DIRECTORATE OF DISTANCE & CONTINUING EDUCATION

MANONMANIAM SUNDARANAR UNIVERSITY

TIRUNELVELI- 627 012

B.Sc. Physics

II Semester

Vector Calculus and Fourier Series

 Unit 1

Vector Functions

If for each value of a scalar variable u, there corresponds a vector f, then f is said to be
a vector function of the scalar variable u. The vector function is written as f(u).

Eg., The vector (𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑢)𝑖⃗+(𝑏 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑢)𝑗⃗ + (𝑏𝑢)𝑘⃗⃗ is a vector function of the scalar variable u.

Limit of a vector function

A vector 𝑣0 is said to be the limit of the vector function f(u), if lim |𝑓(𝑢) − 𝑣0 | = 0.
𝑢→𝑢0

i.e., lim 𝑓(𝑢) = 𝑣0 .

𝑢→𝑢0

Derivative of a vector function

A vector function 𝑓(𝑢) is said to be derivable or differentiable with respect to u, if

𝑓(𝑢+∆𝑢)−𝑓(𝑢)
lim exists. This limit is called the derivative or differential coefficient of 𝑓(𝑢)
∆𝑢→0 ∆𝑢
𝑑𝑓
with respect to u and is denoted by 𝑑𝑢.

Note 1 : If 𝑓(𝑢) is a constant vector, then its derivative is a zero vector because 𝑓(𝑢 + ∆𝑢) −
𝑓 (𝑢) = 0.

𝑑𝑓
Note 2 : If 𝑓(𝑢 + ∆𝑢) is written as 𝑓(𝑢) + ∆𝑓 then 𝑓(𝑢 + ∆𝑢) − 𝑓(𝑢) = ∆𝑓 and =
𝑑𝑢
∆𝑓
lim .
∆𝑢→0 ∆𝑢

Theorem 1 :

𝑑(∅𝑎) 𝑑∅
(i) If ∅ is a scalar function of u and ‘a’ a constant vector, then =𝑎 𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑢
𝑑(∅𝑎) 𝑑∅ 𝑑𝑎
(ii) If ‘a’ is also a function of u, then =𝑑𝑢 𝑎⃗ + ∅ 𝑑𝑢.
𝑑𝑢

Proof :

𝑑𝑓 ∆𝑓
(i) We have 𝑑𝑢 = lim
∆𝑢→0 ∆𝑢
𝑑(∅𝑎) ∆(∅𝑎) (∅+∆∅)𝑎−∅𝑎 [(∅+∆∅)−∅]𝑎
Now, = lim = lim = lim
𝑑𝑢 ∆𝑢→0 ∆𝑢 ∆𝑢→0 ∆𝑢 ∆𝑢→0 ∆𝑢

∆∅ 𝑑∅
= lim 𝑎= 𝑎
∆𝑢→0 ∆𝑢 𝑑𝑢
𝑑(∅𝑎) ∆(∅𝑎) (∅+∆∅)(𝑎+∆𝑎)−∅𝑎
(ii) Now, = lim = lim
𝑑𝑢 ∆𝑢→0 ∆𝑢 ∆𝑢→0 ∆𝑢

∅𝑎 + ∅∆𝑎 + 𝑎∆∅ + ∆∅ ∙ ∆𝑎 − ∅𝑎
= lim
∆𝑢→0 ∆𝑢
 ∆𝑎 ∆∅ ∆∅
= ∅ lim + 𝑎 lim + lim ( ∙ ∆𝑎)
∆𝑢→0 ∆𝑢 ∆𝑢→0 ∆𝑢 ∆𝑢→0 ∆𝑢

∆𝑎 ∆∅ ∆∅
= ∅ lim + 𝑎 lim + lim ∙ lim ∆𝑎
∆𝑢→0 ∆𝑢 ∆𝑢→0 ∆𝑢 ∆𝑢→0 ∆𝑢 ∆𝑢→0

∆𝑎 ∆∅
= ∅ lim ∆𝑢 + 𝑎 lim (since, lim ∆𝑎 = 0)
∆𝑢→0 ∆𝑢→0 ∆𝑢 ∆𝑢→0

𝑑(∅𝑎) 𝑑∅ 𝑑𝑎
Thus, =𝑑𝑢 𝑎⃗ + ∅ 𝑑𝑢.
𝑑𝑢

𝑑(𝐴+𝐵) 𝑑𝐴
Theorem 2 : If A and B are functions of scalar variable u, then prove that (𝑖 ) = +
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝐵 𝑑(𝐴∙𝐵) 𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝐵 𝑑(𝐴×𝐵) 𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝐵
, (𝑖𝑖 ) = 𝑑𝑢 𝐵 + 𝐴 𝑑𝑢 and (𝑖𝑖𝑖 ) = 𝑑𝑢 × 𝐵 + 𝐴 × 𝑑𝑢 .
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢

𝑑(𝐴+𝐵) (𝐴+∆𝐴)+(𝐵+∆𝐵)−(𝐴+𝐵)
Proof : (i) = lim
𝑑𝑢 ∆𝑢→0 ∆𝑢

𝐴 + ∆𝐴 + 𝐵 + ∆𝐵 − 𝐴 − 𝐵 ∆𝐴 + ∆𝐵 ∆𝐴 ∆𝐵
= lim = lim = lim + lim
∆𝑢→0 ∆𝑢 ∆𝑢→0 ∆𝑢 ∆𝑢→0 ∆𝑢 ∆𝑢→0 ∆𝑢

𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝐵
= +
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢

𝑑(𝐴∙𝐵) (𝐴+∆𝐴)∙(𝐵+∆𝐵)−(𝐴𝐵)
(iii) = lim
𝑑𝑢 ∆𝑢→0 ∆𝑢

𝐴𝐵 + 𝐴∆𝐵 + ∆𝐴 ∙ 𝐵 + ∆𝐴 ∙ ∆𝐵 − (𝐴𝐵)
= lim
∆𝑢→0 ∆𝑢

∆𝐵 ∆𝐴 ∆𝐴
= lim 𝐴 + lim 𝐵 + lim ( ∆𝐵)
∆𝑢→0 ∆𝑢 ∆𝑢→0 ∆𝑢 ∆𝑢→0 ∆𝑢

∆𝐵 ∆𝐴 ∆𝐴
= lim 𝐴 ∆𝑢 + lim 𝐵 + lim lim ∆𝐵
∆𝑢→0 ∆𝑢→0 ∆𝑢 ∆𝑢→0 ∆𝑢 ∆𝑢→0

∆𝐵 ∆𝐴
= lim 𝐴 ∆𝑢 + lim 𝐵 (Since, lim ∆𝐵 = 0).
∆𝑢→0 ∆𝑢→0 ∆𝑢 ∆𝑢→0

∆𝐵 ∆𝐴 𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝐵
= 𝐴 lim + lim 𝐵= 𝐵+𝐴
∆𝑢→0 ∆𝑢 ∆𝑢→0 ∆𝑢 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢

Similarly do the (iii) part.

Problem 1 : Find the derivatives of 𝐴⃗ ∙ 𝐵 ⃗⃗ with respect to u if 𝐴⃗ = 𝑢2 𝑖⃗ + 𝑢𝑗⃗ + 2𝑢𝑘⃗⃗

⃗⃗ and 𝐴⃗ × 𝐵
⃗⃗ = 𝑗⃗ − 𝑢𝑘⃗⃗.
and 𝐵

𝑑
Solution : (i) Find 𝑑𝑢 (𝐴⃗ ∙ 𝐵
⃗⃗)

⃗⃗ = (𝑢2 𝑖⃗ + 𝑢𝑗⃗ + 2𝑢𝑘⃗⃗) ∙ (𝑗⃗ − 𝑢𝑘⃗⃗) = 0 + 𝑢 − 2𝑢2 = 𝑢 − 2𝑢2

𝐴⃗ ∙ 𝐵
 𝑑 𝑑
(𝐴⃗ ∙ 𝐵
⃗⃗) = (𝑢 − 2𝑢2 ) = 1 − 4𝑢.
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢

𝑑
(i) Find 𝑑𝑢 (𝐴⃗ × 𝐵
⃗⃗)

𝑖⃗ 𝑗⃗ 𝑘⃗⃗
𝐴⃗ × 𝐵
⃗⃗ = |𝑢2 𝑢 2𝑢 |
0 1 −𝑢

(Ans. ) (-2u-2) 𝑖⃗+3u2 𝑗⃗+2u𝑘⃗⃗

Scalar point functions

If for every point P in a domain D of space, there corresponds a scalar ∅ then ∅ is said
to be a single valued scalar point function defined in the domain D. The value of ∅ at P is
denoted by ∅(𝑃) (or) ∅(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)𝑖𝑓 𝑃 𝑖𝑠 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧). The function ∅ is said to be the scalar field
in D.

Vector point function

If for every point P in a domain D of space, there corresponds a vector ∅ then ∅ is

said to be a single valued vector point function defined in the domain D. The value of ∅ at P
is denoted by ∅(𝑃) (or) ∅(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)𝑖𝑓 𝑃 𝑖𝑠 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧). The function ∅ is said to be the vector
field in D.

Level surfaces

The surfaces represented by the equation ∅ = 𝑐 for different values of c are called
level surfaces. No two level surfaces will intersect each other.

Directional derivative of a scalar point function

The directional derivative of ∅ at any point P in the direction specified by the direction
𝜕∅ 𝜕∅ 𝜕∅
cosines 𝑙, 𝑚, 𝑛 is 𝑙 𝜕𝑥 + 𝑚 𝜕𝑦 + 𝑛 𝜕𝑧 .

Gradient of a scalar point function

𝜕∅ 𝜕∅ 𝜕∅
If ∅ 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 scalar point function, then the vector 𝑖⃗ + 𝜕𝑦 𝑗⃗ + 𝜕𝑧 𝑘⃗⃗ is called the gradient
𝜕𝑥
𝜕
of ∅. This vector is written as grad∅ or ∇∅ where ∇ (read as ‘del’ or ‘nebla’) stands for 𝑖⃗ 𝜕𝑥 +
𝜕 𝜕
𝑗⃗ 𝜕𝑦 + 𝑘⃗⃗ 𝜕𝑧.

Note 1

The operator ∇ is an operator whose function is to transform a scalar point function ∅ into
a vector point function.
Note 2

𝜕∅
The summation notation for gradient is ∇∅ = ∑ 𝑖⃗ 𝜕𝑥.

⃗⃗ 𝒊𝒔 𝛁∅ ∙ 𝒆
The directional derivative of ∅ in the direction specified by the unit vector 𝒆 ⃗⃗.

Let the direction cosines of 𝑒⃗ is 𝑙, 𝑚, 𝑛. Then 𝑒⃗ = 𝑙𝑖⃗ + 𝑚𝑗⃗ + 𝑛𝑘⃗⃗.

𝜕∅ 𝜕∅ 𝜕∅ 𝜕∅ 𝜕∅ 𝜕∅
Now, ∇∅ ∙ 𝑒⃗ =(𝜕𝑥 𝑖⃗ + 𝜕𝑦 𝑗⃗ + 𝜕𝑧 𝑘⃗⃗) ∙( 𝑙𝑖⃗ + 𝑚𝑗⃗ + 𝑛𝑘⃗⃗)=𝑙 + 𝑚 𝜕𝑦 + 𝑛 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝑥

which is the directional derivative of ∅ in the direction whose direction cosines are 𝑙, 𝑚, 𝑛.

Note : Maximum value of the directional derivative of ∅ is |∇∅|.

Theorem

If ∅ 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝝍 are scalar point functions, then prove that

(i) 𝜵(𝒌∅) = 𝒌(𝜵∅) where k is a constant

(ii) 𝜵(∅ + 𝝍) = 𝜵∅ + 𝜵𝝍
(iii) 𝜵(∅𝝍) = (𝜵∅)𝝍 + ∅(𝜵𝝍)
∅ 𝝍(𝜵∅)−∅(𝜵𝝍)
(iv) 𝜵 (𝝍 ) = .
𝝍𝟐

𝜕(𝑘∅) 𝜕∅ 𝜕∅
Proof : (i) ∇(𝑘∅) = ∑ 𝑖⃗ = ∑ 𝑖⃗𝑘 𝜕𝑥 = 𝑘 ∑ 𝑖⃗ 𝜕𝑥 = 𝑘(∇∅)
𝜕𝑥

(ii) As in proof (i)

𝜕(∅𝜓) 𝜕∅ 𝜕𝜓 𝜕∅ 𝜕𝜓
(iii) ∇(∅𝜓) = ∑ 𝑖⃗ = ∑ 𝑖⃗(𝜕𝑥 𝜓 + ∅ 𝜕𝑥 ) = ∑ 𝑖⃗ 𝜕𝑥 𝜓 + ∑ 𝑖⃗ ∅ 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑥

𝜕∅ 𝜕𝜓
=𝜓 ∑ 𝑖⃗ + ∅ ∑ 𝑖⃗ = (∇∅)𝜓 + ∅(∇𝜓)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥

(iv) As in proof (iii).

Problem 2 : Find the directional derivative of 𝒙 + 𝒙𝒚𝟐 + 𝒚𝒛𝟑 at the point (𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟏) in the
direction whose d.c’s are 2/3, 2/3, -1/3

Soln : Let ∅ = 𝑥 + 𝑥𝑦 2 + 𝑦𝑧 3

𝜕∅ 𝜕∅ 𝜕∅
Find 𝜕𝑥 , 𝜕𝑦 , 𝜕𝑧

Given 𝑙 = 2/3, 𝑚 = 2/3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛 = −1/3

𝜕∅ 𝜕∅ 𝜕∅
The directional derivative is 𝑙 + 𝑚 𝜕𝑦 + 𝑛 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝑥

2 2
=3 (1 + 𝑦 2 ) + 3 (2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑧 3 ) − 𝑦𝑧 2 .
At the point (0,1,1) [Ans. 1]

Problem 3. Find 𝜵∅ at (x,y,z) if ∅ = 𝒙 + 𝒙𝒚𝟐 + 𝒚𝒛𝟑

Problem 4: Find the directional derivative of ∅ = 𝟑𝒙𝒚𝟐 − 𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝒛 at the point (1,2,3) in the
⃗⃗.
direction of the vector 𝒊⃗ − 𝟐𝒋⃗ + 𝟐𝒌

1 2 2
{Hint : Find ∇∅ then find 𝑒⃗ as 3 𝑖⃗ − 3 𝑗⃗ + 3 𝑘⃗⃗. then find ∇∅ ∙ 𝑒⃗. Ans. : -22/3}

Problem 5: Find the directional derivative of ∅ = 𝒙𝟑 + 𝒚𝟑 + 𝒛𝟑 at the point (1,-1,2) in the

21
direction of the vector 𝒊⃗ + 𝟐𝒋⃗ + ⃗𝒌⃗. {Ans. 6}
√

Problem 6: If 𝒓 ⃗⃗ (i.e.,) if 𝒓
⃗⃗ = 𝒙𝒊⃗ + 𝒚𝒋⃗ + 𝒛𝒌 ⃗⃗ is the position vector of the variable point (x,y,z)
𝟏 ⃗⃗
𝒓
⃗⃗| = 𝒓. Show that (i) 𝜵 ( ) = − 𝟑 and (ii) 𝜵(𝒇(𝒓)) = 𝒇′ (𝒓)𝒓̂.
and |𝒓 𝒓 𝒓

Proof : Given 𝑟⃗ = 𝑥𝑖⃗ + 𝑦𝑗⃗ + 𝑧𝑘⃗⃗ .

|𝑟⃗| = 𝑟 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 (i.e.,) 𝑟 2 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2

𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑥
Differentiating partially with respect to x. 2𝑟 𝜕𝑥 = 2𝑥. ∴ 𝜕𝑥 = 𝑟

𝜕𝑟 𝑦 𝜕𝑟 𝑧
Similarly, 𝜕𝑦 = 𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 =𝑟
𝜕𝑧

1 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 1 𝜕 1 𝜕 1 𝜕 1
Proof of (i) ∇ ( ) = (𝑖⃗ + 𝑗⃗ + 𝑘⃗⃗ ) ( ) = 𝑖⃗ ( ) + 𝑗⃗ ( ) + 𝑘⃗⃗ ( )
𝑟 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝑟 𝜕𝑥 𝑟 𝜕𝑦 𝑟 𝜕𝑧 𝑟

1 𝜕𝑟 1 𝜕𝑟 1 𝜕𝑟
= 𝑖⃗ (− 2
) + 𝑗⃗ (− 2 ) + 𝑘⃗⃗ (− 2 )
𝑟 𝜕𝑥 𝑟 𝜕𝑦 𝑟 𝜕𝑧

1 𝜕𝑟 1 𝜕𝑟 1 𝜕𝑟 1 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧
=− 2
𝑖⃗ ( ) − 2 𝑗⃗ ( ) − 2 𝑘⃗⃗ ( ) = − 2 (𝑖⃗ + 𝑗⃗ + 𝑘⃗⃗ )
𝑟 𝜕𝑥 𝑟 𝜕𝑦 𝑟 𝜕𝑧 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟

1 𝑟⃗
=− 3
(𝑥𝑖⃗ + 𝑦𝑗⃗ + 𝑧𝑘⃗⃗) = − 3
𝑟 𝑟

(ii) T.P. ∇(𝑓 (𝑟)) = 𝑓 ′ (𝑟)𝑟̂ .

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
∇(𝑓 (𝑟)) = (𝑖⃗ 𝜕𝑥 + 𝑗⃗ 𝜕𝑦 + 𝑘⃗⃗ 𝜕𝑧) (𝑓(𝑟)) = 𝑖⃗ 𝜕𝑥 (𝑓(𝑟)) + 𝑗⃗ 𝜕𝑦 (𝑓(𝑟)) + 𝑘⃗⃗ 𝜕𝑧 (𝑓(𝑟)) (complete
𝑟⃗
the problem ) {Hint 𝑟 = 𝑟̂ }.

Problem 7 : If 𝜵∅ = 𝟓𝒓𝟑 𝒓
⃗⃗ then find ∅.

𝑟⃗
Solution : We have, = 𝑟̂ => 𝑟⃗ = 𝑟𝑟̂
𝑟

∴ ∇∅ = 5𝑟 3 𝑟𝑟̂ = 5𝑟 4 𝑟̂
We have, ∇∅ = ∅′ (𝑟)𝑟̂

∴ ∇∅ = ∅′ (𝑟)𝑟̂ = 5𝑟 4 𝑟̂

∴ ∅′ (𝑟) = 5𝑟 4

Integrating with respect to r ∫ ∅′ (𝑟)𝑑𝑟 = ∫ 5𝑟 4 𝑑𝑟

5𝑟 5
∅(𝑟) = + 𝑐 i.e., ∅(𝑟) = 𝑟 5 + 𝑐.
5

Problem 8: If 𝜵∅ = (𝟔𝒓 − 𝟑𝒓𝟐 )𝒓

⃗⃗ 𝒂𝒏𝒅 ∅(𝟐) = 𝟒 then find ∅.

{Hint : Find the value of c using the condition ∅(2) = 4. (Ans. ∅(𝑟) = 2(𝑟 3 − 𝑟 4 + 10).

Problem 9 : If 𝒓 ⃗⃗ (i.e.,) if 𝒓
⃗⃗ = 𝒙𝒊⃗ + 𝒚𝒋⃗ + 𝒛𝒌 ⃗⃗ is the position vector of the variable point (x,y,z)
and |⃗𝒓⃗| = 𝒓, then show that

⃗⃗
𝒓
(i) 𝜵(𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒓) = 𝒓𝟐

(ii) 𝜵𝒓𝒏 = 𝒏𝒓𝒏−𝟏 𝒓̂ = 𝒏𝒓𝒏−𝟐 𝒓

⃗⃗
(iii) 𝜵(𝒓
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒂
⃗⃗) = 𝒂
⃗⃗ where a is a constant vector.
(iv) 𝜵(𝒂
⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒓
⃗⃗) = 𝟐𝒂 if 𝒂 ⃗⃗.
⃗⃗ = 𝜶𝒙𝒊⃗ + 𝜷𝒚𝒋⃗ + 𝜸𝒛𝒌

Proof : Given 𝑟⃗ = 𝑥𝑖⃗ + 𝑦𝑗⃗ + 𝑧𝑘⃗⃗.

|𝑟⃗| = 𝑟 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 (i.e.,) 𝑟 2 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2

𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑥
Differentiating partially with respect to x. 2𝑟 𝜕𝑥 = 2𝑥. ∴ 𝜕𝑥 = 𝑟

𝜕𝑟 𝑦 𝜕𝑟 𝑧
Similarly, 𝜕𝑦 = 𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 =𝑟
𝜕𝑧

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
(i) ∇(𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟) = (𝑖⃗ 𝜕𝑥 + 𝑗⃗ 𝜕𝑦 + 𝑘⃗⃗ 𝜕𝑧) (𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟)

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
= 𝑖⃗ (𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟) + 𝑗⃗ (𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟) + 𝑘⃗⃗ (𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

1 𝜕𝑟 1 𝜕𝑟 1 𝜕𝑟
= 𝑖⃗ ( ) + 𝑗⃗ ( ) + 𝑘⃗⃗ ( )
𝑟 𝜕𝑥 𝑟 𝜕𝑦 𝑟 𝜕𝑧

1 𝜕𝑟 1 𝜕𝑟 1 𝜕𝑟 1 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧
= 𝑖⃗ ( ) + 𝑗⃗ ( ) + 𝑘⃗⃗ ( ) = (𝑖⃗ + 𝑗⃗ + 𝑘⃗⃗ )
𝑟 𝜕𝑥 𝑟 𝜕𝑦 𝑟 𝜕𝑧 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟

1 𝑟⃗
= 2
(𝑥𝑖⃗ + 𝑦𝑗⃗ + 𝑧𝑘⃗⃗) = 2
𝑟 𝑟

(ii) As in the part (i)

(iii) T.P. ∇(𝑟⃗ ∙ 𝑎⃗) = 𝑎⃗
 Given a is a constant vector. ∴ 𝑎⃗ = 𝑎1 𝑖⃗ + 𝑎2 𝑗⃗ + 𝑎3 𝑘⃗⃗ and
𝑟⃗ = 𝑥𝑖⃗ + 𝑦𝑗⃗ + 𝑧𝑘⃗⃗
𝑟⃗ ∙ 𝑎⃗ = (𝑥𝑖⃗ + 𝑦𝑗⃗ + 𝑧𝑘⃗⃗) ∙ (𝑎1 𝑖⃗ + 𝑎2 𝑗⃗ + 𝑎3 𝑘⃗⃗) =𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑦 + 𝑎3 𝑧
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
∇(𝑟⃗ ∙ 𝑎⃗) = (𝑖⃗ + 𝑗⃗ + 𝑘⃗⃗ ) (𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑦 + 𝑎3 𝑧)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
= 𝑖⃗ (𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑦 + 𝑎3 𝑧) + 𝑗⃗ (𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑦 + 𝑎3 𝑧) + 𝑘⃗⃗ (𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑦 + 𝑎3 𝑧)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
= 𝑎1 𝑖⃗ + 𝑎2 𝑗⃗ + 𝑎3 𝑘⃗⃗ = 𝑎⃗
(iv) As in the part (iii)

Problem 10: If ∇∅ = (𝑦 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 )𝑖⃗ + (𝑥 + 𝑧 + 2𝑥𝑦)𝑗⃗ + (𝑦 + 2𝑧𝑥)𝑘⃗⃗ and if ∅(1,1,1) =

3, 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 ∅.

Solution :Given, ∇∅ = (𝑦 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 )𝑖⃗ + (𝑥 + 𝑧 + 2𝑥𝑦)𝑗⃗ + (𝑦 + 2𝑧𝑥)𝑘⃗⃗ ..... (1)

𝜕∅ 𝜕∅ 𝜕∅
We have, ∇∅ = 𝜕𝑥 𝑖⃗ + 𝜕𝑦 𝑗⃗ + 𝜕𝑧 𝑘⃗⃗ .........(2)

𝜕∅
From (1) and (2) we have 𝜕𝑥 = (𝑦 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 ) ......(3)

𝜕∅ 𝜕∅
= (𝑥 + 𝑧 + 2𝑥𝑦) .....(4) & = 𝑦 + 2𝑧𝑥 ......(5)
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

Integrating (3) w.r.to x, ∅ = 𝑦𝑥 + 𝑦 2 𝑥 + 𝑥𝑧 2 + 𝑓 (𝑦, 𝑧) ....... (6)

Integrating (4) w.r. to y, ∅ = 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑧𝑦 + 𝑥𝑦 2 + 𝑔(𝑥, 𝑧) ...... (7)

Integrating (5) w.r.to z, ∅ = 𝑦𝑧 + 𝑧 2 𝑥 + ℎ(𝑥, 𝑦)....... (8)

From (6), (7) and (8) we get, ∅ = 𝑦𝑥 + 𝑦 2 𝑥 + 𝑥𝑧 2 + 𝑦𝑧 + 𝑐

𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛, ∅(1,1,1) = 3. Therefore, 1+1+1+1+c=3 => 𝑐 = −1

Hence, ∅ = 𝑦𝑥 + 𝑦 2 𝑥 + 𝑥𝑧 2 + 𝑦𝑧 − 1.

Problem 11 : Find ∅ if ∇∅ is (6𝑥𝑦 + 𝑧 3 )𝑖⃗ + (3𝑥 2 − 𝑧)𝑗⃗ + (3𝑥𝑧 2 − 𝑦)𝑘⃗⃗

(Ans. : 3𝑥 2 𝑦 + 𝑥𝑧 3 − 𝑦𝑧 + 𝑐)

Problem 12 : Find the unit vectors normal to the following surfaces.

