ISSN: 1234-5678

Proceeding ECKLL International Seminar Vol. 10, No. 1, November 2022, pp. 85-96

Second Language (L-2) Learning Theory and Its Application in

Speaking Classes

Mario Christian Noer Tjahyanto1, Besin Gaspar2, Yenny Hartanto3

Politeknik Universitas Surabaya, Surabaya, Indonesia
Politeknik Universitas Surabaya, Surabaya, Indonesia
Politeknik Universitas Surabaya, Surabaya, Indonesia
Email: [email protected], [email protected],
[email protected]

Abstract

This article discusses two main issues related to the theory of learning a second language
and its application in speaking classes, mostly from psycholinguistic perspectives. The first
part discusses the theory of learning the second language which consists of four main
points, namely 1) the theory of language learning in general, 2) the variables that
characterize the second language learning process such as neurological aspects,
psychological aspects and psycho-pedagogic aspects, 3) affective factors in learning the
second language and 4) the role of translation in learning the second language. The second
part is about the application of L-2 learning theory in speaking classes based on the writer's
own experiences. These include issues such as how to deal with the accuracy vs fluency,
how to deal the introvert and extrovert students, how to deal with students’ mistakes in
speaking, and how to empower the students by giving more freedom and trust and building
self-confidence and self-esteem in order that they want to express themselves freely and
confidently.
Keywords: L-2 learning theory, speaking, fluency and accuracy, self-esteem.

A. Introduction Second Language Acquisition

The concepts of "learning" and (1986); Dulay, Burt and Krashen in
"acquisition" are clearly Language Two (1982) and many
distinguished in language learning. others. Second language learning
Learning refers to activities that are theory is not discussed as much when
carried out consciously and planned compared to second language
while acquisition is an activity that is acquisition theory. Therefore, this
not planned and spontaneous article on theories of second
(Krashen, 1998). Many linguists, language learning is largely based on
especially psycholinguists, have Applied Psycholinguistics: An
discussed first language acquisition Introduction to the Psychology of
and second language acquisition, Language Learning and Teaching by
including W. Klein with his book Renzo Titone and Marcel Danesi

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Learning Theory and Its Application in Spaking Classes

(1985) and several articles in The essay 'The Holistic Approach to

Second Language. Classroom Second Language Education' (Alatis
(1981), in particular, an essay written at al., 1981: 73), asserts that first
by H.D. Brown entitled 'Affective language acquisition and second
Factors in Second Language language learning are very different
Learning'. in five respects. First, the acquisition
First language learning, of the first language takes place
according to the authors' spontaneously and unplanned, while
observations at various seminars on learning the second language takes
teaching English, is rarely discussed. place in a planned manner. Second,
Most discussions focus on first the acquisition of a first language is
language acquisition, not first driven by primary needs, namely the
language learning since first need to express opinions, and to
language is not learned but acquired. communicate with parents. While
Therefore, according to Titone and learning a second language is driven
Danesi (1985: 83), many claim that by softer needs such as getting high
learning a second language is the grades at school. Third, in the
same as acquiring the first language acquisition of the first language,
because there are similarities in the students start from zero, while in
following points. First, learning learning the second language,
techniques such as imitation, students already know the first
repetition, and practice are involved language / mother tongue. This can
in these two learning processes. be beneficial, but it can also be a
Second, understanding precedes disadvantage. Fourth, students
production. Third, listening and learning a second language already
speaking precede reading and have the ability to distinguish sounds
writing. and language structures, while in
According to Titoni and acquiring the first language, students
Danesi, this view is influenced by do not have this ability. Fifth,
the behavioristic model of language students in learning a second
acquisition. Titoni himself in his language already have a certain

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attitude towards foreign cultures answered with two possibilities,

which may affect learning process. namely the answer based on the
behavioristic model and the answer
B. Research Method based on the cognitive model.
This article will discuss two According to the behavioristic model,
main issues related to the theory of people learn a language based on the
learning a second language and its stimulus-response principle. In its
application in speaking courses. application, people learn language
The first part discusses the theory by imitation, repetition, practice /
of learning the second language drill, memorization, for the
which consists of four main points, formation of correct habits (habit
namely 1) the theory of language formation). In contrast, according to
learning in general, 2) the variables the cognitive model, people learn
that characterize the second language by understanding data
language learning process such as received by the brain through the
neurological aspects, psychological senses. What matters is the
aspects and psycho-pedagogic individual's ability to understand and
aspects, 3) affective factors in respond to situations and this is a
learning the second language and 4) mental process, not a (physical) habit
the role of translation in learning formation process. The principle is
the second language. The second that it is better to know and not be
part is about the application of L-2 able to say it than to say something
learning theory in speaking courses without understanding it. Of the two
based on the authors' own models above, which one is correct?
experience. According to Titoni and Danesi
(1985: 83), the truth lies in between
C. Results and Discussion the two learning theories, namely
Language Learning Theory that learning is a complex process
How do people learn a that involves behavioral or
language? According to Roger Bell environmental and cognitive
(1981: 23), this question can be elements at the same time, and both

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Learning Theory and Its Application in Spaking Classes

complement each other. Therefore, is the affective aspect in encouraging

Schumann as quoted by Titoni and students to show self-actualization.

