linearly with temperature.
The resistance increases as temperature rises.
Applications of RTD:
• Temperature control in industries.
• In laboratory experiments.

Advantages
• High accuracy
• Wide range of temperature.
• Stable for long term use.

Disadvantages
• Expensive than thermistors
• Slower response time.
Hall Effect

Hall effect is the generation of a voltage across a conductor or a semiconductor

when it carries an electric current and is placed in a magnetic field which is
perpendicular. This voltage is called Hall voltage.

Working Principle
When a magnetic field is applied perpendicular to the direction of current flow,
it exerts a force on the moving charge carriers.This force causes the charge
carries to accumulate on one side of the material creating a voltage difference
across it.
Applications
• Hall effect is used in sensors which are used to measure magnetic field strength.
• Detecting position and motion.
• Industrial appliances.

Advantages
Non contact measurement, durable, wide range of uses in magnetic field detection.

Disadvantages

Sensitive to temperature.
Piezoelectric transucers

A piezoelectric transducers is a device which conerts mechanical stress

or pressure into electrical energy using the piezoelectric effect.

Certain materials like quartzs, ceramics generate an electric charge

when subjected mechanical stress or deformation.

This property is used for sensing and activation.

Applications
• They are used in sensors used for detecting vibration, pressure, force.
• In actuators.
• Used in energy harvesting like converting mechanical energy to electrical
power.

Advantages
High sensitivity and fast response, compact , durable.

Disavantages
Limited temperature range, output voltage is small.
2.Electrical measuring instruments
Moving coil Ammeter
A moving coil ammeter is an instrument used to measure direct current.
It operates on the principle of electromagnetic deflection in which a
current carrying coil moves in the field of a permanent magnet.

When a current flows through the moving coil, it generates a magnetic field
this field interacts with the field of the permanent magnet and causes the coil
to deflect.

This deflection is proportional to the current passing through the coil.

Applications

• They are used in dc circuits for precise current measurements.

• Used commonly in laboratories and control centers.

Advantages
• High accuracy for dc measurements
• Lower power consumption

Disadvantages
• Cannot measure alternating current directly
• Fragile due to delicate components like coils.
Moving iron ammeters

A moving iron ammeter is a electrical measuring instrument used to measure

both ac and dc currents . It operates on the principle that a piece of soft iron
is placed in the magnetic field of a current carrying coil it experiences a
force that moves it.

When current flows through the coil, it generates a magnetic field.

This magnetic field interacts with the soft iron piece, causing it to move due to
magnetic attraction.

The movement of the iron piece is proportional to the current passing through
the coil.
Applications

• It is mostly used in power systems to measure alternating current.

• Suitable for using in industrial and household electrical circuits.

Advantages
1.Durable and low cost.
2.Measures both Alternating and direct current.
3.Simple to construct and operate.

Disadvantages
1.Less accurate compared to electronic meters.
2.Non-linear scale can make readings less precise.
3.Affected by external magnetic fields, requiring shielding.
Moving coil voltmeter

A moving coil voltmeter is an instrument used to measure the voltage across two points in
a circuit. It operates on the principle of electromagnetic deflection in which a current-
carrying coil moves in a magnetic field to produce deflection proportional to the
applied voltage.

When a voltage is applied to the voltmeter, a small current flows through the coil due to
the high resistance in series with the coil.

The current-carrying coil is placed between the poles of a magnet. The interaction
between the magnetic field and the current generates a torque.

This torque causes the coil to rotate.

Applications

• Used in laboratories for accurate DC voltage measurements.

• Used in monitoring voltage levels in sensitive circuits.

Advantages
• It has high precision and sensitivity.
• It is reliable and durable for DC voltage measurements.
• Linear scale simplifies readings.

Disadvantages
• Cannot measure AC voltage.
• Delicate construction so it is required to handle carefully.
• More expensive.
Moving Iron Voltmeter
A moving iron voltmeter is an instrument used to measure the potential
difference in both AC and DC circuits. It operates on the principle of the
magnetic effect of current, where a soft iron piece moves within a magnetic
field produced by the current flowing through its coil.

A coil carrying current produces a magnetic field.

Then a soft iron piece in this field experiences force due to this field.

Then the iron piece gets deflected due to the force which is then calibrated
for voltage
Applications

• Used in industries for general voltage measurement.

• Suitable for applications where moderate accuracy is acceptable.
• Commonly found in AC and DC electrical systems for voltage monitoring.

Advantages
• Can measure both AC and DC voltages.
• Simple and easy construction.
• Budget friendly for general voltage measurement.

Disadvantages
• Less accurate than moving coil voltmeters.
• The scale is non-linear, making precise readings harder.
• More sensitive to external magnetic fields, which can cause errors.
Wattmeters

A wattmeter is an instrument used to measure the electric power in a circuit, in

units of watts. It operates based on the principle of electromagnetic induction
and is commonly used in both AC and DC circuits.

A wattmeter operates on the principle that the power in a circuit is the

product of voltage and current. It consists of two coils:

1.Current Coil: Connected in series with the load, it carries the circuit current.
2.Voltage Coil: Connected in parallel with the load, it is proportional to the
circuit voltage.

The interaction between the magnetic fields of these coils produces a

deflecting torque.
Applications

1.Power measurement in household and industrial electrical systems.

2.Used in laboratories for testing and research purposes.
3.Used energy meters to calculate electricity consumption.

Advantages
• Provides direct power readings.
• Suitable for a wide range of applications.
• Electrical wattmeters can measure both AC and DC power.

Disadvantages
• Sensitive to frequency and temperature variations.
• Electrodynamometer wattmeters are bulky and expensive.
• Induction wattmeters can only be used for AC circuits.
3.Electronics measurements
Principle of operation of digital multi meter

A Digital Multimeter is an electronic measuring instrument that combines

multiple measurement functions in one device, typically Ac and Dc voltage,
current (AC and DC), and resistance. It provides a visual readout, offering
better accuracy and ease of reading compared to analog meters.
The operation of a digital multi meter is based on the principle of analog-
to-digital conversion, where the analog signal is converted into a digital
value that can be displayed on the meter's screen. The core principle involves
detecting the voltage, current, or resistance and converting the measurements
into a form that can be easily displayed and interpreted.
Applications:
• Used to diagnose electrical issues in circuits and devices.
• Measures voltage, current, and resistance in electrical appliances.
• Used in research, development, and testing environments.
• Used by electrical engineers in their field of work.

Advantages of Digital Multimeters:

1. They provide accurate digital readings with higher precision than analog
meters.
2.The digital display makes it easier to read measurements without the need to
interpret scales.
3. DMMs can measure a wide range of electrical parameters like voltage current
and resistance.
Principle of Operation of a Cathode Ray Oscilloscope
A Cathode Ray Oscilloscope is an electronic test instrument used to display and
analyze the waveform of electronic signals. It is commonly used in laboratories
and electronics industries to visualize the variations in voltage signals over time.

The basic principle of operation of a Cathode Ray Oscilloscope involves the

manipulation of electrons in a vacuum tube to create visual representations of
electrical signals.
Applications of a CRO:

• To observe and analyze the waveform of AC and DC signals.

• Measure the frequency and periodicity of oscillating signals.
• Measure properties like peak voltage, frequency, period, and waveform
shape.

Advantages of a Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO)

1.Real-Time Signal Visualization

2.Accurate Measurement of Time and Voltage
3.Ability to Display Complex Waveforms
4.Wide Frequency Range