(i) 𝑥 2 + 2𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 = 7 𝑎𝑡 (1, −1,2)

⃗⃗
𝑖⃗+𝑗⃗−𝑘
(ii) 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 𝑧 2 = 1 𝑎𝑡 (1,1,1) [Ans. ]
√3
⃗⃗
𝑖⃗+𝑘
(iii) 𝑥 2 + 3𝑦 2 + 2𝑧 2 = 6 𝑎𝑡 (2,0,1) [Ans. ]
√2

Solution : (i)Let ∅ = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 − 7
 ∇∅ = 2𝑥𝑖⃗ + 4𝑦𝑗⃗ + 2𝑧𝑘⃗⃗

At (1, −1,2), ∇∅ = 2𝑖⃗ − 4𝑗⃗ + 4𝑘⃗⃗

|∇∅| = 6 (𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑦)

∇∅ ⃗⃗
𝑖⃗−2𝑗⃗+2𝑘
Unit vector normal to the surface = |∇∅| = 3

(ii) & (iii) As in 1st part.

Problem 12 : Find the equation of the tangent plane to the surface 𝑥 2 + 2𝑦 2 + 3𝑧 2 = 6 at

the point (1,-1,1).

Sol. : Let 𝑟⃗ = 𝑥𝑖⃗ + 𝑦𝑗⃗ + 𝑧𝑘⃗⃗

Let ∅ = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑦 2 + 3𝑧 2 − 6

∇∅ = 2𝑥𝑖⃗ + 4𝑦𝑗⃗ + 6𝑧𝑘⃗⃗

At (1, −1,1), ∇∅ = 2𝑖⃗ − 4𝑗⃗ + 6𝑘⃗⃗=𝑃⃗⃗

Let 𝑟⃗⃗⃗⃗1 = 𝑖⃗ − 𝑗⃗ + 𝑘⃗⃗

Equation of the tangent plane is (𝑟⃗ − 𝑟⃗⃗⃗⃗1 ) ∙ 𝑃⃗⃗ = 0

x-2y+3z-6=0 (Verify)

Problem 13 : Find the equation of the tangent plane to the surface 𝑥 2 − 4𝑦 2 + 3𝑧 2 + 4 = 0

at the point (3,2,1). [Ans. 3x-8y+3z+4=0]

Problem 14 : Find the angle between the normals to the surface 𝑥𝑦 − 𝑧 2 = 0 at the points
(1,4,-2) and (-3,-3,3)

Solution : First find ∇∅ at the points (1,4,-2) and (-3,-3,3).

At (1,4, −2), ∇∅ = 4𝑖⃗ + 𝑗⃗ + 4𝑘⃗⃗ & At (−3, −3,3), ∇∅ = −3𝑖⃗ − 3𝑗⃗ − 6𝑘⃗⃗

⃗⃗ )∙(−3𝑖⃗−3𝑗⃗−6𝑘
(4𝑖⃗+𝑗⃗+4𝑘 ⃗⃗ ) −13
If 𝜃 is the angle between the normals then 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = =3
√16+1+16√9+9+36 √22

Problem 15: Show that the surfaces 5𝑥 2 − 2𝑦𝑧 − 9𝑥 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 4𝑥 2 𝑦 + 𝑧 3 − 4 = 0 are

orthogonal at (1,-1,2).

Soln. : - Let ∅1 = 5𝑥 2 − 2𝑦𝑧 − 9𝑥 and ∅2 = 4𝑥 2 𝑦 + 𝑧 3 − 4

∇∅1 = (10𝑥 − 9)𝑖⃗ − 2𝑧𝑗⃗ − 2𝑦𝑘⃗⃗ & ∇∅2 = 8𝑥𝑦𝑖⃗ + 4𝑥 2 𝑗⃗ + 3𝑧 2 𝑘⃗⃗ (𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑦)

At (1,-1,2) ∇∅1 = 𝑖⃗ − 4𝑗⃗ + 2𝑘⃗⃗ & ∇∅2 = −8𝑖⃗ + 4𝑗⃗ + 12𝑘⃗⃗ (𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑦)
 (∇∅1 ) ∙ (∇∅2 ) = (𝑖⃗ − 4𝑗⃗ + 2𝑘⃗⃗ ) ∙ (−8𝑖⃗ + 4𝑗⃗ + 12𝑘⃗⃗ ) = 0 (𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑦)

Thus the given two surfaces are orthogonal.

Problem 16: Find the angle between the normals to the intersecting surfaces 𝑥𝑦 − 𝑧 2 − 1 =
0 and 𝑦 2 − 3𝑧 − 1 = 0 at (1,1,0). Also find a unit vector along the tangent to the curve of
intersection of the surfaces at (1,1,0).

Soln. : As in the previous problem find ∇∅1 & ∇∅2 𝑎𝑡 (1,1,0)

∇∅1 = 𝑖⃗ + 𝑗⃗ & ∇∅2 = 2𝑗⃗ − 3𝑘⃗⃗

Let 𝑎⃗ = 𝑖⃗ + 𝑗⃗ & 𝑏⃗⃗ = 2𝑗⃗ − 3𝑘⃗⃗

Let 𝜃 bet the angle between the normals to the surfaces.

𝑎⃗ ∙ 𝑏⃗⃗ 2
∴ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = =
|𝑎⃗||𝑏⃗⃗| √26

⃗⃗
𝑎⃗⃗×𝑏
Unit Vector along the tangent = |𝑎⃗⃗×𝑏⃗⃗|

𝑖⃗ 𝑗⃗ 𝑘⃗⃗
𝑎⃗ × 𝑏⃗⃗ = |1 1 0 | = −3𝑖⃗ + 3𝑗⃗ + 2𝑘⃗⃗ and |𝑎⃗ × 𝑏⃗⃗| = √22 (Verify)
0 2 −3

⃗⃗
−3𝑖⃗+3𝑗⃗+2𝑘
Thus the unit vector along the tangent = .
√22

Problem 17: Find the direction in which ∅ = 𝑥𝑦 2 + 𝑦𝑧 2 + 𝑧𝑥 2 increases most rapidly at the
point (1,2,-3).

Soln. : Find ∇∅ at (1,2,-3)

Direction of ∇(𝑥𝑦 2 + 𝑦𝑧 2 + 𝑧𝑥 2 ) = −2𝑖⃗ + 13𝑗⃗ − 11𝑘⃗⃗.

Divergence of a vector point function

𝜕𝑉1 𝜕𝑉2 𝜕𝑉3

If 𝑉 = 𝑉1 𝑖⃗ + 𝑉2 𝑗⃗ + 𝑉3 𝑘⃗⃗ is a vector point function, then the scalar + + is
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

called the divergence of V and is denoted by divV (or) ∇ ∙ 𝑉.

If ∇ ∙ 𝑉 = 0 then the vector V is said to be solenoidal.

𝜕𝑉
The summation notation for divergence is ∇ ∙ 𝑉 = ∑ 𝑖⃗ ∙ 𝜕𝑥 .

Curl of a vector point function

 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
If 𝑽 = 𝑉1 𝑖⃗ + 𝑉2 𝑗⃗ + 𝑉3 𝑘⃗⃗ , then the vector 𝑖⃗ ( 3 − 2 ) + 𝑗⃗ ( 1 − 3 ) + 𝑘⃗⃗ ( 2 − 1 )
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

is called the curl of V and is denoted by curlV (or) ∇ × 𝑉.

𝑖⃗ 𝑗⃗ 𝑘⃗⃗
Now, ∇ × 𝑉 = | 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
|
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝑉1 𝑉2 𝑉3

If 𝛁 × 𝑽 = 𝟎 then the vector V is said to be irrotational.

Note 1 : The divergence of a vector point function is a scalar and the curl of a vector point
function is a vector.

𝜕
Note 2 : 𝑉 ∙ ∇= 𝑉 ∙ ∑ 𝑖⃗ 𝜕𝑥

Theorem 1 : If 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵
⃗⃗ are vector point functions, ′∅′ a scalar point function and ‘k’ a

constant then, (i) ∇ ∙ (𝐴⃗ + 𝐵

⃗⃗ ) = ∇ ∙ 𝐴⃗ + ∇ ∙ 𝐵
⃗⃗ (ii) ∇ ∙ (𝑘𝐴⃗) = 𝑘(∇ ∙ 𝐴⃗)

(iii) ∇ ∙ (∅𝐴⃗)=(∇∅) ∙ 𝐴⃗ + ∅(∇ ∙ A

⃗⃗) (iv) ∇ × (𝐴⃗ + 𝐵
⃗⃗) = ∇ × 𝐴⃗ + ∇ × 𝐵
⃗⃗

(v) ∇ × (𝑘𝐴⃗) = 𝑘(∇ × 𝐴⃗) (vi) ∇ × (∅𝐴⃗)=(∇∅) × 𝐴⃗ + ∅(∇ × ⃗A⃗)

𝜕(𝐴⃗+𝐵
⃗⃗ ) 𝜕𝐴⃗ ⃗⃗
𝜕𝐵 𝜕𝐴⃗ ⃗⃗
𝜕𝐵
Proof : (i) ∇ ∙ (𝐴⃗ + 𝐵
⃗⃗) = ∑ 𝑖⃗ ∙ =∑ 𝑖⃗ ∙ (𝜕𝑥 + 𝜕𝑥 ) = ∑ 𝑖⃗ ∙ 𝜕𝑥 + ∑ 𝑖⃗ ∙ 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑥

=∇ ∙ 𝐴⃗ + ∇ ∙ B
⃗⃗

𝜕(𝑘𝐴⃗) 𝜕𝐴⃗
(ii) ∇ ∙ (𝑘𝐴⃗) = ∑ 𝑖⃗ ∙ 𝜕𝑥 = 𝑘 ∑ 𝑖⃗ ∙ 𝜕𝑥 [Since, k is a constant]= 𝑘(∇ ∙ 𝐴⃗)

𝜕(∅𝐴⃗) 𝜕∅ 𝜕𝐴⃗ 𝜕∅ 𝜕𝐴⃗

(iii) ∇ ∙ (∅𝐴⃗) = ∑ 𝑖⃗ ∙ 𝜕𝑥 = ∑ 𝑖⃗ ∙ [𝜕𝑥 𝐴⃗ + ∅ 𝜕𝑥 ] = ∑ 𝑖⃗ ∙ 𝜕𝑥 𝐴⃗ + ∑ 𝑖⃗ ∙ ∅ 𝜕𝑥

𝜕∅ 𝜕𝐴⃗
= ∑ 𝑖⃗ 𝜕𝑥 ∙ 𝐴⃗ + ∅ ∑ 𝑖⃗ ∙ 𝜕𝑥 =(∇∅) ∙ 𝐴⃗ + ∅(∇ ∙ ⃗A⃗)

(iv), (v) & (vi) are H.W.

Theorem 2 : If 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵
⃗⃗ are vector point functions then,

(i) ⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗B⃗) = ⃗A⃗ × (∇ × ⃗B⃗) + (A

∇(A ⃗⃗ ∙ ∇)B
⃗⃗ + ⃗B⃗ × (∇ × ⃗A⃗) + (B
⃗⃗ ∙ ∇)A
⃗⃗

(ii) ⃗⃗ × B
∇ ∙ (A ⃗⃗) = (∇ × A
⃗⃗) ∙ B
⃗⃗ − (∇ × B
⃗⃗) ∙ A
⃗⃗

(iii) ⃗⃗ × B
∇ × (A ⃗⃗) = {(B
⃗⃗ ∙ ∇)A
⃗⃗ − (∇ ∙ A
⃗⃗)B
⃗⃗} − {(A
⃗⃗ ∙ ∇)B
⃗⃗ − (∇ ∙ B
⃗⃗)A
⃗⃗}

Proof : (i) ⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗B⃗) = ∑ 𝑖⃗ ∙ 𝜕(𝐴⃗∙𝐵⃗⃗) = ∑ 𝑖⃗ [𝜕𝐴⃗ ∙ 𝐵

∇(A ⃗⃗ + 𝐴⃗ ∙ 𝜕𝐵⃗⃗ ] = ∑ 𝑖⃗ [𝜕𝐴⃗ ∙ 𝐵
⃗⃗] + ∑ 𝑖⃗ [𝐴⃗ ∙
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
⃗⃗
𝜕𝐵 𝜕𝐴⃗ ⃗⃗
𝜕𝐵
⃗⃗ ∙
] = ∑ 𝑖⃗ [𝐵 ] + ∑ 𝑖⃗ [𝐴⃗ ∙ ] ............... (1)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
 ⃗⃗
𝜕𝐵 ⃗⃗
𝜕𝐵 ⃗⃗
𝜕𝐵
Now, 𝐴⃗ × (𝑖⃗ × ) = (𝐴⃗ ∙ ) 𝑖⃗ − (𝐴⃗ ∙ 𝑖⃗)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥

(Using, 𝑎⃗ × (𝑏⃗⃗ × 𝑐⃗) = (𝑎⃗ ∙ 𝑐⃗)𝑏⃗⃗ − (𝑎⃗ ∙ 𝑏⃗⃗)𝑐⃗)

⃗⃗
𝜕𝐵 ⃗⃗
𝜕𝐵 ⃗⃗
𝜕𝐵
𝐴⃗ × (𝑖⃗ × 𝜕𝑥 ) + (𝐴⃗ ∙ 𝑖⃗) 𝜕𝑥 = (𝐴⃗ ∙ 𝜕𝑥 ) 𝑖⃗

Taking summation on both sides.

⃗⃗
𝜕𝐵 ⃗⃗
𝜕𝐵 ⃗⃗
𝜕𝐵
∑[𝐴⃗ × (𝑖⃗ × ) + (𝐴⃗ ∙ 𝑖⃗) ] = ∑[ (𝐴⃗ ∙ ) 𝑖⃗]
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥

⃗⃗
𝜕𝐵 ⃗⃗
𝜕𝐵 ⃗⃗
𝜕𝐵
∑[𝐴⃗ × (𝑖⃗ × )] + ∑[ (𝐴⃗ ∙ 𝑖⃗) ] = ∑[ (𝐴⃗ ∙ ) 𝑖⃗]
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥

⃗⃗
𝜕𝐵 ⃗⃗
𝜕𝐵 ⃗⃗
𝜕𝐵
∑[ (𝐴⃗ ∙ ) 𝑖⃗] = ∑[𝐴⃗ × (𝑖⃗ × )] + ∑[ (𝐴⃗ ∙ 𝑖⃗) ]
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥

⃗⃗
𝜕𝐵 𝜕
= 𝐴⃗ × ∑ (𝑖⃗ × ) + [𝐴⃗ ∙ ∑ 𝑖⃗ ] 𝐵
⃗⃗
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥

= 𝐴⃗ × (∇ × 𝐵
⃗⃗)+(𝐴⃗ ∙ ∇)𝐵
⃗⃗ ...................... (2)

Interchanging 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵
⃗⃗, we get

⃗⃗ ∙ 𝜕𝐴⃗ ) 𝑖⃗] = 𝐵
∑[ (𝐵 ⃗⃗ × (∇ × 𝐴⃗)+(𝐵
⃗⃗ ∙ ∇)𝐴⃗ ........................ (3)
𝜕𝑥

Put (2) and (3) in (1) we get,

⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗B⃗) = ⃗A⃗ × (∇ × ⃗B⃗) + (A

∇(A ⃗⃗ ∙ ∇)B
⃗⃗ + ⃗B⃗ × (∇ × ⃗A⃗) + (B
⃗⃗ ∙ ∇)A
⃗⃗

𝜕(𝐴⃗×𝐵
⃗⃗ ) 𝜕𝐴⃗ ⃗⃗
𝜕𝐵
(ii) ∇ ∙ (𝐴⃗ × 𝐵
⃗⃗) = ∑ 𝑖⃗ ∙ ⃗⃗ + 𝐴⃗ × )
=∑ 𝑖⃗ ∙ ( 𝜕𝑥 × 𝐵
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥

𝜕𝐴⃗ ⃗⃗
𝜕𝐵 𝜕𝐴⃗ ⃗⃗
𝜕𝐵
= ∑ 𝑖⃗ ∙ ( ⃗⃗) + ∑ 𝑖⃗ ∙ (𝐴⃗ × ) = ∑ 𝑖⃗ ∙ ( × 𝐵
×𝐵 ⃗⃗) − ∑ 𝑖⃗ ∙ ( × 𝐴⃗)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥

𝜕𝐴⃗ ⃗⃗
𝜕𝐵
⃗⃗) − ∑ 𝑖⃗ × ( ∙ 𝐴⃗) [Interchanging dot and cross]
= ∑ 𝑖⃗ × (𝜕𝑥 ∙ 𝐵 𝜕𝑥

𝜕𝐴⃗ ⃗⃗
𝜕𝐵
= ∑ (𝑖⃗ × ⃗⃗ − ∑(𝑖⃗ × ) ∙ 𝐴⃗ = (∇ × ⃗A⃗) ∙ 𝐵
)∙𝐵 ⃗⃗ − (∇ × ⃗B⃗) ∙ 𝐴⃗
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥

𝜕(𝐴⃗×𝐵
⃗⃗ ) 𝜕𝐴⃗ ⃗⃗
𝜕𝐵
(𝐢𝐢𝐢) ∇ × (𝐴⃗ × 𝐵
⃗⃗) = ∑ 𝑖⃗ × ⃗⃗ + 𝐴⃗ × )
=∑ 𝑖⃗ × (𝜕𝑥 × 𝐵
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥

𝜕𝐴⃗ ⃗⃗
𝜕𝐵
⃗⃗) + ∑ 𝑖⃗ × (𝐴⃗ × )
=∑ 𝑖⃗ × ( 𝜕𝑥 × 𝐵 𝜕𝑥
 𝜕𝐴⃗ ⃗⃗
𝜕𝐵
= ∑ 𝑖⃗ × ( ⃗⃗) − ∑ 𝑖⃗ × (
×𝐵 × 𝐴⃗) ...................... (1)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥

𝜕𝐴⃗ 𝜕𝐴⃗ 𝜕𝐴⃗

⃗⃗) = (𝑖⃗ ∙ 𝐵
Now, 𝑖⃗ × (𝜕𝑥 × 𝐵 ⃗⃗) − (𝑖⃗ ∙ )𝐵⃗⃗
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥

𝜕𝐴⃗ 𝜕𝐴⃗ 𝜕𝐴⃗

∑ 𝑖⃗ × ( ⃗⃗) = ∑(𝑖⃗ ∙ 𝐵
×𝐵 ⃗⃗ ) − ∑(𝑖⃗ ∙ )𝐵 ⃗⃗
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥

𝜕𝐴⃗ 𝜕𝐴⃗ 𝜕𝐴⃗ 𝜕𝐴⃗

⃗⃗⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑖⃗) − ∑ (𝑖⃗ ∙ ) 𝐵
= ∑(𝐵 ⃗⃗ = 𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗ ∙ ∑ 𝑖⃗ − ∑ (𝑖⃗ ∙ ) 𝐵
⃗⃗
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥

⃗⃗⃗⃗ ∙ ∑ 𝑖⃗ 𝜕 ) 𝐴⃗ − ∑ (𝑖⃗ ∙ 𝜕𝐴⃗) 𝐵

= (𝐵 ⃗⃗
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥

⃗⃗ ∙ ∇)𝐴⃗ − (∇ ∙ 𝐴⃗)𝐵
= (𝐵 ⃗⃗ ......................................... (2)

⃗⃗ we get, ∑ 𝑖⃗ × (𝜕𝐵⃗⃗ × 𝐴⃗) = (𝐴⃗ ∙ ∇)𝐵

Interchanging 𝐴⃗ & 𝐵 ⃗⃗ − (∇ ∙ 𝐵
⃗⃗)𝐴⃗ ....... (3)
𝜕𝑥

Put (2) and (3) in (1) we get the result.

Laplacian Differential operator

𝜕2 𝜕2 𝜕2
The operator ∇2 defined by ∇2 = 𝜕𝑥 2 + 𝜕𝑦 2 + 𝜕𝑧 2 is called Laplacian

differential operator.

Laplace Equation

𝜕 2∅ 𝜕 2∅ 𝜕2∅
If ∅ is such that 𝛁 𝟐 ∅ = 𝟎 (𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝜕𝑥 2 + 𝜕𝑦 2 + 𝜕𝑧 2 = 0) the ∅ is said to satisfied

Laplace equation.

Harmonic function

A single valued function f(x,y,z) is said to be a harmonic function if its

second order partial derivative exists and are continuous and if the function satisfies the
Laplace equation 𝛁 𝟐 𝒇 = 𝟎.

Theorem 3 : If ∅ is a scalar point function then,

(i) Divergence of the gradient of ∅ is ∇2 ∅ 𝑖. 𝑒. , ∇ ∙ (∇∅) = ∇2 ∅

(ii) ⃗⃗.
Curl of the gradient of ∅ vanishes. (i.e.,) ∇ × (∇∅) = 0

Proof :

𝜕∅ 𝜕∅ 𝜕∅
(i) We have, ∇∅ = 𝑖⃗ 𝜕𝑥 + 𝑗⃗ 𝜕𝑦 + 𝑘⃗⃗ 𝜕𝑧

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕∅ 𝜕∅ 𝜕∅
∇ ∙ ∇∅ = (𝑖⃗ + 𝑗⃗ + 𝑘⃗⃗ ) ∙ (𝑖⃗ + 𝑗⃗ + 𝑘⃗⃗ )
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
 𝜕2∅ 𝜕2∅ 𝜕2∅
= + + = ∇2 ∅
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2
𝑖⃗ 𝑗⃗ 𝑘⃗⃗
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
(ii) ∇ × (∇∅) = ||𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
|
𝜕𝑧 |=0𝑖⃗ + 0𝑗⃗ + 0𝑘⃗⃗ = 0
⃗⃗ (Verify)
𝜕∅ 𝜕∅ 𝜕∅
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

Theorem 4 : If 𝐴⃗ = 𝐴1 𝑖⃗ + 𝐴2 𝑗⃗ + 𝐴3 𝑘⃗⃗ where 𝐴1 , 𝐴2 , 𝐴3 have continuous second partials, then

(i) divergence of a curl of a vector vanishes. i.e., ∇ ∙ (∇ × 𝐴⃗) = 0

(ii) ∇ × (∇ × 𝐴⃗) = ∇(∇ ∙ 𝐴⃗) − ∇2 𝐴⃗

𝑖⃗ 𝑗⃗ 𝑘⃗⃗
Proof : (i) ∇ × 𝐴⃗=| 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
|
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝐴1 𝐴2 𝐴3

𝜕𝐴 𝜕𝐴2 𝜕𝐴 𝜕𝐴1 𝜕𝐴 𝜕𝐴1

= 𝑖⃗ ( 𝜕𝑦3 − ) − 𝑗⃗ ( 𝜕𝑥3 − ) + 𝑘⃗⃗ ( 𝜕𝑥2 − )
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕𝐴 𝜕𝐴 𝜕𝐴 𝜕𝐴 𝜕𝐴 𝜕𝐴
∇ ∙ (∇ × 𝐴⃗) = (𝑖⃗ 𝜕𝑥 + 𝑗⃗ 𝜕𝑦 + 𝑘⃗⃗ 𝜕𝑧) ∙ [𝑖⃗ ( 𝜕𝑦3 − 𝜕𝑧2 ) − 𝑗⃗ ( 𝜕𝑥3 − 𝜕𝑧1 ) + 𝑘⃗⃗ ( 𝜕𝑥2 − 𝜕𝑦1 )]

𝜕 2𝐴 𝜕2𝐴 𝜕2𝐴 𝜕 2𝐴 𝜕2𝐴 𝜕 2𝐴

= 𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦3 − 𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑧2 − 𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦3 + 𝜕𝑦𝜕𝑧1 + 𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑧2 − 𝜕𝑦𝜕𝑧1 = 0

𝜕𝐴 𝜕𝐴2 𝜕𝐴 𝜕𝐴1 𝜕𝐴 𝜕𝐴1

ii) ∇ × 𝐴⃗ = 𝑖⃗ ( 𝜕𝑦3 − ) − 𝑗⃗ ( 𝜕𝑥3 − ) + 𝑘⃗⃗ ( 𝜕𝑥2 − )
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦

𝑖⃗ 𝑗⃗ 𝑘⃗⃗
| 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 |
∇ × (∇ × 𝐴⃗) = 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
|𝜕𝐴 𝜕𝐴2 𝜕𝐴3 𝜕𝐴1 𝜕𝐴2 𝜕𝐴1 |
3
− −( − ) −
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

𝜕 𝜕𝐴2 𝜕𝐴1 𝜕 𝜕𝐴3 𝜕𝐴1

= 𝑖⃗ [ ( − )+ ( − )] − 𝑗⃗ … … ..
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧

𝜕 2 𝐴2 𝜕 2 𝐴1 𝜕 2 𝐴3 𝜕 2 𝐴1
= ∑ 𝑖⃗ [ − + − ]
𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 2

𝜕 2 𝐴2 𝜕 2 𝐴3 𝜕 2 𝐴1 𝜕 2 𝐴1
= ∑ 𝑖⃗ [ + −( 2 + )]
𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 2

𝜕 2 𝐴2 𝜕 2 𝐴3 𝜕 2 𝐴1 𝜕 2 𝐴1 𝜕 2 𝐴1 𝜕 2 𝐴1
= ∑ 𝑖⃗ [ + + − − ( + )]
𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2

𝜕 2𝐴1
(Add and subtract )
𝜕𝑥 2
 𝜕 2 𝐴2 𝜕 2 𝐴3 𝜕 2 𝐴1 𝜕 2 𝐴1 𝜕 2 𝐴1 𝜕 2 𝐴1
= ∑ 𝑖⃗ [ + + − ( + + )]
𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2

𝜕 𝜕𝐴2 𝜕𝐴3 𝜕𝐴1 𝜕 2 𝐴1 𝜕 2 𝐴1 𝜕 2 𝐴1

= ∑ 𝑖⃗ [ ( + + )− ( 2 + + )]
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2

𝜕 𝜕𝐴1 𝜕𝐴2 𝜕𝐴3 𝜕 2 𝐴1 𝜕 2 𝐴1 𝜕 2 𝐴1

= ∑ 𝑖⃗ ( + + ) − ∑ 𝑖⃗ ( 2 + + )
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2

𝜕
= ∑ 𝑖⃗ 𝜕𝑥 (∇ ∙ 𝐴⃗) − ∇2 𝐴⃗ = ∇(∇ ∙ 𝐴⃗) − ∇2 𝐴⃗.

Problem 18 : Show that the vector 𝐴⃗ = 𝑥 2 𝑧 2 𝑖⃗ + 𝑥𝑦𝑧 2 𝑗⃗ − 𝑥𝑧 3 𝑘⃗⃗ is solenoidal.

Solution : (To show that ∇ ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝐴 =0)

Problem 19: If the vector 3𝑥𝑖⃗ + (𝑥 + 𝑦)𝑗⃗ − 𝑎𝑧𝑘⃗⃗ 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑖𝑑𝑎𝑙, find a.

Solution : Let 𝐴⃗ = 3𝑥𝑖⃗ + (𝑥 + 𝑦)𝑗⃗ − 𝑎𝑧𝑘⃗⃗

Given 𝐴⃗ is solenoidal. Therefore, ∇ ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝐴 =0

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
i.e., (𝑖⃗ 𝜕𝑥 + 𝑗⃗ 𝜕𝑦 + 𝑘⃗⃗ 𝜕𝑧) ∙ (3𝑥𝑖⃗ + (𝑥 + 𝑦)𝑗⃗ − 𝑎𝑧𝑘⃗⃗) = 0

𝜕(3𝑥) 𝜕(𝑥+𝑦) 𝜕(𝑎𝑧)

i.e., + − =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

i.e., 3+1-a=0 =>a=4.

Problem 20 : If 𝑟⃗ = 𝑥𝑖⃗ + 𝑦𝑗⃗ + 𝑧𝑘⃗⃗, Show that ∇ ∙ 𝑟⃗ = 3.

Solution : Given 𝑟⃗ = 𝑥𝑖⃗ + 𝑦𝑗⃗ + 𝑧𝑘⃗⃗

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
∇ ∙ 𝑟⃗ = (𝑖⃗ + 𝑗⃗ + 𝑘⃗⃗ ) ∙ (𝑥𝑖⃗ + 𝑦𝑗⃗ + 𝑧𝑘⃗⃗)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

𝜕(𝑥) 𝜕(𝑦) 𝜕(𝑧)

= + + = 1+1+1= 3
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

Problem 21 : If 𝑟⃗ = 𝑥𝑖⃗ + 𝑦𝑗⃗ + 𝑧𝑘⃗⃗ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟 = |𝑟⃗| show that ∇ ∙ (𝑟 𝑛 𝑟⃗) = (𝑛 + 3)𝑟 𝑛 .

Solution : ∇ ∙ (𝑟 𝑛 𝑟⃗) = ∇(𝑟 𝑛 ) ∙ 𝑟⃗ + 𝑟 𝑛 (∇ ∙ 𝑟⃗) ....................... (1)

𝜕 (𝑟 𝑛 ) 𝜕 (𝑟 𝑛 ) 𝜕 (𝑟 𝑛 )
∇(𝑟 𝑛)
= 𝑖⃗ + 𝑗⃗ ⃗⃗
+𝑘
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

𝜕r 𝜕r 𝜕r
= 𝑖⃗𝑛𝑟 𝑛−1 + 𝑗⃗𝑛𝑟 𝑛−1 + 𝑘⃗⃗𝑛𝑟 𝑛−1
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧
= 𝑖⃗𝑛𝑟 𝑛−1 + 𝑗⃗𝑛𝑟 𝑛−1 + 𝑘⃗⃗𝑛𝑟 𝑛−1
𝑟 𝑟 𝑟

= 𝑛𝑟 𝑛−2 (𝑖⃗𝑥 + 𝑗⃗𝑦 + 𝑘⃗⃗𝑧) = 𝑛𝑟 𝑛−2 𝑟⃗

∴ (1) => ∇ ∙ (𝑟 𝑛 𝑟⃗) = (𝑛𝑟 𝑛−2 𝑟⃗ ∙ 𝑟⃗) + 𝑟 𝑛 3 = 𝑛𝑟 𝑛−2 (𝑟⃗ ∙ 𝑟⃗) + 𝑟 𝑛 3

= 𝑛𝑟 𝑛−2 𝑟 2 + 𝑟 𝑛 3 = 𝑛𝑟 𝑛 + 𝑟 𝑛 3 = (𝑛 + 3)𝑟 𝑛

1 2
Problem 22 : Show that ∇ ∙ (𝑟 3 𝑟⃗) = 0 & ∇ ∙ 𝑟̂ = 𝑟

1 1 1
Solution : ∇ ∙ (𝑟 3 𝑟⃗) = ∇(𝑟 3) ∙ 𝑟⃗ + 𝑟 3 (∇ ∙ 𝑟⃗) ...................... (1)

1 1 1
1 𝜕 ( 3) 𝜕 ( 3) 𝜕 ( 3)
∇ ( 3 ) = 𝑖⃗ 𝑟 + 𝑗⃗ 𝑟 + 𝑘⃗⃗ 𝑟
𝑟 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

3 𝜕r 3 𝜕r 3 𝜕r
= 𝑖⃗ (− ) + 𝑗
⃗ (− ) + ⃗⃗ (− )
𝑘
𝑟 4 𝜕𝑥 𝑟 4 𝜕𝑦 𝑟 4 𝜕𝑧

3 𝑥 3 𝑦 3 𝑧
= 𝑖⃗ (− ) + 𝑗
⃗ (− ) + ⃗⃗ (− )
𝑘
𝑟4 𝑟 𝑟4 𝑟 𝑟4 𝑟

3 3
= (− ) (𝑖
⃗ 𝑥 + 𝑗
⃗ 𝑦 + ⃗⃗ 𝑧) = (− ) 𝑟⃗
𝑘
𝑟5 𝑟5

1 3 1 3 1
∴ (1) => ∇ ∙ (𝑟 3 𝑟⃗) = (− 𝑟 5) 𝑟⃗ ∙ 𝑟⃗ + 𝑟 3 3 = (− 𝑟 3) + 𝑟 3 3 = 0

𝑟⃗ 1
∇ ∙ 𝑟̂ = ∇ ∙ = ∇ ∙ 𝑟⃗
𝑟 𝑟

1 1 1
∇ ∙ ( 𝑟⃗) = ∇ ( ) ∙ 𝑟⃗ + (∇ ∙ 𝑟⃗)
𝑟 𝑟 𝑟

1 1
∇ ( ) = − 3 𝑟⃗ (𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑦)
𝑟 𝑟

1 1 1 1 3 2
∇ ∙ ( 𝑟⃗) = (− 3 𝑟⃗) ∙ 𝑟⃗ + 3 = − 3 × 𝑟 2 + =
𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟

Problem 23 : If 𝑟⃗ = 𝑥𝑖⃗ + 𝑦𝑗⃗ + 𝑧𝑘⃗⃗ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟 = |𝑟⃗| show that

𝑐
∇ ∙ (𝑓(𝑟)𝑟⃗) = 𝑟 𝑓 ′ (𝑟) + 3 𝑓(𝑟). Also if ∇ ∙ (𝑓(𝑟)𝑟⃗) = 0 show that 𝑓 (𝑟) = 𝑟 3 where c is an

arbitrary constant.

Solution : ∇ ∙ (𝑓(𝑟)𝑟⃗) = ∇(𝑓(𝑟)) ∙ 𝑟⃗ + 𝑓(𝑟)(∇ ∙ 𝑟⃗)

𝑓 ′ (𝑟 )
∇(𝑓 (𝑟)) = 𝑟⃗ (𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑦)
𝑟
 𝑓 ′ (𝑟 )
∇ ∙ (𝑓(𝑟)𝑟⃗) = 𝑟⃗ ∙ 𝑟⃗ + 𝑓(𝑟)3 = rf ′ (r) + f(r)3
𝑟

Also, given ∇ ∙ (𝑓(𝑟)𝑟⃗) = 0

Thus, rf ′ (r) + f(r)3 = 0

rf ′ (r) = −f(r)3

𝑓 ′ (𝑟 ) 3
=−
𝑓 (𝑟 ) 𝑟

Integrating both sides with respect to r

𝑓 ′ (𝑟 ) 3
∫ 𝑑𝑟 = − ∫ 𝑑𝑟
𝑓 (𝑟 ) 𝑟

log 𝑓(𝑟) = −3𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑐 = −𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟 3 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑐 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑐 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟 3 = log 𝑐/𝑟 3

𝑐
Thus, log 𝑓 (𝑟) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑟 3

𝑐
Thus, 𝑓 (𝑟) = 𝑟 3 where c is an arbitrary constant.

Problem 24 : If ‘a’ is a constant vector and 𝑟⃗ = 𝑥𝑖⃗ + 𝑦𝑗⃗ + 𝑧𝑘⃗⃗ then show that ∇ ∙ {(𝑎⃗ ∙ 𝑟⃗)𝑟⃗} =
4(𝑎⃗ ∙ 𝑟⃗).

Solution : Let 𝑎⃗ = 𝑎1 𝑖⃗ + 𝑎2 𝑗⃗ + 𝑎3 𝑘⃗⃗

Given 𝑟⃗ = 𝑥𝑖⃗ + 𝑦𝑗⃗ + 𝑧𝑘⃗⃗

𝑎⃗ ∙ 𝑟⃗ = 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑦 + 𝑎3 𝑧

Now, ∇ ∙ {(𝑎⃗ ∙ 𝑟⃗)𝑟⃗} = ∇ ∙ {(𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑦 + 𝑎3 𝑧)𝑟⃗}

= ∇(𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑦 + 𝑎3 𝑧) ∙ 𝑟⃗ + (𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑦 + 𝑎3 𝑧)(∇ ∙ r⃗) ...................... (1)

𝜕(𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑦 + 𝑎3 𝑧) 𝜕(𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑦 + 𝑎3 𝑧)
∇(𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑦 + 𝑎3 𝑧) = 𝑖⃗ + 𝑗⃗ +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

𝜕(𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑦 + 𝑎3 𝑧)
𝑘⃗⃗
𝜕𝑧

= 𝑎1 𝑖⃗ + 𝑎2 𝑗⃗ + 𝑎3 𝑘⃗⃗=𝑎⃗

Also, ∇ ∙ r⃗ = 3

∴ (1) => ∇ ∙ {(𝑎⃗ ∙ 𝑟⃗)𝑟⃗} = 𝑎⃗ ∙ 𝑟⃗ + 3(𝑎⃗ ∙ 𝑟⃗) = 4(𝑎⃗ ∙ 𝑟⃗)

Problem 25 : Find the value of ‘a’ if 𝐴⃗ = (𝑎𝑥𝑦 − 𝑧 2 )𝑖⃗ + (𝑥 2 + 2𝑦𝑧)𝑗⃗ + (𝑦 2 − 𝑎𝑥𝑧)𝑘⃗⃗ is
irrotational.

Solution : Given, 𝐴⃗ is irrotational.

∴ ∇ × 𝐴⃗ = 0
⃗⃗

∴ ∇ × 𝐴⃗ = (2𝑦 − 2𝑦)𝑖⃗ − (−𝑎𝑧 + 2𝑧)𝑗⃗ + (2𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥)𝑘⃗⃗ (Verify)

⃗⃗ => (2𝑦 − 2𝑦)𝑖⃗ − (−𝑎𝑧 + 2𝑧)𝑗⃗ + (2𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥 )𝑘⃗⃗ = 0𝑖⃗ + 0𝑗⃗ + 0𝑘⃗⃗
∇ × 𝐴⃗ = 0

∴ 2𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥 = 0

∴ 𝑎 = 2.

Problem 26 : Show that the following vector point functions are irrotational.

(i) (4𝑥𝑦 − 𝑧 3 )𝑖⃗ + 2𝑥 2 𝑗⃗ − 3𝑥𝑧 2 𝑘⃗⃗

(ii) (3𝑥 2 + 2𝑦 2 + 1)𝑖⃗ + (4𝑥𝑦 − 3𝑦 2 𝑧 − 3)𝑗⃗ + (2 − 𝑦 3 )𝑘⃗⃗

(iii) (𝑦 2 + 2𝑥𝑧 2 − 1)𝑖⃗ + 2𝑥𝑦𝑗⃗ + 2𝑥 2 𝑧𝑘⃗⃗

Problem 27 : Show that the following vector (𝑦 2 −𝑧 2 + 3𝑦𝑧 − 2𝑥)𝑖⃗ + (3𝑥𝑧 + 2𝑥𝑦)𝑗⃗ +
(3𝑥𝑦 − 2𝑥𝑧 + 2𝑧)𝑘⃗⃗ is both solenoidal and irrotational.

Problem 28 : If 𝑟⃗ = 𝑥𝑖⃗ + 𝑦𝑗⃗ + 𝑧𝑘⃗⃗ for all f(r), show that ∇ × {𝑓(𝑟)𝑟⃗} = 0
⃗⃗ .

Solution : We have, ∇ × (𝑓(𝑟)𝑟⃗) = ∇(𝑓(𝑟)) × 𝑟⃗ + 𝑓(𝑟)(∇ × 𝑟⃗)

𝑓 ′ (𝑟 )
∇(𝑓 (𝑟)) = 𝑟⃗ (𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑦)
𝑟

𝑖⃗ 𝑗⃗ 𝑘⃗⃗
∇ × 𝑟⃗=| 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 ⃗⃗ (verify)
|=0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝑥 𝑦 𝑧

𝑓′ (𝑟)
Thus, ∇ × (𝑓(𝑟)𝑟⃗) = 𝑟⃗ × 𝑟⃗ + 𝑓 (𝑟)(⃗0⃗ ) = 0
⃗⃗ +0
⃗⃗ = 0
⃗⃗
𝑟

Problem 29 : : If 𝑟⃗ = 𝑥𝑖⃗ + 𝑦𝑗⃗ + 𝑧𝑘⃗⃗ show that ∇ × (𝑟 𝑛 𝑟⃗) = 0

⃗⃗.

Solution : ∇ × (𝑟 𝑛 𝑟⃗) = ∇(𝑟 𝑛 ) × 𝑟⃗ + 𝑟 𝑛 (∇ × 𝑟⃗) ....................... (1)

𝜕 (𝑟 𝑛 ) 𝜕 (𝑟 𝑛 ) 𝜕 (𝑟 𝑛 )
∇(𝑟 𝑛)
= 𝑖⃗ + 𝑗⃗ ⃗⃗
+𝑘
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

𝜕r 𝜕r 𝜕r
= 𝑖⃗𝑛𝑟 𝑛−1 + 𝑗⃗𝑛𝑟 𝑛−1 + 𝑘⃗⃗𝑛𝑟 𝑛−1
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧
= 𝑖⃗𝑛𝑟 𝑛−1 + 𝑗⃗𝑛𝑟 𝑛−1 + 𝑘⃗⃗𝑛𝑟 𝑛−1
𝑟 𝑟 𝑟

= 𝑛𝑟 𝑛−2 (𝑖⃗𝑥 + 𝑗⃗𝑦 + 𝑘⃗⃗𝑧) = 𝑛𝑟 𝑛−2 𝑟⃗

𝑖⃗ 𝑗⃗ 𝑘⃗⃗
∇ × 𝑟⃗=| 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 ⃗⃗ (verify)
|=0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝑥 𝑦 𝑧

⃗⃗) =0
∴ (1) => ∇ × (𝑟 𝑛 𝑟⃗) = ∇(𝑟 𝑛 ) × 𝑟⃗ + 𝑟 𝑛 (∇ × 𝑟⃗) = 𝑛𝑟 𝑛−2 𝑟⃗ × 𝑟⃗ + 𝑟 𝑛 (0 ⃗⃗

⃗⃗
Problem 30 : Show that ∇ × 𝑟̂ = 0

1
(Hint : Put 𝑟̂ = 𝑟 𝑟⃗)

⃗⃗⃗ × 𝑟⃗ where w is a constant vector and 𝑟⃗ = 𝑥𝑖⃗ + 𝑦𝑗⃗ + 𝑧𝑘⃗⃗ . Show that
Problem 31 : If 𝑣⃗ = 𝑤
1
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙𝑣⃗ = 𝑤
⃗⃗⃗.
2

⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑤1 𝑖⃗ + 𝑤2 𝑗⃗ + 𝑤3 𝑘⃗⃗
Solution : Let 𝑤

𝜕𝑣
⃗⃗ 𝜕(𝑤
⃗⃗⃗×𝑟⃗ ) 𝜕(𝑟⃗ )
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙𝑣⃗ = ∑ 𝑖⃗ × 𝜕𝑥 = ∑ 𝑖⃗ × = ∑ 𝑖⃗ × (𝑤
⃗⃗⃗ × )
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥

𝜕𝑟⃗
= ∑ 𝑖⃗ × (𝑤
⃗⃗⃗ × 𝑖⃗) [ Since, 𝜕𝑥 = 𝑖⃗]

= ∑[(𝑖⃗ ∙ 𝑖⃗)𝑤 ⃗⃗⃗)𝑖⃗] = ∑(𝑖⃗ ∙ 𝑖⃗)𝑤

⃗⃗⃗ − (𝑖⃗ ∙ 𝑤 ⃗⃗⃗ − ∑(𝑖⃗ ∙ 𝑤
⃗⃗⃗)𝑖⃗

= [(𝑖⃗ ∙ 𝑖⃗)𝑤 ⃗⃗⃗+(𝑘⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑘⃗⃗)𝑤

⃗⃗⃗ + (𝑗⃗ ∙ 𝑗⃗)𝑤 ⃗⃗⃗] − [ (𝑖⃗ ∙ 𝑤 ⃗⃗⃗ )𝑗⃗ + (𝑘⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑤
⃗⃗⃗)𝑖⃗ + (𝑗⃗ ∙ 𝑤 ⃗⃗⃗)𝑘⃗⃗]

= (𝑤
⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑤 ⃗⃗⃗) −(𝑤1 𝑖⃗ + 𝑤2 𝑗⃗ + 𝑤3 𝑘⃗⃗) = 3𝑤
⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑤 ⃗⃗⃗ − 𝑤
⃗⃗⃗ = 2𝑤
⃗⃗⃗

Thus, 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙𝑣⃗ = 2𝑤
⃗⃗⃗

1
Hence, 2 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙𝑣⃗ = 𝑤
⃗⃗⃗.

Problem 32 : If ‘a’ is a constant vector, show that

(i) ∇ × {(𝑎⃗ ∙ 𝑟⃗)𝑟⃗} = 𝑎⃗ × 𝑟⃗

(ii) ∇ ∙ {𝑎⃗ × 𝑟⃗} = 0

Solution :

(i) Let 𝑎⃗ = 𝑎1 𝑖⃗ + 𝑎2 𝑗⃗ + 𝑎3 𝑘⃗⃗

∇ × {(𝑎⃗ ∙ 𝑟⃗)𝑟⃗} = {∇(𝑎⃗ ∙ 𝑟⃗)} × 𝑟⃗ + (𝑎⃗ ∙ 𝑟⃗)(∇ × 𝑟⃗)

𝑎⃗ ∙ 𝑟⃗ = 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑦 + 𝑎3 𝑧
 𝜕(𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑦 + 𝑎3 𝑧) 𝜕(𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑦 + 𝑎3 𝑧)
∇(𝑎⃗ ∙ 𝑟⃗) = 𝑖⃗ + 𝑗⃗ +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

𝜕(𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑦 + 𝑎3 𝑧)
𝑘⃗⃗
𝜕𝑧

= 𝑎1 𝑖⃗ + 𝑎2 𝑗⃗ + 𝑎3 𝑘⃗⃗=𝑎⃗

⃗⃗
∇ × 𝑟⃗ = 0

Thus,
⃗⃗ = 𝑎⃗ × 𝑟⃗
∇ × {(𝑎⃗ ∙ 𝑟⃗)𝑟⃗} = 𝑎⃗ × 𝑟⃗ + (𝑎⃗ ∙ 𝑟⃗)0

(ii) 𝑎⃗ × 𝑟⃗ = 0

Problem 33 : If 𝐴⃗ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵
⃗⃗ are irrotational, show that 𝐴⃗ × 𝐵
⃗⃗ is solenoidal.

Solution : Given, 𝐴⃗ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵

⃗⃗ are irrotational

Therefore,

∇ × 𝐴⃗ = ⃗0⃗⃗ & ∇ × 𝐵
⃗⃗ = 0
⃗⃗

To prove, 𝐴⃗ × 𝐵
⃗⃗ is solenoidal

i.e., to prove ∇ ∙ (𝐴⃗ × 𝐵

⃗⃗ )=0

Now, ∇ ∙ (𝐴⃗ × 𝐵
⃗⃗) = (∇ × 𝐴⃗) ∙ 𝐵
⃗⃗ − (∇ × 𝐵
⃗⃗) ∙ 𝐴⃗ = 0 − 0 = 0

Hence, 𝐴⃗ × 𝐵
⃗⃗ is solenoidal.
1
Problem 34 : Show that ∇2 (𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟) = 𝑟 2 .

𝜕2 𝜕2 𝜕2
Solution : ∇2 (𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟) = 𝜕𝑥 2 (𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟) + 𝜕𝑦 2 (𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟) + 𝜕𝑧 2 (𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟) ....... (1)

𝜕2 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 1 𝜕𝑟 𝜕 1𝑥 𝜕 𝑥
Now, 𝜕𝑥 2 (𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟) = 𝜕𝑥 [𝜕𝑥 (𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟)] = 𝜕𝑥 [𝑟 𝜕𝑥] = 𝜕𝑥 [𝑟 𝑟 ] = 𝜕𝑥 [𝑟 2]

2𝑥 2 1
=− + 𝑟2 (𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑦)
𝑟4

𝜕2 𝜕2
Similarly find 𝜕𝑦 2 (𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟) & (𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟).
𝜕𝑧 2

Then Sub. all the values in (1),

Problem 35 : Show that ∇2 (𝑟 𝑛 ) = 𝑛(𝑛 + 1)𝑟 𝑛−2 .

𝜕2 𝜕2 𝜕2
Solution : ∇2 (𝑟 𝑛 ) = (𝑟 𝑛 ) + (𝑟 𝑛 ) + (𝑟 𝑛 ) ....... (1)
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2
 𝜕2
(𝑟 𝑛 ) = 𝑛𝑥 2 (𝑛 − 2)𝑟 𝑛−4 + 𝑛𝑟 𝑛−2 (𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑦)
𝜕𝑥 2

𝜕2 𝜕2
𝑆𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑙𝑦 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 ( 𝑛) &
2 𝑟
(𝑟 𝑛 )
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 2

∴ (1) => ∇2 (𝑟 𝑛 ) = 𝑛𝑥 2 (𝑛 − 2)𝑟 𝑛−4 + 𝑛𝑟 𝑛−2 + 𝑛𝑦 2 (𝑛 − 2)𝑟 𝑛−4 + 𝑛𝑟 𝑛−2 +

𝑛𝑧 2 (𝑛 − 2)𝑟 𝑛−4 + 𝑛𝑟 𝑛−2 = 𝑛(𝑛 + 1)𝑟 𝑛−2 .

Problem 36 : If ∅ is a harmonic function then show that ∇∅ is solenoidal.

Solution : Given, ∅ is a harmonic function.

∴ 𝑊𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒, ∇2 ∅ = 0

To prove, ∇∅ is solenoidal

i.e., to prove, ∇ ∙ ∇∅ = 0

∇ ∙ ∇∅ = ∇2 ∅ = 0

Hence, ∇∅ is solenoidal.

Problem 37: Show that ∇ ∙ (∅∇𝜓 − 𝜓∇∅) = ∅∇2 𝜓 − 𝜓∇2 ∅.

Solution : LHS=∇ ∙ (∅∇𝜓 − 𝜓∇∅) = ∇ ∙ (∅∇𝜓) − ∇ ∙ (𝜓∇∅) ........... (1)

Consider, ∇ ∙ (∅∇𝜓)

Let 𝐴⃗ = ∇𝜓

Now, ∇ ∙ (∅𝐴⃗) = ∇∅ ∙ 𝐴⃗ + ∅(∇ ∙ 𝐴⃗) = ∇∅ ∙ ∇𝜓 + ∅(∇ ∙ ∇𝜓) = ∇∅ ∙ ∇𝜓 + ∅(∇2 𝜓)

Now, consider ∇ ∙ (𝜓∇∅)

⃗⃗ = ∇∅
Let 𝐵

⃗⃗) = ∇𝜓 ∙ 𝐵
∇ ∙ (𝜓𝐵 ⃗⃗ + 𝜓(∇ ∙ 𝐵
⃗⃗) = ∇𝜓 ∙ ∇∅ + 𝜓(∇ ∙ ∇∅) = ∇𝜓 ∙ ∇∅ + 𝜓(∇2 ∅)

(1)=>, ∇ ∙ (∅∇𝜓 − 𝜓∇∅) = ∇∅ ∙ ∇𝜓 + ∅(∇2 𝜓) − ∇𝜓 ∙ ∇∅ − 𝜓(∇2 ∅)

Thus, ∇ ∙ (∅∇𝜓 − 𝜓∇∅) = ∅∇2 𝜓 − 𝜓∇2 ∅.

⃗⃗ × ∇) × 𝑟⃗ = −2𝑉
Problem 38 : Show that (𝑉 ⃗⃗

⃗⃗ = 𝑉1 𝑖⃗ + 𝑉2 𝑗⃗ + 𝑉3 𝑘⃗⃗ & 𝑟⃗ = 𝑥𝑖⃗ + 𝑦𝑗⃗ + 𝑧𝑘⃗⃗

Solution : Let 𝑉

⃗⃗ × ∇ and then find (𝑉

First find 𝑉 ⃗⃗ × ∇) × 𝑟⃗

1
⃗⃗ ∙ ∇)𝑉
Problem 39 : Show that (𝑉 ⃗⃗ = ∇𝑉 2 − 𝑉
⃗⃗ × (∇ × 𝑉
⃗⃗).
2
 UNIT – II

EVALUATION OF DOUBLE AND TRIPLE INTEGRALS

Integration may be consider either as the inverse of differentiation or as the process of

summation.

In calculus of a single variable the definite integral

∫ 𝑓(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥
𝑎

for 𝑓(𝑥) ≥ 0 is the area under the curve f(x) from x=a to x=b. For general f(x) the definite
integral is equal to the area above the x-axis minus the area below the x-axis.

The multiple integral is a definite integral of a function of more than one real variable,
for instance f(x,y) or f(x,y,z). Integrals of a function of two variables over a region in 𝑅2 are
called double integrals and integrals of a function of three variables over a region in 𝑅3 are
called triple integrals.

The definite integral can be extended to functions of more than one variable. Consider
a function of 2 variables z=f(x,y). The definite integral is denoted by

∬ 𝑓 (𝑥, 𝑦)𝑑𝐴
𝑅

where R is the region of integration in the xy-plane.

2.1 Evaluation of the Double integral

Given a double integral we can integrate the integrand f(x,y) with respect to x treating
y as a constant and then integrating the resulting function with respect to y or vise versa.

Problems:

1 2
Problem 1: Evaluate ∫0 ∫0 𝑥𝑦𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦

2
1 2 1 𝑥2 1 4
Solution : Let 𝐼 = ∫𝑦=0 ∫𝑥=0 𝑥𝑦𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 = ∫𝑦=0 [ 2 ] 𝑦𝑑𝑦 = ∫𝑦=0 [2 − 0] 𝑦𝑑𝑦
0

1 1
𝑦2 1
= 2 ∫ 𝑦𝑑𝑦 = 2 [ ] = 2 [ − 0] = 1
𝑦=0 2 0 2
 𝑎 𝑏
Problem 2 : Evaluate ∫0 ∫0 (𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 )𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦

𝑎 𝑏
Solution : Let 𝐼 = ∫𝑦=0 ∫𝑥=0(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 )𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦

𝑎 𝑏
𝑥3
= ∫ [ + 𝑦 2 𝑥] 𝑑𝑦
𝑦=0 3 0

𝑎
𝑏3
=∫ [ + 𝑦 2 𝑏 − 0] 𝑑𝑦
𝑦=0 3

𝑎
𝑏3 𝑦3
=[ 𝑦+𝑏 ]
3 3 0

𝑏3 𝑎3
= [ 𝑎 + 𝑏 − 0]
3 3

𝑎𝑏 2
= (𝑎 + 𝑏2 )
3

1 2
Problem 3 : Evaluate ∫0 ∫0 (𝑥 + 𝑦)𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 [Ans. : 3]

1 1−𝑦
Problem 4 : Evaluate ∫0 ∫0 𝑥𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦

Solution :

1−𝑦
1 1−𝑦 1 𝑥2 1 (1−𝑦)2
Let I=∫𝑦=0 ∫𝑥=0 𝑥𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 = ∫𝑦=0 [ 2 ] 𝑑𝑦 = ∫𝑦=0 [ 2
− 0] 𝑑𝑦
0

1
1 1 𝑦3 𝑦2 1 1 1
=1/2 ∫𝑦=0[1 + 𝑦 2 − 2𝑦]𝑑𝑦 = 2 [𝑦 + −2 ] = [1 + − 1 − 0] =
3 2 2
0 3 6

4𝑎 𝑥 1024𝑎 5
Problem 5 : Evaluate ∫0 ∫𝑥2 𝑥 2 𝑦𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 [𝐴𝑛𝑠.: ]
35
4𝑎

𝑎 2𝑥 136
Problem 6 : Evaluate ∫0 ∫𝑥 2 (2𝑥 + 3𝑦)𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥 [𝐴𝑛𝑠. : ]
15

𝑎 √𝑎 2 −𝑥 2 2
Problem 7 : Evaluate ∫0 ∫0 𝑦 3 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥 [𝐴𝑛𝑠. : 15 𝑎5 ]

Problem 8 : Evaluate ∬ 𝑥𝑦𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 the region bounded by the lines x=0; y=0; x+y=1.
Solution : x=0 is the y-axis, y=0 is the x-axis and x+y=1 is the line making intercepts with
the x and y axis.

B(0,1)

x+y=1

O(0,0) A(1,0)

We have 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 1 => 𝑦 = 1 − 𝑥

Keeping x as constant and y varies from 0 to 1-x.

x varies from 0 to 1.

1−𝑥
1 1−𝑥 1 𝑦2 1 (1−𝑥)2
Thus, ∬ 𝑥𝑦𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 = ∫𝑥=0 ∫𝑦=0 𝑥𝑦𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥 = ∫0 𝑥 [ 2 ] 𝑑𝑥 = ∫0 𝑥[ − 0]𝑑𝑥
0 2

1 1 1 1
= ∫ 𝑥 (1 + 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 = ∫ (𝑥 + 𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 )𝑑𝑥
2 0 2 0

1
1 𝑥2 𝑥4 𝑥3 1 1 1 2 1 6+3−8 1 1 1
=2 [ 2 + −2 ] = [ + − − 0] = [ ]= × = .
4 3 2 2
0 4 3 2 12 2 12 24

Problem 9 : Evaluate ∬ 𝑥𝑦𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 taken over the positive quadrant of the circle 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 =
𝑎2 .

Solution : (0,a)

(0,0) a,0)

Here x varies from 0 to a

y varies from 0 to √𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 .

𝑎 √𝑎 2 −𝑥 2
∬ 𝑥𝑦𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 = ∫𝑥=0 ∫𝑦=0 𝑥𝑦𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥

𝑎 √𝑎 2 −𝑥 2
𝑦2
= ∫𝑥[ ] 𝑑𝑥
2 0
0
 𝑎
(√𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 )2
= ∫𝑥[ − 0] 𝑑𝑥
2
0

𝑎 𝑎
𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 1
= ∫𝑥[ ] 𝑑𝑥 = ∫(𝑎2 𝑥 − 𝑥 3 )𝑑𝑥
2 2
0 0

𝑎
1 𝑥2 𝑥4 1 𝑎4 𝑎4 1 2𝑎4 − 𝑎4 𝑎4
= [𝑎2 − ] = [ − − 0] = [ ]= .
2 2 4 0 2 2 4 2 4 8

Problem 10 : Evaluate ∬(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 )𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 the region for which x,y are each greater
than or equal to 0 and 𝑥 + 𝑦 ≤ 1. (Ans. 1/6)

Problem 11 : Find the value of ∬ 𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 taken over the positive quadrant of the ellipse
𝑥2 𝑦2
+ 𝑏2 = 1.
𝑎2

Solution : (0,b)

(0,0)
(( (a,0)

𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑥2
Solution : 𝑎2 + 𝑏2 = 1 => 𝑦 = 𝑏√1 − 𝑎2

𝑥2
x varies from 0 to a & y varies from 0 to 𝑏√1 − 𝑎2

𝑥2
𝑎 𝑏 √1− 2 𝑎2 𝑏2
Thus, ∬ 𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 = ∫𝑥=0 ∫𝑦=0 𝑎 𝑥𝑦𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥= 8 (verify).

2.2 Changing the order of integration

For a given integral in a region, change of order changes the limits of x and y.

𝑎 2𝑎−𝑥
Problem 12 : Change the order of integration in the integral ∫0 ∫𝑥2 𝑥𝑦𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 and evaluate
𝑎

it.

𝑥2
Solution : In the given integral y varies from to 2a-x and x varies from 0 to a.
𝑎
 𝑥2
So, we have y= => 𝑥 2 = 𝑎𝑦 &
𝑎

y=2a-x=> x+y=2a

Q(0,2a)

D2 P(a,a)

D1

O(0,0) (2a,0)

Here the region of integration is OPQ.

In changing the order of integration, we integrate first with respect to x keeping y as

constant.

Here the region is divided into 2 parts D1 and D2.

𝑎 2𝑎−𝑥
Therefore, ∫0 ∫𝑥2 𝑥𝑦𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 = ∬𝐷1 𝑥𝑦𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 + ∬𝐷2 𝑥𝑦𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦................. (1)
𝑎

Consider the region D1.

y varies from 0 to a and x varies from 0 to √𝑎𝑦.

𝑎
√𝑎𝑦 𝑎4
∬ 𝑥𝑦𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 = ∫ ∫ 𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 = . (𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑦)
𝐷1 𝑥=0 6
𝑦=0

Consider D2.

y varies from a to 2a and x varies from 0 to 2a-y

2𝑎
2𝑎−𝑦
5 4
∬ 𝑥𝑦𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 = ∫ ∫ 𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 = 𝑎 .
𝐷2 𝑥=0 24
𝑦=𝑎

𝑎 2𝑎−𝑥 𝑎4 5 3
Thus (1)=> ∫0 ∫𝑥2 𝑥𝑦𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 = + 24 𝑎4 = 8 𝑎4 .
6
𝑎
 ∞ ∞ 𝑒 −𝑦
Problem 13 : By changing the order of integration evaluate ∫𝑥=0 ∫𝑦=𝑥 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦.
𝑦

Solution :

Here x varies from 0 to ∞ and y varies from x to ∞.

The regions are x=0; x=∞ ; y=x; y=∞.

y=x

(0,0)

After changing the order of integration y varies for 0 to ∞ and x varies from 0 to y.

∞ ∞ ∞ 𝑦
𝑒 −𝑦 𝑒 −𝑦
∫ ∫ 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 = ∫ ∫ 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦
𝑦 𝑦
𝑥=0 𝑦=𝑥 𝑦=0 𝑥=0

∞
𝑒 −𝑦
= ∫ [𝑥]0𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝑦
𝑦=0

𝑒 −𝑦 ∞
= [ −1 ] =−[𝑒 −∞ − 𝑒 0 ] = 1
0

𝑎 𝑎 𝑥
Problem 14 : Changing the order of integration evaluate ∫0 ∫𝑦 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦.
𝑥 2+𝑦 2

Solution : Here x varies from y to a and y varies from 0 to a.

The regions are x=y, x=a, y=0, y=a.

x=y

(0,0)
By changing the order of integration, x varies from 0 to a & y varies from 0 to x.

𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑥
𝑥 𝑥
∴ ∫∫ 2 2
𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 = ∫ ∫ 2 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥
𝑥 +𝑦 𝑥 + 𝑦2
0 𝑦 𝑥=0 𝑦=0

𝑎
1 −1
𝑦 𝑥
= ∫ 𝑥 [ 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( )] 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 𝑥 0
𝑥=0

𝑎
𝑥1 𝑥
= ∫ (𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( ) − 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (0)) 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 𝑥
𝑥=0

= ∫(𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (1) − 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (0))𝑑𝑥

𝑥=0

𝑎
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋𝑎
= ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = [𝑥]𝑎0 = .
4 4 4
𝑥=0

2.3 Double integral in polar co-ordinates

The double integral in Cartesian form ∬𝑅 𝑓 (𝑥, 𝑦)𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑠 into

∬𝑅 𝑓 (𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃, 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜃.

Problem 15: Evaluate ∬ 𝑟√𝑎2 − 𝑟 2 𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜃 over the upper half of the circle 𝑟 = 𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃.

Solution :

r=acos𝜃

Here r varies from 0 to 𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 and 𝜃 varies from 0 𝑡𝑜 𝜋/2.

𝜋/2 𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

∴ ∬ 𝑟√𝑎2 − 𝑟 2 𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜃 = ∫ ∫ 𝑟√𝑎2 − 𝑟 2 𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜃

𝑅 𝜃=0 𝑟=0

𝜋
𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑑(𝑎 2 −𝑟 2)
2
=∫𝜃=0 ∫𝑟=0 √𝑎2 − 𝑟 2 (− ) 𝑑𝜃 [𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑑(𝑎2 − 𝑟 2 ) = −2𝑟𝑑𝑟 =>
2

𝑑(𝑎 2 −𝑟 2)
∴ 𝑟𝑑𝑟 = − ]
2
 𝜋
𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑑(𝑎 2 −𝑟 2)
= ∫𝜃=0
2
∫𝑟=0 (𝑎2 − 𝑟 2 )1/2 (− 2
) 𝑑𝜃

𝜋
2 𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
1
=− ∫ ∫ (𝑎2 − 𝑟 2 )1/2 𝑑 (𝑎2 − 𝑟 2 )𝑑𝜃
2
𝜃=0 𝑟=0

𝜋
2 1 𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
1 (𝑎2 − 𝑟 2 )2+1
=− ∫[ ] 𝑑𝜃
2 1
𝜃=0 + 1
2 0

𝜋
2 3 𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
(𝑎 − 𝑟 2 2 )2
1
=− ∫[ ] 𝑑𝜃
2 3
𝜃=0 2 0

𝜋
2 3 3
1 [𝑎2 − (𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)2 ]2 − [𝑎2 − 0]2
=− ∫[ ] 𝑑𝜃
2 3
𝜃=0 2

𝜋
2
1 2 3 3
= − × ∫ ([𝑎2 − 𝑎2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃]2 − [𝑎2 ]2 )𝑑𝜃
2 3
𝜃=0

𝜋
2
1 3 3
=− ∫ {[𝑎2 (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃)]2 − [𝑎2 ]2 } 𝑑𝜃
3
𝜃=0

𝜋
2
1 3 3
=− ∫{[𝑎2 ]2 (𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃)2 − 𝑎3 } 𝑑𝜃
3
𝜃=0

𝜋
2
1
=− ∫ {𝑎3 𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝜃 − 𝑎3 } 𝑑𝜃
3
𝜃=0

𝜋 𝜋
2 2
1
=− ∫ 𝑎3 𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 − ∫ 𝑎3 𝑑𝜃]
3
𝜃=0 𝜃=0
[ ]

1 2 𝜋/2
= − [𝑎3 [ ] − 𝑎3 [𝜃]0 ]
3 3

3𝜋 − 4 3
= 𝑎 (𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑦)
18
 𝑥 2𝑦 2
Problem 16 : By transforming into polar co-ordinates evaluate ∬ 2 2 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 over the
𝑥 +𝑦

annular region between the circle 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑎2 and 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑏2 (b>a).

Solution : Put 𝑥 = 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃; 𝑦 = 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 = 𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜃

r varies from a to b and 𝜃 varies from 0 𝑡𝑜 2𝜋.

2𝜋 𝑏
𝑥 2𝑦 2 𝑟 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
∬ 2 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 = ∫ ∫ 2 𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜃
𝑥 + 𝑦2 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 + 𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
𝜃=0 𝑟=𝑎

2𝜋 𝑏
𝑟 5 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
= ∫ ∫ 2 𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜃
𝑟 (𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃)
𝜃=0 𝑟=𝑎

2𝜋 𝑏

= ∫ ∫ 𝑟 3 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜃

𝜃=0 𝑟=𝑎

2𝜋 𝑏
𝑟4
= ∫ [ ] 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃𝑑𝜃
4 𝑎
𝜃=0

2𝜋
1
= ∫ [𝑏4 − 𝑎4 ]𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃𝑑𝜃
4
𝜃=0

2𝜋
[𝑏4 − 𝑎4 ]
= ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃)𝑑𝜃
4
𝜃=0

2𝜋
[𝑏4 − 𝑎4 ]
= ∫ (𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃−𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝜃)𝑑𝜃
4
𝜃=0

2𝜋 2𝜋
[𝑏4 − 𝑎4 ]
= [ ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃𝑑𝜃 − ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝜃𝑑𝜃 ]
4
𝜃=0 𝜃=0

𝜋/2 𝜋/2
[𝑏4 − 𝑎4 ]
= [4 ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃𝑑𝜃 − 4 ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝜃𝑑𝜃]
4
𝜃=0 𝜃=0

𝜋/2 𝜋/2
4[𝑏4 − 𝑎4 ]
= [ ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃𝑑𝜃 − ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝜃𝑑𝜃]
4
𝜃=0 𝜃=0
 1𝜋 31𝜋
= [𝑏4 − 𝑎4 ] [ − ]
22 422

4𝜋 − 3𝜋
= [𝑏4 − 𝑎4 ] [ ]
16

𝜋
= [𝑏4 − 𝑎4 ] [ ]
16

2𝑎 √2𝑎𝑥−𝑥 2
Problem 17 : By changing into polar co-ordinates evaluate the integral ∫0 ∫0 (𝑥 2 +

𝑦 2 )𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦.

Solution : Here x=0, x=2a, y=0, y= √2𝑎𝑥 − 𝑥 2 => 𝑦 2 = 2𝑎𝑥 − 𝑥 2

𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 2𝑎𝑥

Put 𝑥 = 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃; 𝑦 = 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 = 𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜃

𝑟 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 + 𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 = 2𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑟 2 = 2𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 => 𝑟 = 2𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

r varies from 0 to 2𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 & 𝜃 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 0 𝑡𝑜 𝜋/2.

√2𝑎𝑥−𝑥 2 𝜋/2 2𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

2𝑎
∫ ∫ (𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 )𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 = ∫ ∫ (𝑟 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 + 𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃) 𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜃
0
0 𝜃=0 𝑟=0

𝜋/2 2𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝜋/2 2𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

= ∫ ∫ 𝑟 2 𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜃 = ∫ ∫ 𝑟 3 𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜃
𝜃=0 𝑟=0 𝜃=0 𝑟=0

𝜋/2 2𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝜋/2

2𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
3
𝑟4
= ∫ ∫ 𝑟 𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜃 = ∫ [ ] 𝑑𝜃
4 0
𝜃=0 𝑟=0 𝜃=0

𝜋/2
(2𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)4 − 0
= ∫ [ ] 𝑑𝜃
4
𝜃=0

𝜋/2 𝜋/2
16𝑎4 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝜃
= ∫ [ ] 𝑑𝜃 = 4𝑎4 ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
4
𝜃=0 0

3 1 𝜋 3𝜋𝑎4
4
= 4𝑎 =
422 4
2.4 Triple Integrals

The triple integral is defined in a manner similar to that of the double integral, if f(x,y,z)
is continuous and single valued function of x, y and z over the region of space R enclosed by
the surface, then

∭𝑉 𝑓 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)𝑑𝑉 = ∭ 𝑓 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧.

Notes : (1) ∬𝑅 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 the area of the region R.

(2) ∭𝐷 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 represents the volume of the region D.

2 3 2
Problem 18 : Evaluate ∫0 ∫1 ∫1 𝑥𝑦 2 𝑧𝑑𝑧𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥

2
2 3 2 2 3 𝑧2
Solution : ∫𝑥=0 ∫𝑦=1 ∫𝑧=1 𝑥𝑦 2 𝑧𝑑𝑧𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥 = ∫𝑥=0 ∫𝑦=1 𝑥𝑦 2 [ 2 ] 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥
1

2 3
4 1
= ∫ ∫ 𝑥𝑦 2 [ − ] 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥
2 2
𝑥=0 𝑦=1

2 3
3 𝑦3
= ∫ 𝑥 [ ] 𝑑𝑥
2 3 1
𝑥=0

2
3 27 1
= ∫ 𝑥 [ − ] 𝑑𝑥
2 3 3
𝑥=0

2
3 26
= × ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2 3
𝑥=0

2
𝑥2 4
= 13 [ ] = 13 × = 26.
2 0 2

𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑥 𝑥+𝑦
Problem 19: Evaluate 𝐼 = ∫0 ∫0 ∫0 𝑒 𝑥+𝑦+𝑧 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧.

𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑥 𝑥+𝑦 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑥 𝑥+𝑦

Solution : 𝐼 = ∫𝑥=0 ∫𝑦=0 ∫𝑧=0 𝑒 𝑥+𝑦+𝑧 𝑑𝑧𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥 = ∫0 ∫0 [𝑒 𝑥+𝑦+𝑧 ]0 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥

𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑥

= ∫ ∫[𝑒 𝑥+𝑦+𝑥+𝑦 − 𝑒 𝑥+𝑦+0 ]𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥

0 0
 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑥

= ∫ ∫[𝑒 2(𝑥+𝑦) − 𝑒 𝑥+𝑦 ]𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥

0 0

𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎
𝑥
𝑒 2(𝑥+𝑦)
= ∫ [ − 𝑒 (𝑥+𝑦) ] 𝑑𝑥
2 0
0

𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎
𝑒 2(𝑥+𝑥) 𝑒 2(𝑥+0)
= ∫ {[ − 𝑒 (𝑥+𝑥) ] − [ − 𝑒 (𝑥+0) ]} 𝑑𝑥
2 2
0

𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎
𝑒 4𝑥 2𝑥
𝑒 2𝑥
= ∫ { −𝑒 − + 𝑒 𝑥 } 𝑑𝑥
2 2
0

𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎
𝑒 4𝑥 𝑒 2𝑥
= ∫ { −3 + 𝑒 𝑥 } 𝑑𝑥
2 2
0

𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎
𝑒 4𝑥 𝑒 2𝑥
=[ −3 + 𝑒𝑥]
8 4 0

𝑒 4𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑒 2𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 ]

𝑒0 𝑒0
= [ −3 +𝑒 − [ − 3 + 𝑒 0]
8 4 8 4

4 2
𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 1 1
=[ −3 + 𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 ] − [ − 3 + 1]
8 4 8 4

𝑎4 3𝑎2 1−6+8
= − +𝑎−[ ]
8 4 8

𝑎4 − 6𝑎2 + 8𝑎 3
= −
8 8

Problem 20 : Evaluate ∭ 𝑥𝑦𝑧𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 taken through the positive octant of the sphere 𝑥 2 +
𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 = 𝑎2 .

Solution : Put y=z=0 ∴ 𝑥 2 = 𝑎2 => 𝑥 = ±𝑎

Put z=0 ∴ 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑎2 => 𝑦 2 = 𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 => 𝑦 = ±√𝑎2 − 𝑥 2

𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 = 𝑎2 => 𝑧 = ±√𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2
 2 2 2
𝑎 √𝑎 2 −𝑥 2 √𝑎 −𝑥 −𝑦

∭ 𝑥𝑦𝑧𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 = ∫ ∫ ∫ 𝑥𝑦𝑧𝑑𝑧𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥
𝑥=0 𝑦=0 𝑧=0

𝑎 √𝑎 2 −𝑥 2 √𝑎 2 −𝑥 2−𝑦 2
𝑧2
= ∫ ∫ [ ] 𝑥𝑦𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥
2 0
𝑥=0 𝑦=0

𝑎 √𝑎 2 −𝑥 2
1
= ∫ ∫ 𝑥𝑦(𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 )𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥
2
𝑥=0 𝑦=0

𝑎6
= (𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑦)
48

𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
Problem 21 : Evaluate ∭ (𝑥+𝑦+𝑧+1)3 taken over the volume bounded by the planes x=0;

y=0; z=0; x+y+z=1.

Solution : Here x varies from 0 to 1

y varies from 0 to 1-x and z varies from 0 to 1-x-y.

1 1−𝑥 1−𝑥−𝑦
𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧
∭ = ∫ ∫ ∫ (𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 + 1)−3 𝑑𝑧𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥
(𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 + 1)3
𝑥=0 𝑦=0 𝑧=0

1 1−𝑥 1−𝑥−𝑦
(𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 + 1)−3+1
= ∫ ∫ [ ] 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥
−3 + 1 0
𝑥=0 𝑦=0

1 1−𝑥
1 1−𝑥−𝑦
= − ∫ ∫ [(𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 + 1)−2 ]0 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥
2
𝑥=0 𝑦=0

1 1−𝑥
1
= − ∫ ∫ [(𝑥 + 𝑦 + 1 − 𝑥 − 𝑦 + 1)−2 − (𝑥 + 𝑦 + 0 + 1)−2 ] 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥
2
𝑥=0 𝑦=0

1 1−𝑥
1
= − ∫ ∫ [(2)−2 − (𝑥 + 𝑦 + 1)−2 ] 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥
2
𝑥=0 𝑦=0

1 1−𝑥
1 1 (𝑥 + 𝑦 + 1)−2+1
=− ∫ [ 𝑦− ] 𝑑𝑥
2 4 −2 + 1 0
𝑥=0
 1 1−𝑥
1 1 (𝑥 + 𝑦 + 1)−1
=− ∫ [ 𝑦− ] 𝑑𝑥
2 4 −1 0
𝑥=0

1
1−𝑥
1 1 −1
= − ∫ [ 𝑦 + (𝑥 + 𝑦 + 1) ] 𝑑𝑥
2 4 0
𝑥=0

1
1 1
= − ∫ {[ (1 − 𝑥 ) + (𝑥 + 1 − 𝑥 + 1)−1 ] − [0 + (𝑥 + 0 + 1)−1 ]} 𝑑𝑥
2 4
𝑥=0

1
1 1
= − ∫ {[ (1 − 𝑥 ) + (2)−1 ] − [(𝑥 + 1)−1 ]} 𝑑𝑥
2 4
𝑥=0

1
1 1
= − ∫ {[ (1 − 𝑥 ) + (2)−1 ] − [(𝑥 + 1)−1 ]} 𝑑𝑥
2 4
𝑥=0

1
1 1 1 1 1
=− ∫{ − 𝑥+ − } 𝑑𝑥
2 4 4 2 (𝑥 + 1)
𝑥=0

1
1 3 1 1
=− ∫{ − 𝑥− } 𝑑𝑥
2 4 4 (𝑥 + 1)
𝑥=0

1
1 3 1 𝑥2
=− [ 𝑥− − log(𝑥 + 1)]
2 4 4 2 0

1 3 11 3 10
= − {[ − − log(1 + 1)] − [ 0 − − log(0 + 1)]}
2 4 42 4 42

1 3 1
= − {[ − − log 2] − [− log(1)]}
2 4 8

1 6−1
= − {[ − log 2] + 0}
2 8

1 5 1 5
= − [ − 𝑙𝑜𝑔2] = 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 −
2 8 2 16
 UNIT III

VECTOR INTEGRATION – LINE, SURFACE AND VOLUME INTEGRALS

3.1 LINE INTEGRALS

𝑏
Another way of generalising the Riemann integral ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 𝑖𝑠 by placing the
interval [a, b] by a curve in 𝑅3 . In this generalization the integrand is a vector valued
function 𝑓 = 𝑓1 𝑖⃗ + 𝑓2 𝑗⃗ + 𝑓3 𝑘⃗⃗.

Definition:

Let C be a curve in 𝑅3 described by a continuous vector valued function 𝑟 = 𝑟(𝑡) =

𝑥(𝑡)𝑖⃗ + 𝑦(𝑡)𝑗⃗ + 𝑧(𝑡)𝑘⃗⃗ where 𝑎 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑏.

Let 𝑓 = 𝑓1 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)𝑖⃗ + 𝑓2 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)𝑗⃗ + 𝑓3 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)𝑘⃗⃗ be a continuous function defined in
some region which contains the curve C. The line integral of f over C denoted by ∫𝐶 𝑓𝑑𝑟
is defined by

∫ 𝑓 ∙ 𝑑𝑟 = ∫[𝑓1 [𝑥(𝑡), 𝑦(𝑡), 𝑧(𝑡)]𝑥 ′ (𝑡) + 𝑓2 [𝑥(𝑡), 𝑦(𝑡), 𝑧(𝑡)]𝑦 ′ (𝑡)

𝐶 𝑎

+ 𝑓3 [𝑥(𝑡), 𝑦(𝑡), 𝑧(𝑡)]𝑧 ′ (𝑡)]𝑑𝑡.

Solved Problems

Problem 1: Evaluate ∫𝐶 𝑓 ∙ 𝑑𝑟 where 𝑓 = (𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 )𝑖⃗ + (𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 )𝑗⃗ and C is the curve

𝑦 = 𝑥 2 joining (0,0) and (1,1).

Solution : The parametric equation of the curve can be taken as 𝑥 = 𝑡, 𝑦 = 𝑡 2 , 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤

1.

1 1

∫ 𝑓 ∙ 𝑑𝑟 = ∫[(𝑡 2 + 𝑡 4 )1 + (𝑡 2 − 𝑡 4 )2𝑡]𝑑𝑡 = ∫[𝑡 2 + 𝑡 4 + 2𝑡 3 − 2𝑡 5 ]𝑑𝑡

𝐶 0 0

1
1 𝑡 5 2𝑡 4 2𝑡 6 1 1 1 1 2+5 7
= [ 𝑡3 + + − ] = + + − = = .
3 5 4 6 0 3 5 2 3 10 10

Problem 2: If 𝑓 = 𝑥 2 𝑖 − 𝑥𝑦𝑗 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶 is the straight line joining the points (0,0) and (1,1)
find ∫𝐶 𝑓 ∙ 𝑑𝑟.

Solution : The equation of the given line is y=x and its parametric equation can be taken
as 𝑥 = 𝑡, 𝑦 = 𝑡 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 1.
 1

∴ ∫ 𝑓 ∙ 𝑑𝑟 = ∫(𝑡 2 − 𝑡 2 )𝑑𝑡 = 0.
𝐶 0

Problem 3: Evaluate ∫𝐶 𝑓 ∙ 𝑑𝑟where 𝑓 = (𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 )𝑖 − 2𝑥𝑦𝑗 and the curve C is the

rectangle in the x-y plane bounded by 𝑦 = 0, 𝑦 = 𝑏, 𝑥 = 0, 𝑥 = 𝑎.

Solution : Let O=(0,0), A=(a,0), B=(a,b) and C = (0,b) be the vertices of the given
rectangle.

∴ ∫ 𝑓 ∙ 𝑑𝑟 = ∫ 𝑓 ∙ 𝑑𝑟 + ∫ 𝑓 ∙ 𝑑𝑟 + ∫ 𝑓 ∙ 𝑑𝑟 + ∫ 𝑓 ∙ 𝑑𝑟
𝐶 𝑂𝐴 𝐴𝐵 𝐵𝐶 𝐶𝑂

Now the parametric equation of OA can be taken as 𝑥 = 𝑡, 𝑦 = 0 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑎.

𝑎
𝑎3 2
∴ ∫ 𝑓 ∙ 𝑑𝑟 = ∫ 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = .
3
𝑂𝐴 0

Now the parametric equation of AB can be taken as 𝑥 = 𝑎, 𝑦 = 𝑡 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑏.

∴ ∫ 𝑓 ∙ 𝑑𝑟 = ∫ −2𝑎𝑡𝑑𝑡 = −𝑎𝑏2 .
𝐴𝐵 0

Now the parametric equation of BC can be taken as 𝑥 = 𝑡, 𝑦 = 𝑏 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑎.

𝑎
𝑎3
∴ ∫ 𝑓 ∙ 𝑑𝑟 = ∫(𝑡 2 + 𝑏2 )𝑑𝑡 = − ( + 𝑎𝑏2 ) .
3
𝐵𝐶 0

Now the parametric equation of CO can be taken as 𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 = 𝑡 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑏.

∴ ∫ 𝑓 ∙ 𝑑𝑟 = − ∫ 0𝑑𝑡 = 0.
𝐶𝑂 0

𝑎3 𝑎3
∴ ∫ 𝑓 ∙ 𝑑𝑟 = −𝑎𝑏 − ( + 𝑎𝑏2 ) + 0 = −2𝑎𝑏2 .
2
3 3
𝐶

Problem 4: If 𝑓 = (2𝑦 + 3)𝑖 + 𝑥𝑧𝑗 + (𝑦𝑧 − 𝑥 )𝑘 evaluate ∫𝐶 𝑓 ∙ 𝑑𝑟 along the following

paths C. (i) 𝑥 = 2𝑡 2 ; 𝑦 = 𝑡; 𝑧 = 𝑡 3 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡 = 0 𝑡𝑜 𝑡 = 1.

(ii)The polygonal path P consisting of the three line segments AB, BC and CD where
A=(0,0,0), B=(0,0,1), C=(0,1,1) and D=(2,1,1).

(iii) The straight line joining (0,0,0) and (2,1,1).

1
Solution : (i) ∫𝐶 𝑓 ∙ 𝑑𝑟 = ∫0 [(2𝑡 + 3)4𝑡 + 2𝑡 5 + (𝑡 4 − 2𝑡 2 )3𝑡 2 ] 𝑑𝑡
 8 1 3 6 1 8 1 3 6 288
= [ 𝑡 3 + 6𝑡 2 + 𝑡 6 + 𝑡 7 − 𝑡 5 ] = + 6 + + + = .
3 3 7 5 0 3 3 7 5 85

(ii) ∫𝑃 𝑓 ∙ 𝑑𝑟 = ∫𝐴𝐵 𝑓 ∙ 𝑑𝑟 + ∫𝐵𝐶 𝑓 ∙ 𝑑𝑟 + ∫𝐶𝐷 𝑓 ∙ 𝑑𝑟

∫ 𝑓 ∙ 𝑑𝑟 = ∫ 0 𝑑𝑡 = 0 [𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 = 0, 𝑧 = 𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 1 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝐴𝐵]

𝐴𝐵 0

∫ 𝑓 ∙ 𝑑𝑟 = ∫ 0 𝑑𝑡 = 0 [𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 = 𝑡, 𝑧 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 1 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝐵𝐶 ]

𝐵𝐶 0

∫ 𝑓 ∙ 𝑑𝑟 = ∫ 5 𝑑𝑡 = 0 [𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑥 = 1, 𝑦 = 1, 𝑧 = 𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 2 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝐶𝐷]

𝐶𝐷 0

= [5𝑡]30 = 10.

Thus ∫𝑃 𝑓 ∙ 𝑑𝑟 = 10.

(iii)The parametric equation of the line joining the points (0,0,0) and (2,1,1) can be taken
as 𝑥 = 2𝑡, 𝑦 = 𝑡, 𝑧 = 𝑡 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 1.

1 1
Thus, ∫𝐶 𝑓 ∙ 𝑑𝑟 = ∫0 (2𝑡 + 3)2 + 𝑡 2 + (𝑡 2 − 2𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = ∫0 (3𝑡 2 + 2𝑡 + 6)𝑑𝑡 =
[𝑡 3 + 𝑡 2 + 6𝑡]10 = 8.

Exercises

(4,2)
1. Evaluate ∫(1,1) 𝑓 ∙ 𝑑𝑟 where 𝑓 = (𝑥 + 𝑦)𝑖 + (𝑦 − 𝑥 )𝑗 along (i) the parabola 𝑦 2 = x

(ii)the straight line joining (1,1) and (4,2).

2. If 𝑓 = (𝑥 2 − y 2 )i + 2xyj, evaluate ∫𝐶 𝑓 ∙ 𝑑𝑟 along the curve C in the x-y plane given

by 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 from the point (1,0) to (2,2).
3. Evaluate ∫𝐶 𝑓 ∙ 𝑑𝑟 where 𝑓 = (𝑥 − 𝑦)𝑖 + (𝑦 − 2𝑥 )𝑗 and C is the closed curve in the x-
y plane 𝑥 = 2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡, 𝑦 = 3𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡 = 0 𝑡𝑜 𝑡 = 2𝜋.
3.2 SURFACE INTEGRAL

Definition : Consider a surface S. Let n denote the unit outward normal to the surface S.
Let R be the projection of the surface S on the x-y plane. Let f be a vector valued function
defined in some region containing the surface S.

Then the surface integral of f over S is defined to be

𝑓∙𝑛
∬ 𝑓 ∙ 𝑛 𝑑𝑆 = ∬ 𝑑𝑥 𝑥𝑦.
|𝑛 ∙ 𝑘 |
𝑆 𝑅
Note : We can also define surface integral by considering the projection of the surface on
the y-z plane or z-x plane.

Problem 1 : Evaluate ∬𝑆 𝑓 ∙ 𝑛 𝑑𝑆 where 𝑓 = (𝑥 + 𝑦 2 )𝑖 − 2𝑥𝑗 + 2𝑦𝑧 𝑘 and S is the surface

of the plance 2𝑥 + 𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 6 in the first octant.

Solution : Let ∅(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 2𝑥 + 𝑦 + 2𝑧 − 6

∇∅ 2𝑖+𝑗+2𝑘
The unit surface normal 𝑛 = |∇∅| = .
3

1
∴𝑓∙𝑛 = [2(𝑥 + 𝑦 2 ) − 2𝑥 + 4𝑦𝑧]
3

1
= [2(𝑥 + 𝑦 2 ) − 2𝑥 + 2𝑦(6 − 2𝑥 − 𝑦)]
3

4
= [3𝑦 − 𝑥𝑦].
3

𝑓∙𝑛
∴ = 2(3𝑦 − 𝑥𝑦).
|𝑛 ∙ 𝑘 |

The projection of the surface on the x-y plane is the region R bounded by the axes and the
straight line 2x+y=6 as shown in the figure.

∬ 𝑓 ∙ 𝑛 𝑑𝑆 = ∬ 2(3𝑦 − 𝑥𝑦)𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
𝑆 𝑅

3 6−2𝑥 3
3 2 1 2 6−2𝑥
= 2 ∫ ∫ (3𝑦 − 𝑥𝑦)𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = 2 ∫ [ 𝑦 − 𝑥𝑦 ] 𝑑𝑥
2 2 0
0 0 0

3
3 1
= 2 ∫ [ (6 − 2𝑥 )2 − 𝑥(6 − 2𝑥 )2 ] 𝑑𝑥
2 2
0

3
1
= [− (6 − 2𝑥 )3 − 18𝑥 2 − 𝑥 4 + 8𝑥 3 ]
2 0

= 81.

Problem 2 : Evaluate ∬𝑆(∇ × 𝑓) ∙ 𝑛 𝑑𝑆where 𝑓 = 𝑦 2 𝑖 + 𝑦𝑗 − 𝑥𝑧𝑘 and S is the upper half of

the sphere 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 = 𝑎2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧 ≥ 0.

Solution : Let ∅(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 − 𝑎2 .

∇∅ 2𝑥𝑖+2𝑦𝑗+2𝑧𝑘 1
The unit surface normal n is given by 𝑛 = |∇∅| = = 𝑎 (𝑥𝑖 + 𝑦𝑗 + 𝑧𝑘)
2√𝑥 2+𝑦 2 +𝑧 2
Also ∇ × 𝑓 = 𝑧𝑗 − 2𝑦𝑘.

1 1
(∇ × 𝑓) ∙ 𝑛 = ( ) (𝑦𝑧 − 2𝑦𝑧) = − ( ) 𝑦𝑧.
𝑎 𝑎

1
Also, 𝑛 ∙ 𝑘 = (𝑎) 𝑧.

∇×𝑓
∴ = −𝑦.
|𝑛 ∙ 𝑘 |

The projection of the surface on the x-y plane is the circle 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑎2 . Let R
denote the interior of the circle.

∬(∇ × 𝑓) ∙ 𝑛 𝑑𝑆 = − ∬ 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
𝑆 𝑦

𝑃𝑢𝑡 𝑥 = 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃. 𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, |𝐽| = 𝑟.

2𝜋 𝑎 2𝜋
1 3
∬(∇ × 𝑓) ∙ 𝑛 𝑑𝑆 = − ∫ ∫ 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝜃 = − ∫ 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃 = 0.
3
𝑆 0 0 0

Problem 3 : Evaluate ∬ 𝑓 ∙ 𝑛𝑑𝑆 where 𝑓 = (𝑥 3 − yz)i − 2x 2 yj + 2k and S is the

surface of the cube bounded by 𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 = 0, 𝑧 = 0, 𝑥 = 𝑎, 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧 = 𝑎.

Solution:

C D

B E

O G X

A F

On the face 𝑂𝐴𝐵𝐶, 𝑛 = −𝑖 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 = 0.

𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
𝑦2 𝑎2
∴ ∬ 𝑓 ∙ 𝑛 𝑑𝑆 = ∫ ∫ 𝑦𝑧 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 = ∫ 𝑧 [ ] 𝑑𝑧 = ∫ 𝑧 [ − 0] 𝑑𝑧
2 0 2
𝑂𝐴𝐵𝐶 0 0 0 0

𝑎
𝑎2 𝑧 2 𝑎4
= [ ] = .
2 2 0 4
 On the face DEFG, 𝑛 = 𝑖 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 = 𝑎.

𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
𝑎2 𝑧
∴ ∬ 𝑓 ∙ 𝑛 𝑑𝑆 = ∫ ∫(𝑎3 − 𝑦𝑧) 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 = ∫ [𝑎4 − ] 𝑑𝑧
2
𝐷𝐸𝐹𝐺 0 0 0

1
= 𝑎5 − 𝑎4 .
4

On the face 𝑂𝐺𝐷𝐶, 𝑛 = −𝑗 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 0.

𝑎 𝑎

∴ ∬ 𝑓 ∙ 𝑛 𝑑𝑆 = ∫ ∫ 0 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧 = 0.
𝑂𝐺𝐷𝐶 0 0

On the face AFEB, 𝑛 = 𝑗 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 𝑎.

𝑎 𝑎 𝑎

∴ ∬ 𝑓 ∙ 𝑛 𝑑𝑆 = ∫ ∫ −2𝑥 2 𝑎 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧 = ∫ −2𝑥 2 𝑎2 𝑑𝑧

𝐴𝐹𝐸𝐵 0 0 0

2
= − 𝑎5 .
3

On the face 𝑂𝐴𝐹𝐺, 𝑛 = −𝑘 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧 = 0.

𝑎 𝑎

∴ ∬ 𝑓 ∙ 𝑛 𝑑𝑆 = − ∫ ∫ 2 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 = − 2 𝑎2 .
𝑂𝐴𝐹𝐺 0 0

On the face 𝐶𝐵𝐸𝐷, 𝑛 = 𝑘 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧 = 𝑎.

𝑎 𝑎

∴ ∬ 𝑓 ∙ 𝑛 𝑑𝑆 = ∫ ∫ 2𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 = 2𝑎2 .
𝐶𝐵𝐸𝐷 0 0

𝑎4 1 2 𝑎5
∴ ∬ 𝑓 ∙ 𝑛𝑑𝑆 = + 𝑎5 − 𝑎4 + 0 − 𝑎5 − 2𝑎2 + 2𝑎2 = .
4 4 3 3
𝑆

Problem 4: Evaluate ∬𝑆 (𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 )𝑑𝑆 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 S is the Surface of the cone 𝑧 2 = 3(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 )

bounded by 𝑧 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧 = 3.
 UNIT IV

GREEN’S, STOKE’S AND DIVERGENCE THEOREM

4.1 Green’s theorem in plane

If C is a simple closed curve in the xy plane bounding an area R and

M(x,y) and N(x,y) are continuous functions of x and y having continuous derivatives in R,
then

𝜕𝑁 𝜕𝑀
∮ 𝑀𝑑𝑥 + 𝑁𝑑𝑦 = ∬ ( − ) 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦
𝐶 𝑅 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

Problem 1 : Verify Green’s theorem in plane for the integral ∫𝐶 (𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 )𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑦, where
C is the curve enclosing the region R bounded by the parabola 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 and the line 𝑦 = 𝑥.

Solution : Given 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 and 𝑦 = 𝑥.

Therefore, 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 => 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 = 0 => 𝑥(𝑥 − 1) = 0 => 𝑥 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 1

When x=0, y=0 & when x=1, y=1

Thus the parabola and the line intersect at (0,0) and (1,1).

B(1,1)

O(0,0)

In the figure OABDO, the curve C consists of the parabolic arc OAB and the line segment
BDO.

The parametric equations of OAB are 𝑥 = 𝑡, 𝑦 = 𝑡 2 where t varies from 0 to 1.

Here, 𝑀 = 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 & 𝑁 = 𝑥 2

∴ 𝑀 = 𝑡 × 𝑡2 + 𝑡4 = 𝑡3 + 𝑡4 & 𝑁 = 𝑡2

𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑡 & 𝑑𝑦 = 2𝑡𝑑𝑡
 1 1
∫(𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 )𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑦 = ∫ ( 𝑡 3 + 𝑡 4 )𝑑𝑡 + 𝑡 2 2𝑡𝑑𝑡 = ∫ ( 𝑡 3 + 𝑡 4 + 2𝑡 3 )𝑑𝑡
𝐶 0 0

1
𝑡4 𝑡5 2𝑡 4 1 1 1 19
= [4 + + ] = + + −0=
5 4 0 4 5 2 20

The parametric equations of BDO are 𝑥 = 𝑡, 𝑦 = 𝑡 where t varies from 1 to 0.

∴ 𝑀 = 𝑡 2 + 𝑡 2 = 2𝑡 2 & 𝑁 = 𝑡 2

𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑡 & 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑑𝑡

0 0
∫(𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥 𝑑𝑦 = ∫ ( 2𝑡 )𝑑𝑡 + 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ (2 𝑡 2 + 𝑡 2 )𝑑𝑡
2) 2 2 2
𝐶 1 1

0
3𝑡 3
=[ ] = −1.
3 1

Hence,

∫(𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 )𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑦 = ∫ (𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 )𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑦 + ∫ (𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 )𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑦

𝐶 𝑂𝐴𝐵 𝐵𝐷𝑂

19 1
= 20 − 1 = − 20 ............................. (1)

𝜕𝑁 𝜕𝑀
= 2𝑥 & = 𝑥 + 2𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

x varies from 0 to 1 and y varies from 𝑥 2 𝑡𝑜 𝑥.

1 𝑥
𝜕𝑁 𝜕𝑀
∬( − ) 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 = ∫ ∫ (2𝑥 − 𝑥 − 2𝑦)𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥
𝑅 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 0 𝑥2

1 𝑥 1 𝑥
𝑦2
= ∫ ∫ (𝑥 − 2𝑦)𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥 = ∫ (𝑥𝑦 − 2 ) 𝑑𝑥
0 𝑥2 0 2 𝑥2

1 1
2) 3 4 )]
= ∫ [(𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥 − (𝑥 − 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ (𝑥 4 − 𝑥 3 )𝑑𝑥
0 0

1
𝑥5 𝑥4 1 1 4−5 1
=(5 − ) =5−4 = = − 20 ..................... (2)
4 0 20

From (1) and (2)

𝜕𝑁 𝜕𝑀
∮ 𝑀𝑑𝑥 + 𝑁𝑑𝑦 = ∬ ( − ) 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦
𝐶 𝑅 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

Hence, Green’s theorem is verified.

Problem 2 : Verify Green’s theorem in plane for the integral ∫𝐶 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑦𝑑𝑦, where C is the
curve enclosing the region R bounded by the parabola 𝑦 2 = 𝑥 and the line 𝑦 = 𝑥.

(Hint : Common point (0,0) , (1,1). For the line segment x=t, y=t & t varies from 0 to 1. For
the parabolic arc 𝑥 = 𝑡 2 & 𝑦 = 𝑡, where t varies from 1 to 0. Ans. -1/28).

Problem 3 : Verify Green’s theorem in plane for the integral ∫𝐶 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥𝑦𝑑𝑦, where C is the
curve enclosing the region R bounded by the parabola 𝑦 2 = 8𝑥 and the line 𝑦 = 2𝑥.

(Hint : Common point (0,0) , (2,4). For the line segment x=t, y=2t & t varies from 0 to 2.
For the parabolic arc 𝑥 = 2𝑡 2 & 𝑦 = 4𝑡, where t varies from 1 to 0. Ans. 8/3)

Problem 4 : Verify Green’s theorem for ∫𝐶 (3𝑥 2 − 8𝑦 2 )𝑑𝑥 + (4𝑦 − 6𝑥𝑦)𝑑𝑦, where C is the
boundary of the region R enclosed by 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 & 𝑦 2 = 𝑥.

Solution: Given parabolas are 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 & 𝑦 2 = 𝑥.

∴ 𝑥 4 = 𝑥=> 𝑥 4 − 𝑥 = 0 => 𝑥 (𝑥 3 − 1) = 0 => 𝑥 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 1.

When x=0 , y=0.

When x=1 , y=1.

Let the parabolas intersect at (0,0) and (1,1).

𝑦2 = 𝑥 (1,1)

𝑦 = 𝑥2

O X

Now, the curve C composed of the arc 𝛤 of the parabola 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 and the arc 𝛤 ′ of the
parabola 𝑦 2 = 𝑥.

The parametric equation of 𝛤 is 𝑥 = 𝑡, 𝑦 = 𝑡 2 , where t varies from 0 to 1.

1
∫𝛤 = ∫0 (3𝑡 2 − 8𝑡 4 )𝑑𝑡 + (4𝑡 2 − 6𝑡 3 )(2𝑡𝑑𝑡) = −1 (𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑦)

The parametric equation of 𝛤 ′ is 𝑥 = 𝑡 2 & 𝑦 = 𝑡 , where t varies from 1 to 0.

0 5
∫𝛤′ = ∫1 (3𝑡 4 − 8𝑡 2 )(2𝑡𝑑𝑡) + (4𝑡 − 6𝑡 3 )(𝑑𝑡) = 2 (𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑦)
 5 3
Thus ∫𝐶 (3𝑥 2 − 8𝑦 2 )𝑑𝑥 + (4𝑦 − 6𝑥𝑦)𝑑𝑦 = −1 + = … … … … … … . (1)
2 2

1 √𝑥
𝜕𝑁 𝜕𝑀 3
∬( − ) 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 = ∫ ∫ 10𝑦𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥 = (𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑦) … … . . (2)
𝑅 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 0 𝑥2 2

From (1) & (2) Green’s theorem is verified.

Problem 4 Verify Green’s theorem for ∫𝐶 (3𝑥 2 − 8𝑦 2 )𝑑𝑥 + (4𝑦 − 6𝑥𝑦)𝑑𝑦, where C is
the boundary of the region R enclosed by x=0, y=0, x+y=1.

Solution : B(0,1)

O(0,0) A(1,0)

∫𝐶 (3𝑥 2 − 8𝑦 2 )𝑑𝑥 + (4𝑦 − 6𝑥𝑦)𝑑𝑦 = ∫𝑂𝐴 (3𝑥 2 − 8𝑦 2 )𝑑𝑥 + (4𝑦 − 6𝑥𝑦)𝑑𝑦 +

∫𝐴𝐵 (3𝑥 2 − 8𝑦 2 )𝑑𝑥 + (4𝑦 − 6𝑥𝑦)𝑑𝑦 + ∫𝐵𝑂 (3𝑥 2 − 8𝑦 2 )𝑑𝑥 + (4𝑦 − 6𝑥𝑦)𝑑𝑦

Along OA : x=t, y=0, t varies from 0 to 1.

1
∫𝑂𝐴 (3𝑥 2 − 8𝑦 2 )𝑑𝑥 + (4𝑦 − 6𝑥𝑦)𝑑𝑦 = ∫0 3𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 = 1 (𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑦)

Along AB :

𝑥−1 𝑦−0 𝑥−1 𝑦

= 1−0 = 𝑡 => = 𝑡 => 𝑥 − 1 = −𝑡 => 𝑥 = 1 − 𝑡& 1 = 𝑡 => 𝑦 = 𝑡
0−1 −1

𝑥 = 1 − 𝑡, 𝑦 = 𝑡, t varies from 0 to 1.

1
∫𝐴𝐵 (3𝑥 2 − 8𝑦 2 )𝑑𝑥 + (4𝑦 − 6𝑥𝑦)𝑑𝑦 = ∫0 (−3 + 4𝑡 + 11𝑡 2 )𝑑𝑡 = 8/3 (𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑦)

Along BO : 𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 = 1 − 𝑡, t varies from 0 to 1.

1
∫𝐵𝑂 (3𝑥 2 − 8𝑦 2 )𝑑𝑥 + (4𝑦 − 6𝑥𝑦)𝑑𝑦 = ∫0 4(𝑡 − 1)𝑑𝑡 = −2 (𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑦)

8 5
Thus, ∫𝐶 (3𝑥 2 − 8𝑦 2 )𝑑𝑥 + (4𝑦 − 6𝑥𝑦)𝑑𝑦 = 1 + 3 − 2 = 3 (𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑦) .... (1)

𝜕𝑁 𝜕𝑀
Find & 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑥

𝜕𝑁 𝜕𝑀 1 1−𝑥 5
Then, ∬𝑅 ( 𝜕𝑥 − 𝜕𝑦 ) 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 = ∫0 ∫0 (−6𝑦 + 16𝑦)𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥 = 3 (𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑦).... (2)

From (1) & (2),

Problem 5 : Verify Green’s theorem for ∫𝐶 (𝑥 − 2𝑦)𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥𝑑𝑦, where C is the circle 𝑥 2 +
𝑦 2 = 1.

Solution : (cost, sint)

tt

The parametric equations of the circle are x=cost, y=sint, t varies from 0 𝑡𝑜 2𝜋.

𝑑𝑥 = −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑡 & 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡

2𝜋
∫(𝑥 − 2𝑦)𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥𝑑𝑦 = ∫ (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 − 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡)(−𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑑𝑡) + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑑𝑡
𝐶 0

2𝜋
= ∫ (−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡 + 2𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑡 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑡)𝑑𝑦
0

2𝜋
𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑡
=∫ (− + 2𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑡 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑡) 𝑑𝑦 = 3𝜋 (𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑡𝑦)
0 2

Problem 6 : Evaluate ∫𝐶 (3𝑥 + 4𝑦)𝑑𝑥 + (2𝑥 − 3𝑦)𝑑𝑦, where C is the circle 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 4

5
Problem 7 : Show that ∫𝐶 (3𝑥 2 − 8𝑦 2 )𝑑𝑥 + (4𝑦 − 6𝑥𝑦)𝑑𝑦 = 3, where C is the boundary
of the rectangular area enclosed by the lines y=0, x+y=1, x=0.

Problem 8 : Show that ∫𝐶 (3𝑥 2 − 8𝑦 2 )𝑑𝑥 + (4𝑦 − 6𝑥𝑦)𝑑𝑦 = 20, where C is the
boundary of the rectangular area enclosed by the lines x=0, x=1, y=0, y=2.

Problem 9 : Evaluate ∫𝐶 𝑥𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦 − 𝑥 2 𝑦𝑑𝑥, where C is the cardioids 𝑟 = 𝑎(1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃).

[Hint:

2𝜋 𝑎(1+𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃) 2 35
∫𝐶 𝑥𝑦 2 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑥 2 𝑦𝑑𝑦 = ∬𝑅 (𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 )𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 = ∫0 ∫0 𝑟 𝑟𝑑𝑟)𝑑𝜃 = 16 𝜋𝑎4 ]
(
4.2 STOKE’S THEOREM

Theorem : If S is an open two sided surface bounded by a simple closed curve C and f is a
vector valued function having continuous first order partial derivatives then

∫ 𝑓 ∙ 𝑑𝑟 = ∬(∇ × 𝑓) ∙ 𝑛 𝑑𝑆
𝐶 𝑆

where C is traversed in the anticlockwise direction.

Problem 10: Verify Stokes theorem for the vector function 𝑓 = 𝑦 2 𝑖 + 𝑦𝑗 − 𝑥𝑧𝑘 and S is the
upper half of the sphere 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 = 𝑎2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧 ≥ 0.

Solution : By problem 2 of 3.2 ∬𝑆(∇ × 𝑓) ∙ 𝑛 𝑑𝑆 = 0

Now the boundary C of the hemisphere is given by the equation 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃, 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃, 𝑧 =
0, 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2𝜋.

2𝜋

∫ 𝑓 ∙ 𝑑𝑟 = ∫ 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑦𝑑𝑦 − 𝑥𝑧𝑑𝑧 = ∫ [𝑎2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 (−𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃) + 𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 (𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)]𝑑𝜃

𝐶 𝐶 0

2𝜋 2𝜋

= −𝑎3 ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝜃𝑑𝜃 + 𝑎2 ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑑𝜃 = 0

0 0

Thus, ∫𝐶 𝑓 ∙ 𝑑𝑟 = ∬𝑆(∇ × 𝑓) ∙ 𝑛 𝑑𝑆.

Hence Stoke’s theorem is verified.

Problem 11 : By using Stoke’s theorem prove that ∫𝐶 𝑟 ∙ 𝑑𝑟 = 0 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑟 = 𝑥𝑖 + 𝑦𝑗 + 𝑧𝑘.

Solution : ∇ × 𝑟 = 0.

By Stoke’s theorem we have, ∫𝐶 𝑟 ∙ 𝑑𝑟 = ∬𝑆(∇ × 𝑟) ∙ 𝑛 𝑑𝑆 =0.

Problem 12 : Evaluate by using Stoke’s theorem ∫𝐶 (𝑦𝑧𝑑𝑥 + 𝑧𝑥𝑑𝑦 + 𝑥𝑦𝑑𝑧) where C is the
curve 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 1 , 𝑧 = 𝑦 2 .

Solution : We note that 𝑦𝑧𝑑𝑥 + 𝑧𝑥𝑑𝑦 + 𝑥𝑦𝑑𝑧 = (𝑦𝑧𝑖 + 𝑧𝑥𝑗 + 𝑥yk)∙ (𝑖𝑑𝑥 + 𝑗𝑑𝑦 + 𝑘𝑑𝑧)

= 𝑓 ∙ 𝑑𝑟 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑓 = 𝑦𝑧𝑖 + 𝑧𝑥𝑗 + 𝑥𝑦𝑘 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑟 = 𝑖𝑑𝑥 + 𝑗𝑑𝑦 + 𝑘𝑑𝑧

Now, ∫𝐶 (𝑦𝑧𝑑𝑥 + 𝑧𝑥𝑑𝑦 + 𝑥𝑦𝑑𝑧) = ∫𝐶 𝑓 ∙ 𝑑𝑟 = 0 = ∬𝑆(∇ × 𝑓) ∙ 𝑛 𝑑𝑆

But ∇ × 𝑓 = 0
 ∴ ∫(𝑦𝑧𝑑𝑥 + 𝑧𝑥𝑑𝑦 + 𝑥𝑦𝑑𝑧) = 0.
𝐶

Problem 13 : Evaluate ∫𝐶 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 2𝑦𝑑𝑦 − 𝑑𝑧 𝑏𝑦 using Stoke’s theorem where C is the curve

𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 4 , 𝑧 = 2.

Solution : 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 2𝑦𝑑𝑦 − 𝑑𝑧 = (𝑒 𝑥 𝑖 + 2𝑦𝑗 − 𝑘) ∙ (𝑖𝑑𝑥 + 𝑗𝑑𝑦 + 𝑘𝑑𝑧)𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒

𝑓 = (𝑒 𝑥 𝑖 + 2𝑦𝑗 − 𝑘) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑟 = (𝑖𝑑𝑥 + 𝑗𝑑𝑦 + 𝑘𝑑𝑧)

∫𝐶 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 2𝑦𝑑𝑦 − 𝑑𝑧 = ∫𝐶 𝑓 ∙ 𝑑𝑟 = 0 = ∬𝑆(∇ × 𝑓) ∙ 𝑛 𝑑𝑆 where S is any surface whose

boundary is given by 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 4 , 𝑧 = 2.

𝑖 𝑗 𝑘
Now, ∇ × 𝑓 = |𝜕/𝜕𝑥 𝜕/𝜕𝑦 𝜕/𝜕𝑧| = 0
𝑒𝑥 2𝑦 −1

∴ ∬(∇ × 𝑓) ∙ 𝑛 𝑑𝑆 = 0.
𝑆

∴ ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 2𝑦𝑑𝑦 − 𝑑𝑧 = 0.
𝐶

4.3 Gauss Divergence theorem

If V is the volume bounded by a closed surface S and f is a vector valued function having
continuous partial derivatives then ∬𝑆 𝑓 ∙ 𝑛𝑑𝑆 = ∭𝑉 ∇ ∙ 𝑓𝑑𝑉.

Problem 14 : Verify Gauss divergence theorem for the vector function 𝑓 = (𝑥 3 − 𝑦𝑧)𝑖 −
2𝑥 2 𝑦𝑗 + 2𝑘 over the cube bounded by 𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 = 0, 𝑧 = 0, 𝑥 = 𝑎, 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧 = 𝑎.

𝑎5
Solution : By problem 3 of 3.2 we proved that ∬𝑆 𝑓 ∙ 𝑛 𝑑𝑆 = .
3

Now, ∇ ∙ 𝑓 = 3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 2 = 𝑥 2 .

𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
1 1 𝑎5
∭ ∇ ∙ 𝑓 𝑑𝑉 = ∫ ∫ ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 = ∫ ∫ 𝑎3 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 = ∫ 𝑎4 𝑑𝑧 = .
3 3 3
𝑉 0 0 0 0 0 0

∴ ∬ 𝑓 ∙ 𝑛𝑑𝑆 = ∭ ∇ ∙ 𝑓𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧.

𝑆 𝑉

Hence Gauss divergence theorem is verified.

Problem 15 : Verify Gauss divergence theorem for 𝑓 = 𝑦𝑖 + 𝑥𝑗 + 𝑧 2 𝑘 for the cylindrical
region S given by 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑎2 ; 𝑧 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧 = ℎ.

Solution : ∇ ∙ 𝑓 = 2𝑧

ℎ 2𝜋 ℎ

∴ ∭ ∇ ∙ 𝑓 𝑑𝑉 = ∫ ∫ ∫ 2𝑧𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝑧 (𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠)

𝑉 0 0 0

ℎ 2𝜋 ℎ

= ∫ ∫ 𝑎2 𝑧 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝑧 = ∫ 2𝑎2 𝜋𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 𝜋𝑎2 ℎ2 .
0 0 0

The surface S of the cylinder consists of a base 𝑆1 , the top 𝑆2 and the curved portion 𝑆3 .

On 𝑆1 , 𝑧 = 0, 𝑛 = −𝑘. 𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓 ∙ 𝑛 = 0.

∴ ∬ 𝑓 ∙ 𝑛 𝑑𝑆 = 0.
𝑆1

On 𝑆2 , 𝑧 = ℎ, 𝑛 = 𝑘. 𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓 ∙ 𝑛 = ℎ2 .

𝑓 ∙ 𝑛 𝑑𝑆 = ∬ ℎ2 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐷 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒

∴∬ 𝑆2
𝑆2 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑎2 .

= 𝜋ℎ2 𝑎2 .

∇∅ 2𝑥𝑖+2𝑦𝑗 𝑥𝑖+𝑦𝑗
On 𝑆3 , 𝑛 = |∇∅| 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 ∅ = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 𝑎2 = = .
2√𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 𝑎

𝑦
𝑛∙𝑗 = .
𝑎

𝑓∙𝑛
= 2𝑥.
|𝑛 ∙ 𝑗 |

𝑏 2𝜋

∬ 𝑓 ∙ 𝑛 𝑑𝑆 = ∬ 2𝑥𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑎2 ∫ ∫ 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝑧 = 0.
𝑆3 𝑅 0 0

∴ ∬𝑆 𝑓 ∙ 𝑛 𝑑𝑆 = ∬𝑆 𝑓 ∙ 𝑛 𝑑𝑆 + ∬𝑆 𝑓 ∙ 𝑛 𝑑𝑆 + ∬𝑆 𝑓 ∙ 𝑛 𝑑𝑆 = 0 + 𝜋ℎ2 𝑎2 + 0 = 𝜋ℎ2 𝑎2 .
1 2 3

∴ ∭𝑉 ∇ ∙ 𝑓 𝑑𝑉 = ∬𝑆 𝑓 ∙ 𝑛 𝑑𝑆 = 𝜋ℎ2 𝑎2 .

Hence Gauss divergence theorem is verified.

Problem 16 : Prove that for a closed surface S,
∬𝑆 𝑟 ∙ 𝑛 𝑑𝑆 = 3𝑉, where V is the volume enclosed by S.

Solution : By Gauss’ divergence theorem we have,

∬ 𝑟 ∙ 𝑛 𝑑𝑆 = ∭ ∇ ∙ 𝑟 𝑑𝑉
𝑆 𝑉

= 3 ∭ 𝑑𝑉 = 3𝑉 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑉 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑆.

𝑉

Problem 17 : Show that ∬𝑆 𝑓 ∙ 𝑛 𝑑𝑆 = ∭𝑉 𝑎2 𝑑𝑉 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑟 = ∅𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎 = ∇∅𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∇2 ∅ =

0.
 UNIT V

FOURIER SERIES

5.0 Introduction. Fourier series named after the French Mathematician cum Physicist Jean
Baptiste Joseph Fourier (1768-1803), has several interesting applications in engineering
problems. He introduced Fourier series in 1822 while he was investigating the problem of
heat conduction. This series became a very important tool in mathematics. In this chapter we
discuss the basic concepts relating to Fourier series development of several functions.

5.1 Periodic Functions. A function 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ is said to be periodic if there exists a positive

number𝜔such that𝑓(𝑥 + 𝜔) = 𝑓(𝑥)for all real numbers 𝑥 and 𝜔 is called a period of𝑓. If a
periodic function has asmallest positive period 𝜔, then 𝜔is called the primitive period of𝑓.

Example 1. The trigonometric functionssin 𝑥 and cos 𝑥 are periodicfunctions with primitive
period 2𝜋 [since 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑥 + 2𝜋) = sin 𝑥 and𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝑥 + 2𝜋) = cos 𝑥].

Example 2.sin 2𝑥 and cos 2𝑥 are periodic functions with primitive period𝜋each.

Example 3. The constant function𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑐 is a periodic function.In fact,every positive real

number is a period of𝑓 and hence this periodic functionhas no primitive period.

Example 4. Let 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ be a function defined by

0 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = {
1 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙

Let 𝜔be any rational number. If 𝑥 is rational then 𝑥 + 𝜔 is also rational andif𝑥 is irrational
then𝑥 + 𝜔 is also irrational. Hence,

0 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙
𝑓 (𝑥 + 𝜔 ) = {
1 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙

= 𝑓(𝑥)

Hence every rational number is a period of 𝑓and𝑓 has no primitive period.

Remark. Let𝑓be a periodic function with period𝜔. If the values of𝑓(𝑥)are known in an
interval of length𝜔, then by periodicity 𝑓(𝑥) can bedetermined for all 𝑥.Hence the graph of a
periodic function is obtained byperiodic function of its graph in any interval of length 𝜔.

Example 1. The graph of the periodic function𝑓 (𝑥) = sin 𝑥 is given below in
 Figure 1

Example 2. Let 𝑓 be the periodic function defined by

−1 𝑖𝑓 − 𝜋 ≤ 𝑥 < 0
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = { 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓 (𝑥 + 2𝜋) = 𝑓 (𝑥 ).
1 𝑖𝑓 0 ≤ 𝑥 < 𝜋

The graph of the periodic function sin 𝑥 is given below in figure 2.

Figure 2

Example 3. Let 𝑓 be a periodic function defined by

𝑥 𝑖𝑓 − 𝜋 ≤ 𝑥 < 𝜋
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = { 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝑓 (𝑥 + 2𝜋) = 𝑓(𝑥)

(ie) 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 if −𝜋 < 𝑥 < 𝜋 and 𝑓 (𝑥 + 2𝜋) = 𝑓(𝑥)

The graph of the periodic function sin 𝑥 is given below in figure 3.

 Figure 3

Solved Problems.

Problem 1. Let𝑓and 𝑔 be periodic functions with period 𝜛each and let 𝑎and 𝑏 be real
numbers.Prove that 𝑎𝑓 + 𝑏𝑔 is also a periodic function withperiod𝜛.

Solution.Since𝑓and 𝑔 are periodic functions with period𝜛 each we have for all 𝑥,

𝑓(𝑥 + 𝜛) = 𝑓(𝑥 ) … … … … … . (1) 𝑎𝑛𝑑

𝑔(𝑥 + 𝜛) = 𝑔(𝑥 ) … … … … … (2)

Now, (𝑎𝑓 + 𝑏𝑔 )(𝑥 + 𝜛) = 𝑎𝑓 (𝑥 + 𝜛) + 𝑏𝑔(𝑥 + 𝜛)

= 𝑎𝑓 (𝑥 ) + 𝑏𝑔(𝑥 ) (𝑏𝑦 (1)𝑎𝑛𝑑 (2))

= (𝑎𝑓 + 𝑏𝑔)(𝑥)

Hence 𝑎𝑓 + 𝑏𝑔 is a periodic function with period 𝜛.

Problem 2. If𝜛 is a period of 𝑓'prove that 𝑛𝜛 is also a period of 𝑓where𝑛is any positive
integer.

Solution. Let𝑛 be any positive integer. Since𝜛 is a period of𝑓 we have𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝜔).
Using this fact repeatedly we have

𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝜔) = 𝑓 (𝑥 + 2𝜔) = ⋯ = 𝑓 (𝑥 + (𝑛 − 1)𝜔) = 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑛𝜔)

It follows that 𝑛 𝜔is a period of𝑓.

Problem 3. Let𝑛 be any positive integer. Prove that sin 𝑛𝑥 is a periodicfunction with period
2𝜋
.
𝑛
Solution. Since sin 𝑥 is a periodic function with period 2𝜋 we have sin(𝑥 + 2𝜋) = sin 𝑥 for
all 𝑥.

Now, let 𝑔(𝑥 ) = sin 𝑥

2𝜋 2𝜋
Then 𝑔 (𝑥 + ) = sin [𝑛 (𝑥 + )] = sin(𝑛𝑥 + 2𝜋) = sin 𝑛𝑥 = 𝑔(𝑥 )
𝑛 𝑛

2𝜋
Hence sin 𝑛𝑥 is a periodic function with period .
𝑛

Problem 4. Let 𝑓(𝑥) be a periodic function with period 𝜛. Prove that forany positive real
𝜛
number𝑎,𝑓(𝑎𝑥)is aperiodic function with period 𝑎 .

Solution. Since𝑓(𝑥)is a periodicfunction with period 2𝜋 we have𝑓(𝑥 + 𝜔) = 𝑓(𝑥)for all𝑥.

Let𝑔(𝑥 ) = 𝑓(𝑎𝑥).

𝜛 𝜛
Now, 𝑔 (𝑥 + 𝑎 ) = 𝑓 [𝑎 (𝑥 + 𝑎 )] = 𝑓(𝑎𝑥 + 𝜛) = 𝑓(𝑎𝑥 ) = 𝑔(𝑥 ).

𝜛
Hence 𝑔(𝑥) is a periodic function with period 𝑎 .

Exercises.

1. Find the primitive period of the following functions

2𝜋 𝑥
(a)sin 2𝑥(b)cos 2𝑥(c)cos 𝑛𝑥(d)sin 𝜋𝑥 (e) cos 2𝜋 𝑥 (f)cos [( )]
𝑘

2𝜋
Answers. 1. (a) 𝜋 (b) 𝜋 (c) (d)2 (e)1 (f)𝑘
𝑛

5.2 FOURIER SERIES - FULL RANGE

Since periodic functions which occur frequently in engineering problems are

rathercomplicated, representation of periodic functions interms of a simple periodic function
is a matter of great practical importance.We nowdiscuss the problem of representing various
functions of period2𝜋.(Full range) in terms of the simple functions namely constant
function𝑐 and some trigonometric functions
sin 𝑥 , cos 𝑥 , sin 2𝑥 , cos 2𝑥 , … , sin 𝑛𝑥 , cos 𝑛𝑥etc.

Definition. Trigonometric Series. A series of the form

𝑎0 + 𝑎1 cos 𝑥 + 𝑏1 sin 𝑥 + 𝑎2 cos 2𝑥 + 𝑏2 sin 2𝑥 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 cos 𝑛𝑥 + 𝑏𝑛 sin 𝑛𝑥 + ⋯

∞

= 𝑎0 + ∑ (𝑎𝑛 cos 𝑛𝑥 + 𝑏𝑛 sin 𝑛𝑥 )

𝑛=1

Where𝑎𝑛 and 𝑏𝑛 are real constants is called a trigonometric series𝑎𝑛 and 𝑏𝑛 are called the
coefficients of the series (Fourier coefficients). Since each term of the trigonometric series is
a function of period 2𝜋 it follows that if the series converges then the sum is also a function
of period 2𝜋.

We now state the following theorem and its results without proof and it becomes the
definition of Fourier series

𝑎1 cos 𝑥 + 𝑏1 sin 𝑥 + 𝑎2 cos 2𝑥 + 𝑏2 sin 2𝑥 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 cos 𝑛𝑥 + 𝑏𝑛 sin 𝑛𝑥

Theorem 1. Let 𝑓(𝑥) be a periodic function with period 2𝜋. Suppose 𝑓(𝑥) can be
represented as a trigonometric series.

∞
𝑎0
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = + ∑ (𝑎𝑛 cos 𝑛𝑥 + 𝑏𝑛 sin 𝑛𝑥) … … … … … … … . . (1)
2
𝑛=1

Then we have

𝜋
1
𝑎0 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝜋 𝑛 = 1,2,3, …
−𝜋
𝜋
1
𝑎𝑛 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝜋 𝑛 = 1,2,3, …
−𝜋
𝜋
1
𝑏𝑛 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝜋 𝑛 = 1,2,3, …
−𝜋

Remark 1. The formulae for the coefficients𝑎0 , 𝑎𝑛 , 𝑏𝑛 , given in the above theorem are
known as Fourier coefficients.

Euler's Formulae.

Definition - Fourier series

𝑎0
The series 𝑓 (𝑥) = + ∑∞
𝑛=1(𝑎𝑛 cos 𝑛𝑥 + 𝑏𝑛 sin 𝑛𝑥 )when 𝑎0 , 𝑎𝑛 , 𝑏𝑛 are given by the
2

Euler’s formulaeis calledthe Fourier series of𝑓(𝑥).Also, thecoefficients 𝑎0 , 𝑎𝑛 , 𝑏𝑛 are called

Fourier coefficients.

𝑎
Remark 2. We use 20 instead of 𝑎0 in the Fourier series just to obtain uniformity in Euler’s
formulae.

Remark 3.If𝑓(𝑥) is a periodic function with period 2𝜋 we can obtain the Fourier series of
𝑓(𝑥)in any interval of length 2𝜋. If the interval is taken as (𝑐, 𝑐 + 2𝜋)then the Euler’s
Formulae for Fourier coefficients are given by
 𝑐+2𝜋
1
𝑎0 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝜋
0
𝑐+2𝜋
1
𝑎𝑛 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝜋 𝑛 = 1,2,3, …
𝑐
𝑐+2𝜋
1
𝑏𝑛 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝜋 𝑛 = 1,2,3, …
𝑐

The calculation of theFourier coefficients of a function can be simplified for certain

functions.

Definition. Areal function 𝑓(𝑥) is called an even function if𝑓 (−𝑥 ) = 𝑓(𝑥)for all 𝑥.

The function𝑓(𝑥) is called an odd function if𝑓 (−𝑥 ) = −𝑓(𝑥).

For example, (i) cos 𝑛𝑥 is an even function, (ii) sin 𝑛𝑥 is an odd function.(iii) 𝑥 𝑛 is an odd
function if𝑛 is an odd integer and an even function if𝑛an even integer.

𝑎 𝑎
Remark 1. If𝑓(𝑥) is an even function ∫−𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 2 ∫0 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

𝑎
If𝑓(𝑥) is an odd function ∫−𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 0

Remark 2.

(i) The product of two even functions is an even function.

(ii) The product of two odd functions is an even function.
(iii)The product of an even function and an odd function is anodd function.

Remark 3. If 𝑓(𝑥) is. an odd function then 𝑓(𝑥) cos 𝑛𝑥is also an odd function.

1 𝜋 1 𝜋
Hence 𝑎0 = 𝜋 ∫−𝜋 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑛 = 𝜋 ∫−𝜋 𝑓(𝑥) cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 0

Thus, for an odd function the Fourier coefficients𝑎0 and 𝑎𝑛 are 0.

1 𝜋 2 𝜋
Also 𝑏𝑛 = 𝜋 ∫−𝜋 𝑓(𝑥) sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝜋 ∫0 𝑓(𝑥) sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥

(Since,𝑓(𝑥 ) sin 𝑛𝑥 is an even function.)

Remark 4. If 𝑓(𝑥) isan even function then 𝑓 (𝑥 ) sin 𝑛𝑥 is an oddfunction.

1 𝜋
Hence 𝑏𝑛 = 𝜋 ∫−𝜋 𝑓(𝑥) sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 0for all𝑛.

Using the above remarks, we give below the working rules for calculatingthe Fourier
coefficientsof a periodic function with period 2𝜋.
Working Rules.

Let 𝑓(𝑥 ) be a periodic function with period2𝜋.Suppose the given interval is (−𝜋, 𝜋).

Step 1. Check whether 𝑓(𝑥) is an even function or an odd function.

Step 2. (i) If 𝑓(𝑥) is aneven function then 𝑏𝑛 = 0 for all 𝑛 and

𝜋
2
𝑎𝑛 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑛 ≥ 0
𝜋
0

(ii) If 𝑓(𝑥) is an odd function then 𝑎𝑛 = 0 for all 𝑛 ≥ 0 and

𝜋
2
𝑎𝑛 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝜋
0

Step 3. If𝑓(𝑥) is neither an even function nor an odd function in(−𝜋, 𝜋)or if the given
interval is not(−𝜋, 𝜋), then calculate the Fourier coefficientsby using Euler's formulae (refer
Remark I )

The following results on integration will be useful in calculating the Fouriercoefficients.

Result 1. Bernoulli's formula.

∫ 𝑢 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑢𝑣 − 𝑢′ 𝑣1 + 𝑢′′ 𝑣2 − 𝑢′ ′′𝑣3 + ⋯ 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒

′
𝑑𝑢 ′′ 𝑑 2 𝑢 ′′′ 𝑑 3 𝑢
𝑢 = , 𝑢 = 2 , 𝑢 = 3 𝑒𝑡𝑐
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣1 = ∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑥, 𝑣2 = ∫ 𝑣1 𝑑𝑥, 𝑣3 = ∫ 𝑣2 𝑑𝑥, … . 𝑒𝑡𝑐

𝑒 𝑎𝑥
Result 2. (i) ∫ 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 sin 𝑏𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎2 +𝑏2 [𝑎 sin 𝑏𝑥 − 𝑏 cos 𝑏𝑥 ]

𝑒 𝑎𝑥
(ii) ∫ 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 cos 𝑏𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎2 +𝑏2 [𝑎 cos 𝑏𝑥 − 𝑏 sin 𝑏𝑥 ]

Result 3. Noe let 𝑔(𝑥 ) = sin 𝑛𝑥

2𝜋 2𝜋
Then 𝑔 (𝑥 + ) = sin [𝑛 (𝑥 + )] = sin(𝑛𝑥 + 2𝜋) = sin 𝑛𝑥 = 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑛 𝑛

2𝜋
Hence 𝑔(𝑥 ) = sin 𝑛𝑥 is a periodic function with period where 𝑛 is a positive integer.
𝑛

Solved Problems.

Problem 1. Determine the Fourier expansion of the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 where −𝜋 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝜋

Solution. Obviously 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 is an odd function

Hence 𝑎𝑛 = 0 for all 𝑛 ≥ 0.

2 𝜋 2 𝜋
Now, 𝑏𝑛 = 𝜋 ∫−𝜋 𝑓(𝑥) sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝜋 ∫−𝜋𝑥 sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Taking 𝑢 = 𝑥 and 𝑑𝑣 = sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 and applying Bernoulli’s formula we get

2 −𝑥 cos 𝑛𝑥 sin 𝑛𝑥 𝜋
𝑏𝑛 = [ + ]
𝜋 𝑛 𝑛2 0

2
= − 𝑛𝜋 [𝜋 cos 𝑛𝜋]

−2(−1)𝑛
= 𝑛

2(−1)𝑛+1
= 𝑛

2
Hence 𝑥 = ∑∞
𝑛=1(−1)
𝑛+1
sin 𝑛𝑥
𝑛

sin 𝑥 sin 2𝑥 sin 3𝑥

∴ 𝑥 = 2[ − + + ⋯ ].
1 2 3

Problem 2. Find the Fourier series for the function 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2 where −𝜋 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝜋 and
deduce that

1 1 1 𝜋2
(i) + 22 + 32 + ⋯ =
12 6
1 1 1 𝜋2
(ii) − 22 + 32 − ⋯ = 12
12
1 1 1 𝜋2
(iii) 12 + 32 + 52 − ⋯ = 8

Solution. Let 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2 . We note that is an even function.

𝜋 𝜋
1 1
Hence, 𝑎0 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
𝜋 𝜋
−𝜋 −𝜋

2 𝜋
= 𝜋 ∫0 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 (∵ 𝑥 2 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)

𝜋
2 𝑥3
= 𝜋[3]
0
2𝜋2
= 3

1 𝜋
Where, 𝑎𝑛 = 𝜋 ∫−𝜋 𝑓(𝑥) cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥

1 𝜋
= 𝜋 ∫−𝜋 𝑥 2 cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥
 𝜋
2
= ∫ 𝑥 2 cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 (∵ 𝑥 2 cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)
𝜋
0

Now by applying the Bernoulli’s formula

∫ 𝑢 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑢𝑣 − 𝑢′ 𝑣1 + 𝑢′′ 𝑣2 − 𝑢′ ′′𝑣3 + ⋯

Where 𝑢 = 𝑥 2 and 𝑑𝑣 = cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 so that 𝑢′ = 2𝑥, ; 𝑢′′ = 2; 𝑢′′′ = 0

2 2𝜋 cos 𝑛𝑥 𝜋 4(−1)𝑛
Now,𝑎𝑛 = [ ] =
𝜋 𝑛2 0 𝑛2

1 𝜋 1 𝜋
Now, 𝑏𝑛 = 𝜋 ∫−𝜋 𝑓(𝑥) sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝜋 ∫−𝜋 𝑥 2 sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 0 (since 𝑥 2 sin 𝑛𝑥 is an odd
function).

𝜋2 (−1)𝑛 cos 𝑛𝑥
Hence, 𝑥 2 = + 4 ∑∞
𝑛=1 ( )…………………. (1)
3 𝑛2

Deduction. (i) Put 𝑥 = 𝜋 in (1) and we get

𝜋2 1 1 1 1
𝜋2 = + 4 ( 2 + 2 + 2 + ⋯ + 2 + ⋯ ).
3 1 2 3 𝑛

1 1 1 1 𝜋2 2𝜋2
Hence, 4 (12 + 22 + 32 + ⋯ + 𝑛2 + ⋯ ) = 𝜋 2 − = .
3 3

1 1 1 𝜋2
Hence, + + +⋯ = .
12 22 32 6

(ii) Put 𝑥 = 0 in (1) and we get

𝜋2 1 1 1 1
∴0= + 4 (− 2 + 2 − 2 + ⋯ + 2 + ⋯ )
3 1 2 3 𝑛

1 1 1 𝜋2
(i) Hence, we get 12 − 22 + 32 − ⋯ = 12

Adding the results (i) and (ii) we get

1 1 1 1 𝜋2
2( 2 + 2 + 2 + ⋯+ 2 + ⋯) =
1 3 5 𝑛 4

1 1 1 𝜋2
Hence, 12 + 32 + 52 + ⋯ = 8

Problem 3. Show that in the range 0 to 2𝜋 the Fourier series expansion for 𝑒 𝑥 is

∞ ∞
𝑒 2𝜋 − 1 1 cos 𝑛𝑥 sin 𝑛𝑥
[ + ∑( 2 )−∑( 2 )]
𝜋 2 𝑛 +1 𝑛 +1
𝑛=1 𝑛=1

Solution. Let 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑒 𝑥
 2𝜋 2𝜋
1 1 1 𝑒 2𝜋 − 1
𝑎0 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = [𝑒 𝑥 ]2𝜋
0 = .
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
0 0

1 2𝜋
Now taking, 𝐼𝑛 = 𝜋 ∫0 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥………………. (1)

2𝜋

= [𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑛𝑥 ]2𝜋 𝑥
0 + 𝑛 ∫ 𝑒 sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0

2𝜋

= (𝑒 2𝜋 − 1) + 𝑛 [{𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑛𝑥}2𝜋 𝑥

0 − 𝑛 ∫ 𝑒 cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥]
0

∴ 𝐼𝑛 = (𝑒 2𝜋 − 1) − 𝑛2 𝐼𝑛

∴ (𝑛2 + 1)𝐼𝑛 = (𝑒 2𝜋 − 1)

𝑒 2𝜋 − 1
∴ 𝐼𝑛 = ( )
𝑛2 + 1

1 𝑒 2𝜋 − 1
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑎𝑛 = ( )
𝜋 𝑛2 + 1

𝑛(𝑒 2𝜋 −1)
Similarly, we can prove that 𝑏𝑛 = − ( 𝜋(𝑛2+1) ) (verify)

∞ ∞
𝑥
𝑒 2𝜋 − 1 1 cos 𝑛𝑥 sin 𝑛𝑥
∴𝑒 = [ +∑( 2 )−∑( 2 )]
𝜋 2 𝑛 +1 𝑛 +1
𝑛=1 𝑛=1

−𝑥 𝑖𝑓 − 𝜋 < 𝑥 < 0
Problem 4. If 𝑓 (𝑥) = { expand 𝑓(𝑥) as a Fourier series in the interval
𝑥 𝑖𝑓 0<𝑥<𝜋
(−𝜋, 𝜋).

Solution. Clearly 𝑓(−𝑥 ) = 𝑓(𝑥) for all 𝑥 ∈ (−𝜋, 𝜋). Hence 𝑓(𝑥 ) is an even function in
𝑎0
(−𝜋, 𝜋). Hence the function can be expanded as a Fourier series of the form +
2
1 𝜋
∑∞
𝑛=1 𝑎𝑛 cos 𝑛𝑥 where 𝑎0 = 𝜋 ∫−𝜋 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥.

1 𝜋 2 𝜋
Now, 𝑎0 = 𝜋 ∫−𝜋 𝑓 (𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝜋 ∫0 𝑓(𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 (Since 𝑓(𝑥 ) is an even function)

𝜋 𝜋
2 2 𝑥2 2 𝑥2
= ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = [ ] = [ ] = 𝜋
𝜋 𝜋 2 0 𝜋 2
0

2 𝜋
Now, 𝑎𝑛 = 𝜋 ∫0 𝑥 cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥
 𝜋
2 𝑥 sin 𝑛𝑥 𝜋 2 2
= [ ] − ∫ sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 2 [cos 𝑛𝑥 ]𝜋0
𝜋 𝑛 0 𝑛𝜋 𝜋𝑛
0

2
= [(−1)𝑛 − 1]
𝜋𝑛2

4
−𝑖𝑓 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑
= { 𝜋𝑛2
0 𝑖𝑓 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛

𝜋 𝜋 cos 𝑛𝑥
Hence, 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 2 − 4 ∑ ( ) where 𝑛 is odd.
𝑛2

𝜋 4 cos 𝑥 cos 3𝑥 cos 5𝑥

∴ 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = − [ + + +⋯]
2 𝜋 12 32 52

Note. This problem can also be re stated as 𝑓(𝑥 ) = |𝑥| in the interval −𝜋 < 𝑥 < 𝜋.

𝜋 + 2𝑥 𝑖𝑓 − 𝜋 < 𝑥 < 0
Problem 5. Find the Fourier series of the function 𝑓(𝑥 ) = {
𝜋 − 2𝑥 𝑖𝑓 0 ≤ 𝑥 < 𝜋

1 1 1 𝜋2
Hence deduce that 12 + 32 + 52 + ⋯ = .
8

Solution. Here the given function is 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝜋 − 2|𝑥| and hence it is an even function. Hence
𝑏𝑛 = 0 for all 𝑛.

2 𝜋 1 1
Now, 𝑎0 = 𝜋 ∫0 (𝜋 − 2𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 = − 𝜋 [(𝜋 − 2𝑥 )2 ]𝜋0 = − 𝜋 [(−𝜋)2 − 𝜋 2 ] = 0

2 𝜋
Also, 𝑎𝑛 = 𝜋 ∫0 (𝜋 − 2𝑥 ) cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝜋
2 sin 𝑛𝑥 𝜋 4
= [(𝜋 − 2𝑥 ) ] + ∫ sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝜋 𝑛 0 𝜋
0

4
= 0+ [− cos 𝑛𝑥]𝜋0
𝜋𝑛2

4
= [− cos 𝑛𝑥 ]𝜋0
𝜋𝑛2

4
= [−(−1)𝑛 + 1]
𝜋𝑛2

0 𝑖𝑓 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑
={ 8
𝑖𝑓 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛
𝜋𝑛2

8 cos(2𝑛 − 1)𝜋
∴ 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = ∑( )
𝜋 (2𝑛 − 1)2
 8 1 1 1
Putting 𝑥 = 0 in the above result we get 𝑓 (0) = [ 2 + + + ⋯]
𝜋 1 32 52

8 1 1 1
∴ 𝜋= [ 2 + 2 + 2 + ⋯ ] (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓(0) = 𝜋, 𝑏𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)
𝜋 1 3 5

1 1 1 𝜋2
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 2 + 2 + 2 + ⋯ = .
1 3 5 8

Problem 6. Find the Fourier series for 𝑓(𝑥 ) = | sin 𝑥 | in (−𝜋, 𝜋) of periodicity 2𝜋.

Solution. We note that 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = | sin 𝑥 | is an even function of 𝑥 through sin 𝑥 is an odd

function. Hence 𝑓 (𝑥 ) will contain only cosine terms in its Fourier series.

𝑎0
Let 𝑓(𝑥 ) = + ∑∞
𝑛=1 𝑎𝑛 cos 𝑛𝑥
2

1 𝜋
Now, 𝑎0 = 𝜋 ∫−𝜋 | sin 𝑥 | 𝑑𝑥

2 𝜋
= 𝜋 ∫0 | sin 𝑥 | 𝑑𝑥 (Since | sin 𝑥 | is an even function)

𝜋
2
= ∫ sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝜋
0

2
= [− cos 𝑥 ]𝜋0
𝜋

2
= [ 1 + 1]
𝜋

4
=
𝜋

1 𝜋
Now, 𝑎𝑛 = 𝜋 ∫−𝜋 | sin 𝑥 | cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥

0 𝜋
1 1
𝑎𝑛 = ∫ | sin 𝑥 | cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ | sin 𝑥 | cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝜋 𝜋
−𝜋 0

2 𝜋
= 𝜋 ∫0 sin 𝑥 cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 (∵ 𝑓(𝑥 ) = |sin 𝑥 | = sin 𝑥 𝑖𝑛 [−𝜋, 𝜋])

𝜋
1
= ∫[sin(𝑛 + 1)𝑥 − sin(𝑛 − 1)𝑥 ] 𝑑𝑥
𝜋
0

1 cos(𝑛+1)𝑥 cos(𝑛+1)𝑥 𝜋
= 𝜋 [− + ] if 𝑛 ≠ 1
𝑛+1 𝑛+1 0

1 1 1
= [− |{(−1)𝑛+1 − 1}| + {(−1)𝑛−1 − 1}]
𝜋 𝑛+1 𝑛−1
 1 1 1
= [− {1 + (−1)𝑛 } + {1 + (−1)𝑛 }]
𝜋 𝑛+1 𝑛−1

1 −2
= ( ) {1 + (−1)𝑛 }
𝜋 𝑛2 − 1

0 𝑖𝑓 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑
∴ 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑛 > 1, 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑓(𝑥 ) = { 4
− 𝑖𝑓 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛 ≠ 1
𝜋 (𝑛 2 − 1)

𝜋
2 𝜋 2 𝜋 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝑥
If 𝑛 = 1, 𝑎1 = 𝜋 ∫0 sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝜋 ∫0 sin 𝑥 𝑑 (sin 𝑥 ) = 𝜋 [ ] = 0.
2 0

∞
2 4 cos 2𝑛𝑥
∴ 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = |sin 𝑥 | = − ∑
𝜋 𝜋 (4𝑛2 − 1)
𝑛=1

∞
2 4 cos 2𝑛𝑥
= − ∑
𝜋 𝜋 (2𝑛 − 1)(2𝑛 + 1)
𝑛=1

∞
2 4 cos 2𝑛𝑥
∴ |sin 𝑥 | = − ∑ [ ]
𝜋 𝜋 (2𝑛 − 1)(2𝑛 + 1)
𝑛=1

𝜋
− 4 𝑖𝑓 − 𝜋 < 𝑥 < 0
Problem 7. If 𝑓 (𝑥) = { 𝜋 .
𝑖𝑓 0<𝑥<𝜋
4

Solution. We note that 𝑓(𝑥) is a periodic function with period 2𝜋.

1 𝜋 1 0 𝜋 1 𝜋 𝜋
Now, 𝑎0 = 𝜋 ∫−𝜋 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝜋 ∫−𝜋 (− 4 ) 𝑑𝑥 + 𝜋 ∫0 ( 4 ) 𝑑𝑥

1 𝜋 1 𝜋
= [(− ) [𝑥 ]0−𝜋 ] + [( ) [𝑥]𝜋0 ]
𝜋 4 𝜋 4

1 𝜋 1 𝜋
= − ( ) (𝜋) + ( ) (𝜋)
𝜋 4 𝜋 4

𝜋 𝜋
=− + =0
4 4

1 𝜋 0 𝜋 1 𝜋 𝜋
Now, 𝑎𝑛 = 𝜋 ∫−𝜋 𝑓(𝑥) cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫−𝜋 (− 4 ) cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝜋 ∫0 ( 4 ) cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝜋 sin 𝑛𝑥 0 𝜋 sin 𝑛𝑥 𝜋
=− [ ] + [ ]
4 𝑛 −𝜋 4 𝑛 0

𝜋 𝜋
= − [ 0 − 0] + [ 0 − 0] = 0
4 4

Now, for 𝑛 > 1

 𝜋 0 𝜋
1 𝜋 𝜋
𝑏𝑛 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ (− ) sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ ( ) sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝜋 4 4
−𝜋 −𝜋 0

𝜋 0 𝜋 𝜋
Hence, 𝑏𝑛 = − 4 ∫−𝜋 sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 4 ∫0 sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝜋 cos 𝑛𝑥 𝜋 𝜋
=0− [ ] = − [cos 𝑛𝜋 − 1]
4 𝑛 0 4𝑛

𝜋
Thus 𝑏𝑛 = − 4𝑛 [(−1)𝑛 −1]

𝜋 𝜋
Hence 𝑏1 = − 4 [−1 −1] = 2

𝜋
𝑏2 = − [1 −1] = 0
8

𝜋 𝜋
𝑏3 = − [−2] =
12 6
𝜋
𝑏4 = − 16 [1 −1] = 0 etc

𝜋 𝜋
Hence 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 2 sin 𝑥 + 6 sin 3𝑥 + ⋯

𝜋 1 1
(ie) 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 2 [sin 𝑥 + 3 sin 3𝑥 + 5 sin 5𝑥 + ⋯ ]

Problem 8. Find the Fourier series for defined in 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑒 𝑥 defined in [−𝜋, 𝜋]

1 𝜋 1 𝜋 1 1 2 sinh 𝜋
Solution. 𝑎0 = 𝜋 ∫−𝜋 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝜋 ∫−𝜋 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝜋 [𝑒 𝑥 ]𝜋−𝜋 = 𝜋 (𝑒 𝜋 − 𝑒 −𝜋 ) = .
𝜋

1 𝜋 1 2𝜋
Now, 𝑎𝑛 = 𝜋 ∫−𝜋 𝑓(𝑥) cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝜋 ∫0 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝜋
1 𝑒𝑥
= [ 2 (cos 𝑛𝑥 + 𝑛 sin 𝑛𝑥)]
𝜋 1 + 𝑛2 −𝜋

𝑒𝑥
[using the formula in integration ∫ 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 cos 𝑏𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎2 +𝑏2 (𝑎 cos 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑏 sin 𝑏𝑥)]

1
∴ 𝑎𝑛 = [𝑒 𝜋 cos 𝑛𝜋 − 𝑒 −𝜋 cos 𝑛𝜋]
𝜋(𝑛2 + 1)

cos 𝑛𝜋 (𝑒𝜋 − 𝑒 −𝜋 ) (−1)𝑛 2 sinh 𝜋

= =
𝜋(𝑛2 + 1) 𝜋(𝑛2 + 1)

1 𝜋 1 𝜋
Now, 𝑏𝑛 = 𝜋 ∫−𝜋 𝑓(𝑥) sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝜋 ∫−𝜋 𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝜋
1 𝑒 𝑎𝑥
= [ 2 (sin 𝑛𝑥 − 𝑛 cos 𝑛𝑥)]
𝜋 1 + 𝑛2 −𝜋
 𝑒 𝑎𝑥
[using the formula ∫ 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 cos 𝑏𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = (𝑎 sin 𝑏𝑥 − 𝑏 sin 𝑏𝑥) in integration]
𝑎 2 +𝑏2

1
= [𝑒 𝜋 (0 − 𝑛 cos 𝑛𝜋) − 𝑒 −𝜋 (0 − 𝑛 cos 𝑛𝜋)]
𝜋(𝑛2 + 1)

𝑛(−1)𝑛 (𝑒 −𝜋 − 𝑒 𝜋 ) −2𝑛(−1)𝑛 sinh 𝜋

= =
𝜋(𝑛2 + 1) 𝜋(𝑛2 + 1)

∞ ∞
sinh 𝜋 2 sinh 𝜋
𝑥
(−1)𝑛 2 sinh 𝜋 𝑛(−1)𝑛+1
∴𝑒 = + ∑ 2 cos 𝑛𝑥 + ∑ 2 sin 𝑛𝑥
𝜋 𝜋 𝑛 +1 𝜋 𝑛 +1
𝑛=1 𝑛=1

∞
sinh 𝜋 (−1)𝑛 cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑛(−1)𝑛 sin 𝑛𝑥
= [1 + 2 ∑ − ].
𝜋 𝑛2 + 1 𝑛2 + 1
𝑛=1

Exercises.

1. Obtain the Fourier coefficient 𝑎0 for the following functions.

(i) 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥(2𝜋 − 𝑥) in 0 < 𝑥 < 2𝜋
(ii) 𝑓(𝑥 ) = |𝑥| in −𝜋 < 𝑥 < 𝜋
(iii)𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2 in −𝜋 < 𝑥 < 𝜋
(iv) 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 in −𝜋 < 𝑥 < 𝜋
(v) 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑒 𝑥 in −𝜋 < 𝑥 < 𝜋
(vi) 𝑓(𝑥 ) = | cos 𝑥 | in −𝜋 < 𝑥 < 𝜋
0 𝑖𝑛 − 𝜋 < 𝑥 < 0
(vii) 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = {
𝑥 𝑖𝑛 0 < 𝑥 < 𝜋
2𝜋
2 𝑖𝑛 0<𝑥< 3
2𝜋 4𝜋
(viii)𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 1 𝑖𝑛 3
<𝑥< 3
4𝜋
{0 𝑖𝑛 < 𝑥 < 2𝜋
3

2. Obtain the Fourier coefficients 𝑏𝑛 for the following functions.

(i) 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2 in 0 < 𝑥 < 2𝜋
0 𝑖𝑛 0 < 𝑥 < 𝜋
(ii) 𝑓(𝑥 ) = {
2𝜋 − 𝑥 𝑖𝑛 𝜋 < 𝑥 < 2𝜋
(iii)𝑓(𝑥 ) = sin(𝑥⁄2) in −𝜋 < 𝑥 < 𝜋
−𝜋 𝑖𝑛 − 𝜋 < 𝑥 < 0
(iv) 𝑓(𝑥 ) = { Hence find 𝑏3
𝑥 𝑖𝑛 0 < 𝑥 < 𝜋
3. Find the Fourier coefficients 𝑏𝑛 for the following functions given below.
(i) 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2 in 0 < 𝑥 < 2𝜋. Hence find 𝑏2
−𝜋 𝑖𝑛 − 𝜋 < 𝑥 < 0
(ii) 𝑓(𝑥 ) = { Hence find 𝑏3
𝑥 𝑖𝑛 0 < 𝑥 < 𝜋
0 𝑖𝑛 − 𝜋 < 𝑥 ≤ 0 𝑏 +𝑏 +𝑏
(iii) 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = { Hence find 1 32 3
𝑥 𝑖𝑛 0 < 𝑥 ≤ 𝜋
4. Obtain the Fourier series for the functions given below.
 1 𝑖𝑛 0 < 𝑥 < 𝜋
(i) 𝑓(𝑥 ) = {
2 𝑖𝑛 𝜋 < 𝑥 < 2𝜋
𝑥 𝑖𝑛 − 𝜋 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 0
(ii) 𝑓(𝑥 ) = {
0 𝑖𝑛 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝜋
−𝑥 𝑖𝑛 − 𝜋 < 𝑥 ≤ 0
(iii)𝑓(𝑥 ) = {
0 𝑖𝑛 0 < 𝑥 ≤ 𝜋
−𝜋 𝑖𝑛 − 𝜋 < 𝑥 < 0
(iv) 𝑓(𝑥 ) = {
𝑥 𝑖𝑛 0 < 𝑥 < 𝜋
sin 𝑥 𝑖𝑛 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝜋
5. If 𝑓(𝑥 ) = { obtain the Fourier series for𝑓(𝑥) of periodicity
0 𝑖𝑛 𝜋 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2𝜋
1 1 1
2𝜋 and hence evaluate 1.3 + 3.5 + 5.7 + ⋯

6. Find the Fourier series for 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝜋 2 − 𝑥 2 in −𝜋 < 𝑥 < 𝜋

2𝑥
1+ 𝑖𝑛 − 𝜋 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 0
𝜋
7. Obtain the Fourier series for 𝑓(𝑥) given by 𝑓(𝑥 ) = { 2𝑥
1− 𝑖𝑛 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝜋
𝜋

8. Express 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = (𝜋 − 𝑥)2 as a Fourier series in 0 < 𝑥 < 2𝜋 and hence find the sum
1 1 1
of the series 12 + 22 + 32 + ⋯
𝑥 𝑖𝑛 (0, 𝜋)
9. Find the Fourier coefficients 𝑎𝑛 of the function 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = { with
2𝜋 − 𝑥 𝑖𝑛 (𝜋, 2𝜋)
periodicity 2𝜋

5.3 FOURIER SERIES - HALF RANGE

In several engineering and physical applications, it is required to obtainthe Fourier

series expansion of a function in an interval [0, 𝑙] where𝑙 ishalf the period.Such an expansion
is calledHalf Range Fourier series.

Half Range Sine Series.

Suppose𝑓(𝑥) is defined in the interval[0, 𝑙] We now define a newfunction as follows

𝑓 (𝑥 ) 𝑖𝑓 0≤𝑥≤𝑙
(𝑥 ) = { . It is clear from the definition that 𝐹(𝑥) is an odd
−𝑓(−𝑥 ) 𝑖𝑓 −𝑙 ≤𝑥 ≤0
function defined in theinterval [−𝑙, 𝑙], Hence the Fourier series of 𝐹(𝑥)contains only 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑒
terms. Further in the interval [0, 𝑙 ], 𝐹 (𝑥 ) = 𝑓(𝑥)and hence the 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑒 series of 𝐹(𝑥)gives the
required 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑒 series of 𝑓(𝑥) in the interval [0, 𝑙]. Thus

∞ 𝑙
𝑛𝜋𝑥 2 𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = ∑ 𝑏𝑛 sin ( ) 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑏𝑛 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) ( ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑙 𝑙 𝑙
𝑛=1 0
Half Range Cosine Series.

𝑓 (𝑥 ) 𝑖𝑓 0≤𝑥≤𝑙
We define𝐹(𝑥 ) = {
𝑓 (−𝑥 ) 𝑖𝑓 − 𝑙 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 0

Since 𝐹(𝑥 ) = 𝑓 (−𝑥 ). 𝐹(𝑥) is an even functiondefined in the interval [−𝑙, 𝑙]. Hence the
Fourier series of 𝐹(𝑥) contains only 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑒 terms. Further in the interval [0, 𝑙 ], 𝐹 (𝑥 ) = 𝑓(𝑥)
and hence the 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑒 series of 𝐹(𝑥) gives the cosine series of 𝑓(𝑥) in [0, 𝑙 ].

Thus

∞
𝑎0 𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = + ∑ 𝑎𝑛 cos ( )
2 𝑙
𝑛=1

Where,

𝑙 𝑙
2 2 𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝑎0 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑛 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) cos ( ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑙 𝑙 𝑙
0 0

Note: If 𝑓(𝑥) is defined in the interval [0, 𝜋] then

𝜋
2
𝑎𝑛 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝜋
0

Solved Problems.

Problem 1. Find the Fourier series for 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑘 in 0 < 𝑥 < 𝜋.

Solution. The Fourier 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑒 series of 𝑓(𝑥) in the interval 0 < 𝑥 < 𝜋 is given by 𝑓 (𝑥 ) =
2 𝑙
∑∞
𝑛=1 𝑏𝑛 sin 𝑛𝑥 where 𝑏𝑛 = 𝜋 ∫0 𝑓(𝑥) sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥.

2 𝑙 2𝑘 cos 𝑛𝑥 𝜋 2𝑘
Now, 𝑏𝑛 = 𝜋 ∫0 𝑘 sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = [ ] = [− cos 𝑛𝜋 − (−1)]
𝜋 𝑛 0 𝑛𝜋

4𝑘
2𝑘 𝑖𝑓 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑
= 𝑛𝜋 [1 − (−1)𝑛 ] = { 𝑛𝜋
0 𝑖𝑓 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛

4𝑘
Hence the required sine series 𝑓(𝑥 ) = ∑∞
𝑛=1 (2𝑛−1)𝜋 sin(2𝑛 − 1)𝑥

4𝑘 sin 𝑥 sin 3𝑥 sin 5𝑥

= [ + + + ⋯]
𝜋 1 3 5

Problem 2.Prove that the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 can be expanded

(i) In a series of cosines in 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝜋 as

 𝜋 𝜋 cos 𝑥 cos 3𝑥 cos 5𝑥
𝑥= − [ + + + ⋯]
2 4 12 32 52

1 1 1 𝜋2
Hence deduce that 12 + 32 + 52 + ⋯ = .
8

(ii) In a series of sines in 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝜋 as

sin 𝑥 sin 2𝑥 sin 3𝑥
𝑥 = 2[ + + + ⋯]
1 22 32
1 1 𝜋
Hence deduce that 1 − 3 + 5 − ⋯ = 4

𝜋
2 𝜋 2 𝜋 2 𝑥2
Solution. (i) 𝑎0 = 𝜋 ∫0 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝜋 ∫0 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝜋 [ 2 ] = 𝜋
0

𝑎0 𝜋
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 =
2 2

2 𝜋 2 𝜋
Now, 𝑎𝑛 = 𝜋 ∫0 𝑓(𝑥) cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝜋 ∫0 𝑥 cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥

2 𝑥 sin 𝑛𝑥 cos 𝑛𝑥 𝜋
= [ + ]
𝜋 𝑛 𝑛2 0

2 cos 𝑛𝑥 1
= [ − 2]
𝜋 𝑛2 𝑛

2 [(−1)𝑛 − 1]
= [ ]
𝜋 𝑛2

4
−
𝑖𝑓 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑
∴ 𝑎𝑛 = { 𝜋𝑛2
0 𝑖𝑓 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛

Hence the cosine series for 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 in (0, 𝜋) is given by

∞
𝜋 4 cos(2𝑛 − 1) 𝑥
𝑥= − ∑
2 𝜋 (2𝑛 − 1)2
𝑛=1

𝜋 4 cos 𝑥 cos 3𝑥 cos 5𝑥

𝑥= − [ + + + ⋯]
2 𝜋 12 32 52

𝜋 4 1 1 1
Putting 𝑥 = 0 in the above result 𝑥 = 2 − 𝜋 [12 + 32 + 52 + ⋯ ]

1 1 1 𝜋2
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, 2 + 2 + 2 + ⋯ = .
1 3 5 8
2 𝜋 2 𝜋
(ii) Now, 𝑏𝑛 = 𝜋 ∫0 𝑓(𝑥) sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝜋 ∫0 𝑥 sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥

2 cos 𝑛𝑥 sin 𝑛𝑥 𝜋
= [− + ]
𝜋 𝑛 𝑛2 0
 2 𝜋 cos 𝑛𝜋
= [− ]
𝜋 𝑛

−2(−1)𝑛
= 𝑛

The sine series for 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 in [0, 𝜋] is given as

∞
(−1)𝑛+1 sin 𝑛𝑥 sin 𝑥 sin 2𝑥 sin 3𝑥
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑥 = 2 ∑ = 2[ − + −⋯]
𝑛 1 2 3
𝑛=1

𝜋
Putting 𝑥 = in the above result we get
2

𝜋 sin(𝜋⁄2) sin 𝜋 sin(3𝜋⁄2) sin 2𝜋

= 2[ − + − + ⋯]
2 1 2 3 4

𝜋 1 1 1
(𝑖𝑒) = 2 [ − + − ⋯ ].
2 1 3 5

1 1 𝜋
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 1 − + − ⋯ = .
3 5 4

Problem 3. Find the Fourier (i) cosine series and (ii) sine series for the function 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝜋 −
𝑥 in the imterval (0, 𝜋).

Solution. (i) The Fourier cosine series of 𝑓(𝑥) is given by 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑎0 + ∑∞

𝑛=1 𝑎𝑛 cos 𝑛𝑥

𝜋 𝜋
2 2 𝑥2 2 𝜋2
𝑎0 = ∫(𝜋 − 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = [𝜋𝑥 − ] = ( ) = 𝜋.
𝜋 𝜋 2 0 𝜋 2
0

𝜋
2
𝑁𝑜𝑤, 𝑎𝑛 = ∫(𝜋 − 𝑥) cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝜋
0

2 sin 𝑛𝑥 cos 𝑛𝑥 𝜋
= 𝜋 [(𝜋 − 𝑥) − ]
𝑛 𝑛2 0

2 cos 𝑛𝑥 1
= [− + ]
𝜋 𝑛2 𝑛2

2
= 𝜋𝑛2 [(−1)𝑛+1 + 1]

4
𝑖𝑓 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑
= {𝜋𝑛2
0 𝑖𝑓 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛

𝜋 4 cos(2𝑛−1)𝑥
Hence, 𝜋 − 𝑥 = 2 + 𝜋 ∑∞
𝑛=1 (2𝑛−1)2

𝜋 4 cos 𝑥 cos 3𝑥 cos 5𝑥

𝑥= + [ + + + ⋯]
2 𝜋 12 32 52
(i) The Fourier sine series of 𝑓(𝑥) is given by ∑∞
𝑛=1 𝑏𝑛 sin 𝑛𝑥 where 𝑏𝑛 is given by

𝜋
2
𝑏𝑛 = ∫(𝜋 − 𝑥) sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝜋
0

2 cos 𝑛𝑥 sin 𝑛𝑥 𝜋
= 𝜋 [−(𝜋 − 𝑥 ) + ]
𝑛 𝑛2 0

2 𝜋 2
= 𝜋 [𝑛] = 𝑛

sin 𝑛𝑥 sin 𝑥 sin 2𝑥 sin 3𝑥

Hence𝜋 − 𝑥 = 2 ∑∞
𝑛=1 = 2[ + + + ⋯]
𝑛 1 2 3

Problem 4. Find the half range cosine series for the function 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2 in 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝜋 and
1 1 1
hence find the sum of the series 1 − 22 + 32 − 42 + ⋯

𝜋
2 𝜋 2 𝜋 2 𝑥3 2𝜋2
Solution. 𝑎0 = 𝜋 ∫0 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝜋 ∫0 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = 𝜋 [ 3 ] =
0 3

𝑎0 𝜋2
Hence =
2 3

𝜋
2
𝑁𝑜𝑤, 𝑎𝑛 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝜋
0

2 𝜋
= 𝜋 ∫0 𝑥 2 cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝜋
2 𝑥 2 sin 𝑛𝑥 2𝑥 cos 𝑛𝑥 2 sin 𝑛𝑥
= 𝜋[ + − ]
𝑛 𝑛2 𝑛3 0

2 2𝜋 cos 𝑛𝑥
= 𝜋[ ]
𝑛2

4(−1)𝑛
= 𝑛2

The cosine series for 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑥 2 is given by

∞
2
𝜋2 (−1)𝑛
𝑥 = +4∑ cos 𝑛𝑥
3 𝑛2
𝑛=1

𝜋2 cos 𝑥 cos 2𝑥 cos 3𝑥

= + 4 [− + − + ⋯]
3 12 22 32

𝜋2 cos 𝑥 cos 2𝑥 cos 3𝑥

= − 4[ − + − ⋯]
3 12 22 32

Put 𝑥 = 0 in the above result we get

𝜋2 1 1 1 1
0= − 4[ 2 − 2 + 2 − 2 +⋯]
3 1 2 3 4
 1 1 1 1 𝜋2
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 [ − + − + ⋯ ] = .
12 22 32 42 12

Problem 5. Obtain a cosine series for 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑒 𝑥 in 0 < 𝑥 < 𝜋.

2 𝜋 2 𝜋 2(𝑒 𝜋 −1)
Solution. 𝑎0 = 𝜋 ∫0 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝜋 ∫0 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝜋

𝑎0 (𝑒 𝜋 −1)
Hence =
2 𝜋

𝜋
2
𝑁𝑜𝑤, 𝑎𝑛 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝜋
0

2 𝜋
= 𝜋 ∫0 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥

2 𝑒 𝑥 (cos 𝑛𝑥+𝑛 sin 𝑛𝑥) 𝜋

= [ ]
𝜋 12 +𝑛 2 0

2 𝑒 𝜋 cos 𝑛𝑥 1
= 𝜋[ − 𝑛2 +1]
𝑛 2+1

2 𝑒 𝜋 (−1)𝑛−1
= 𝜋[ ]
𝑛 2 +1

Hence the cosine series for 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑒 𝑥 in 0 < 𝑥 < 𝜋 is given by

∞
𝑥
𝑒𝜋 − 1 2 [𝑒 𝜋 (−1)𝑛 − 1] cos 𝑛𝑥
𝑒 = + ∑
𝜋 𝜋 𝑛2 + 1
𝑛=1

𝑥 𝑖𝑛 0 < 𝑥 < 𝜋⁄2

Problem 6. Find the Fourier sine series of the function 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = {
𝜋 − 𝑥 𝑖𝑛 𝜋⁄2 < 𝑥 < 𝜋

Solution. The sine series for 𝑓(𝑥) is given by 𝑓(𝑥 ) = ∑∞

𝑛=1 𝑏𝑛 sin 𝑛𝑥. Where

𝜋
2
𝑏𝑛 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝜋
0

2 𝜋⁄2 2 𝜋
Now, 𝑏𝑛 = 𝜋 ∫0 𝑥 sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝜋 ∫𝜋⁄2 (𝜋 − 𝑥) sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝜋 𝜋
2 𝑥 cos 𝑛𝑥 sin 𝑛𝑥 2 2 (𝜋 − 𝑥 ) cos 𝑛𝑥 sin 𝑛𝑥
= [− + 2
] + [− − ]
𝜋 𝑛 𝑛 0 𝜋 𝑛 𝑛2 𝜋
2

2 𝜋 𝑛𝜋 sin(𝑛𝜋⁄2) 2 sin 𝑛𝜋 𝜋 𝑛𝜋 1 𝑛𝜋
= [− cos ( ) + 2
]+ [ 2 + cos ( ) + 2 sin ( )]
𝜋 2𝑛 2 𝑛 𝜋 𝑛 2𝑛 2 𝑛 2

2 2 𝑛𝜋
= [ 2 sin ( )]
𝜋 𝑛 2
 4 𝑛𝜋
= sin ( ).
𝜋𝑛 2 2

4 1 𝑛𝜋
Hence 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝜋 ∑∞
𝑛=1 𝑛 2 sin ( 2 ) sin 𝑛𝑥

4 sin 𝑥 sin 𝜋 sin 𝑥 sin(3𝜋⁄2) sin 3𝑥

= [ + + +⋯]
𝜋 12 22 32

4 sin 𝑥 sin 3𝑥 sin 5𝑥

= [ − + −⋯]
𝜋 12 32 52

Problem 7. Find the half range sine series for 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥(𝜋 − 𝑥) in (0, 𝜋). Deduce that

1 1 1 𝜋3
− + −⋯ =
13 33 53 32

Solution. The half range sine series for 𝑓 (𝑥 ) in (0, 𝜋) is given by

2 𝜋
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = ∑∞
𝑛=1 𝑏𝑛 sin 𝑛𝑥. Where 𝑏𝑛 = 𝜋 ∫0 𝑓(𝑥) sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥

2 𝜋
Now, 𝑏𝑛 = 𝜋 ∫0 𝑥(𝜋 − 𝑥) sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝜋
2 − cos 𝑛𝑥 − sin 𝑛𝑥 cos 𝑛𝑥
= [(𝜋𝑥 − 𝑥 2 ) ( )−( ) ( 𝜋 − 2𝑥 ) + (−2)]
𝜋 𝑛 𝑛2 𝑛3 0

(by using Bernoulli’s formula)

2 cos 𝑛𝑥 2 cos 𝑛𝑥 2
= [(−𝜋 2 + 𝜋 2 ) − + 3]
𝜋 𝑛 𝑛3 𝑛

4
= (1 − cos 𝑛𝜋)
𝜋𝑛3

4 1 − (−1)𝑛
= [ ]
𝜋 𝑛3

4 1−(−1)𝑛
Hence 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = ∑∞
𝑛=1 𝜋 [ ] sin 𝑛𝑥
𝑛3

4 2 sin 𝑥 2 sin 3𝑥 2 sin 5𝑥

= [ + + + ⋯]
𝜋 13 33 53

8 sin 𝑥 sin 3𝑥 sin 5𝑥

= [ + + + ⋯]
𝜋 13 33 53
𝜋
Put 𝑥 = in the above result we get
2

𝜋 8 1 1 1
𝑓( ) = [ 3 − 3 + 3 −⋯]
2 𝜋 1 3 5
 𝜋 𝜋 8 1 1 1
(𝑖𝑒) (𝜋 − ) = [ 3 − 3 + 3 − ⋯ ]
2 2 𝜋 1 3 5

𝜋2 8 1 1 1
(𝑖𝑒) = [ 3 − 3 + 3 − ⋯]
4 𝜋 1 3 5

1 1 1 𝜋3
− + −⋯ =
13 33 53 32

Problem 8. Find the Fourier constant 𝑏1 for the function 𝑥 sin 𝑥 in the half range 0 < 𝑥 < 𝜋.

Solution.

Let 𝑓 (𝑥 ) − 𝑥 sin 𝑥. Then the half range Fourier series for 𝑓(𝑥) is given by 𝑓 (𝑥 ) =
∑∞
𝑛=1 𝑏𝑛 sin 𝑛𝑥. Where 𝑏𝑛 is given by the formula

𝜋
2
𝑏𝑛 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥 ) sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝜋
0

2 𝜋
= 𝜋 ∫0 (𝑥 sin 𝑥) sin 𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥………………(1)

Put 𝑛 = 1 in (1) and we get

𝜋
2
𝑏1 = ∫ 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝜋
0

2 𝜋 𝑥(1−cos 2𝑥)
= 𝜋 ∫0 𝑑𝑥
2

𝜋
1 𝑥2 𝑥 sin 2𝑥 cos 2𝑥
= 𝜋[2 − − ]
2 4 0

1 𝜋2 1 1
= 𝜋 ( 2 − 4 + 4)

𝜋
Hence the Fourier constant 𝑏1 = 2 .

Exercise.

1. Obtain the half range sine series for the following functions
(i) 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2 in 0 < 𝑥 < 1
(ii) 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑒 𝑥 in 0 < 𝑥 < 1
(iii)𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 3 in 0 < 𝑥 < 𝜋
1 1
− x 𝑖𝑛0 < 𝑥 < 2
4
(iv) f(x) = { 3 1
x−4 𝑖𝑛 <𝑥<1
2

(v) 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = cos 2𝑥 in 0 < 𝑥 < 𝜋

2. Obtain the half range cosine series for the following functions.
 (i) 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = sin 𝑥 in 0 < 𝑥 < 𝜋
0 𝑖𝑛 0 < 𝑥 < 1
(ii) 𝑓(𝑥) = {
1 𝑖𝑛 1 < 𝑥 < 2
1 𝑖𝑛 0 < 𝑥 < 𝑎⁄2
(iii)𝑓(𝑥) = {
−1 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 ⁄2 < 𝑥 < 𝑎

5.4 FOURIER SERIES -ARBITRARY RANGE

So far, we have delt with Fourier series expansions having periods 2𝜋 or 𝜋. But in
many of the problems the functions may have arbitrary periods(not necessarily2𝜋). We now
obtain Euler's formulae for Fouriercoefficients for functions having period 2𝑙 where𝑙 is any
positive integer.

Suppose 𝑓(𝑥) is defined in the interval (−𝑙, 𝑙).

𝜋𝑥 𝑙𝑧
Let 𝑧 = .Hence𝑥 = . Also, when𝑥 = −𝑙 wehave 𝑧 = −𝜋and when 𝑥 = 𝑙 we have 𝑧 =
𝑙 𝜋

𝜋Hence, the Fourier series of 𝐹(𝑧) is given by

∞
𝑎0
𝐹 (𝑧 ) = + ∑ (𝑎𝑛 cos 𝑛𝑧 + 𝑏𝑛 sin 𝑛𝑧).
2
𝑛=1

1 𝜋
Then we have 𝑎0 = 𝜋 ∫−𝜋 𝐹(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧

𝜋 𝜋
1 1
𝑎𝑛 = ∫ 𝐹(𝑧) cos 𝑛𝑧 𝑑𝑧 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏𝑛 = ∫ 𝐹(𝑧) sin 𝑛𝑧 𝑑𝑧
𝜋 𝜋
−𝜋 −𝜋

𝑙𝑧 𝑎0
Hence 𝑓 ( 𝜋 ) = + ∑∞
𝑛=1(𝑎𝑛 cos 𝑛𝑧 + 𝑏𝑛 sin 𝑛𝑧)
2

1 𝜋 𝑙𝑧
Where 𝑎0 = 𝜋 ∫−𝜋 𝑓 ( 𝜋 ) 𝑑𝑧;

𝜋 𝜋
1 𝑙𝑧 1 𝑙𝑧
𝑎𝑛 = ∫ 𝑓 ( ) cos 𝑛𝑧 𝑑𝑧 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏𝑛 = ∫ 𝑓 ( ) sin 𝑛𝑧 𝑑𝑧
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
−𝜋 −𝜋

𝑙𝑧
We now go back to the original variable 𝑥 by using the transformations 𝑥 = so that 𝑑𝑥 =
𝜋
𝑙
𝑑𝑧.
𝜋

Thus

∞
𝑎0 𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = + ∑ [𝑎𝑛 cos ( ) + 𝑏𝑛 sin ( )]
2 𝑙 𝑙
𝑛=1

Where
 𝑙
1
𝑎0 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑙
−𝑙
𝑙
1 𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝑎𝑛 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) cos ( ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑙 𝑙
−𝑙
𝑙
1 𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝑏𝑛 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) sin ( ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑙 𝑙
−𝑙

Note. The above formulae are valid for any interval of length 2𝑙.

Solved Problems.

Problem 1. If 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑥 is defined in the interval −𝑙 < 𝑥 < 𝑙 with period 2𝑙. Find the Fourier
expansion of𝑓(𝑥).

Solution. Since 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 is an odd function 𝑎𝑛 = 0 for all 𝑛 ≥ 0.

2 𝑙 𝑛𝜋𝑥
Now, 𝑏𝑛 = 𝑙 ∫−𝑙 𝑥 sin ( ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑙

𝑙
2 𝑙𝑥 𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑙2 𝑛𝜋𝑥
= 𝑙 [− 𝑛𝜋 cos ( ) + 𝑛2𝜋2 sin ( )] (Bernoulli’s formula)
𝑙 𝑙 0

2 −𝑙 2 cos 𝑛𝜋
= ( )
𝑙 𝑛𝜋

−𝑙(−1)𝑛
= 2( )
𝑛𝜋

2(−1)𝑛+1 𝑙
=
𝑛𝜋

2 (−1)𝑛+1𝑙 𝑛𝜋𝑥
Hence the Fourier series is 𝑥 = 𝜋 ∑∞
𝑛=1 [ sin ( )] .
𝑛 𝑙

Problem 2. Find the Fourier series for 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2 in −1 < 𝑥 < 1.

Solution. Since 𝑓(𝑥) is an even function 𝑏𝑛 = 0 for all 𝑛

1
1 1 𝑥3 2
Now, 𝑎0 = 2 ∫0 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 2 ∫0 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = 2 [ 3 ] = 3
0

𝑎𝑛 = 2 ∫ 𝑥 2 cos 𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0

1
𝑥 2 sin 𝑛𝜋𝑥 2𝑥 cos 𝑛𝜋𝑥 2 sin 𝑛𝜋𝑥
= 2[ + − ]
𝑛𝜋 𝑛 2𝜋2 𝑛 3𝜋3 0
 (Using Bernoulli’s formula)

2 cos 𝑛𝜋
= 2( )
𝑛 2𝜋2

4(−1)𝑛
= 𝑛 2𝜋 2

Hence the Fourier series for 𝑓(𝑥) in (−1,1) is given by

∞
2
1 4 (−1)𝑛 cos 𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝑥 = + 2∑[ ]
3 𝜋 𝑛2
𝑛=1

Problem 3. Find a Fourier sine series for 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 in 0 < 𝑥 < 𝑙.

Solution. Since we have to find only the sine series of the Fourier series for the given
function, we find only the Fourier coefficients 𝑏𝑛 which is got from the formula

𝑙
2 𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝑏𝑛 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) sin ( ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑙 𝑙
−𝑙

2 𝑙 𝑛𝜋𝑥
= ∫−𝑙 (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) sin ( ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑙 𝑙

𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑙
2 −(𝑎𝑥+𝑏)𝑙 cos( 𝑙 ) 𝑎𝑙2 sin( )
𝑙
= [ + 2 2
]
𝑙 𝑛𝜋 𝑛 𝜋
0

2 −𝑙(𝑎𝑙+𝑏)𝑙 cos 𝑛𝜋 𝑏𝑙
=𝑙[ + 𝑛𝜋 ] (justify)
𝑛𝜋

2 𝑏−(𝑎𝑙+𝑏)(−1)𝑛
= 𝜋[ ] (verify)
𝑛

Hence the sine series for 𝑓(𝑥) is given by

∞
2 𝑏 − (𝑎𝑙 + 𝑏)(−1)𝑛 𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 = ∑ [ ] sin ( ).
𝜋 𝑛 𝑙
𝑛=1

Problem 4. Find the half range Fourier sine series of 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 in 0 < 𝑥 < 2.

Solution. The half range Fourier sine series for 𝑓(𝑥 ) is given by

∞
𝑛𝜋
𝑓(𝑥 ) = ∑ 𝑏𝑛 sin ( )
2
𝑛=1

2 𝑛𝜋
Where 𝑏𝑛 = 2 ∫ 𝑓 (𝑥 ) sin ( 2 )
 2
𝑛𝜋
= ∫ sin ( ) 𝑑𝑥
2
0

𝑛𝜋𝑥 𝑛𝜋𝑥 2
−2 cos ( 2 ) 4 sin ( 2 )
=[ + ]
𝑛𝜋 𝑛2 𝜋 2
0

−4 cos 𝑛𝜋
=( )
𝑛𝜋

4 (−1)𝑛
=− [ ]
𝜋 𝑛

Hence the Fourier series for 𝑓(𝑥) is given by

∞
4 (−1)𝑛 𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝑥 = − ∑[ sin ( )]
𝜋 𝑛 2
𝑛=1

Exercises.

Find the Fourier series to represent the following functions:

−1 in − 2 < 𝑥 < 0
1. 𝑓(𝑥) = {
1 in 0 < 𝑥 < 2
2. 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2 − 2 in −2 < 𝑥 < 2
3. 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 2𝑥 − 𝑥 2 in 0 < 𝑥 < 3
1 in −1 <𝑥 <1
4. 𝑓(𝑥) = {
0 in1 < 𝑥 < 3
5. 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = (𝑥 − 1)2 in 0 < 𝑥 < 1

Study Learning Material Prepared by

Dr. S.N. LEENA NELSON M.Sc., M.Phil., Ph.D.

Associate Professor & Head, Department of Mathematics,
Women’s Christian College, Nagercoil – 629 001,
Kanyakumari District, Tamilnadu, India.