Danesi, proposes a second language Several Variables Characterizing

learning model through three Second Language Learning
parameters, namely 1) initiating 1. Neurological Aspects

parameters, namely affective The main question here is: do the

variables that take the initiative and critical period and lateralization

regulate the learning process 2) play a role in the process of learning

cognitive parameters, cognitive a second language? The answer is

activities carried out by students. yes, but it depends on the age of the

Students to input data from the student (Titoni and Danesi, 1985:

target language (input data of the 84- 85). For students who learn a

target language). This process second language during a critical

includes generalizing, drawing period and their brains are still

conclusions, making analogies and elastic, then they will be superior in

memorizing 3) linguistic products, mastering their speech like native

namely the results of the first and speakers, compared to students who

second, for example word formation, have passed puberty because the

changing sentences from positive to neurologic aspect is related to

negative, forming interrogative maturation of speech muscles. This

sentences, etc.( Krashen, 1998). is not to say that adults cannot

To answer the question of how master good speech. Adults can, but
people learn a language, Titoni and it takes more time and efforts.
Danesi (1985: 60) not only mention two Second, students who learn a
theories, namely behavioristic and second language when the
cognitive, but they add a third theory, lateralization process has not been
namely the humanistic theory.
completed and the brain is still
According to this theory, learning a
elastic, will master it more easily or
language needs to apply an interpersonal
without much difficulty when
approach: trust, freedom, and self-
compared to adults. However, this
esteem which are the keywords in the
hypothesis has been heavily
humanistic approach. What is important

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criticized. fourth element related to the

2. Psychological Aspects. psychological aspect is cognitive
This psychological aspect learning style that leads to the
includes several elements, namely formation of talent (aptitude).
the influence of the first language, Stern in Titone and Danesi
age, motivation and learning style. (1985: 89) mentions four
First, the first language that has characteristics that characterize a
been mastered by students can good learning style. First, perpetual
facilitate but also hinder/complicate motor ability, namely the ability to
the process of learning a second receive and produce sounds with
language. The issueof 'facilitate' and high accuracy. Second, grammatical
'interfere' has often been discussed. cognitive ability, namely the ability
The second element, age also has to recognize grammatical functions
an effect. Adults are more and forms of linguistic
concentrated, so they have more elements.Third, mnemonic
ability to memorize especially for cognitive ability, namely the ability
the short term. In addition, adults to memorize a number of
excel at understanding abstract associations in a short time. Fourth,
concepts such as complex grammar. generalization ability, namely the
The third element, motivation is an ability to generalize the structural
influential variable in learning a pattern of existing language data. In
second language. Two important the classroom, this can be seen from
types of motivation are intrinsic the ability of students to imitate
motivation and instrumental sounds and produce phonemic
motivation. Likewise, attitudes, differences, and the ability to
namely attitudes towards people master the target language easily.
who speak the language being 3. Psycho-pedagogic Aspects.
studied (target language). This is According to Titoni and Danesi
related to intrinsic motivation, (1985), knowing the structure of a
namely the desire to know and be language means knowing how the
accepted in the target culture. The language is structured and how

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Learning Theory and Its Application in Spaking Classes

that knowledge can convey meaning Affective Factors in Learning a

through a structural framework as Second Language
language competence. The main Brown (1981: 114-123)
problem associated with learning mentions several factors that play a
these structures is how second role in learning a second language.
language linguistic competencies The four factors are egocentric factor,
are learned? The trick is to transactional factor, motivation and
compare it with the L-1 structure. attitude. The egocentric factor refers
This method developed very rapidly to the concepts of personality such as
between the 60s and 70s with the self-esteem and self-confidence. The
main figure Robert Lado. After results showed that there was
getting quite a lot of criticism in the a positive correlation between high
80s this method began to be self-esteem and success rates.
abandoned and applied linguistics Transactional factors refer to the
experts and L-2 teachers began to process of communication with other
switch from contrastive analysis to people. Several transactional factors
error analysis. that are closely related to B-2
There are four stages in learningare imitation, modeling,
learning L-2 according to Titoni. identification, empathy,
First, the initial stage where students extroversion, and style of
get acquainted with sounds and learn communication. Empathy is defined
to imitate and repeat the sounds. as 'seeing oneself through the eyes of
Second, the production stage, where others'. Communication demands a
students can produce sounds high level of empathy. One must
spontaneously and more easily. understand the affective and
Third, the stage ofspeech production cognitive states of others.
by using mental processes. Fourth, Extroverted people will be more
the last stage is characterized by the successful in mastering oral
production of sounds, structures and communication competence because
expressions spontaneously like they are good at getting along. The
native speakers. motivational factor refers to the drive

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for someone to learn L-2. There are think directly in the target language
two main types of motivation without going through translation.
mentioned by Brown, namely Although experimental evidence
instrumental motivation and intrinsic suggests that it is possible, mental
motivation which have been translation is often applied in
described previously. Attitude practice,especially for adults because
factors refer to a person's decision to translation is related to mental
accept or reject something, in this processes. So, according to Titoni
case, the culture of the group whose and Danesi (1985: 100), translation is
language is being studied. Gardner unavoidable in learning L-2 as a
and Lambert's research shows that a strategy of 'decoding and encoding'
positive attitude towards accepting in the early and advanced stages.
the culture of the group whose First, translation is used when
language is being studied will have a there is a structure or concept that is
positive outcome in learning a difficult to explain. Second, at an
second language. advanced stage, translation is needed
to measure the ability to transfer
The Role of Translation in the L- 2 from one language to another.
Learning Process According to Titoni and Danesi, there
If we relate the role of L-1 in are three levels of translation,
the learning process of L-2, then the namely free translation, literal
problem of translation needs to be translation, and the lowest is word-to-
discussed. This is felt at an early word translation. This method of
stage, when students tend to think in learning L-2 by translating is known
linguistic categories that come from as the oldest method since Roman
their L-1 to understand (decode) and times and although criticized by
code the target language. In other many experts, it is still used by
words, students translate silently in language teachers until now.
an attempt to understand and produce
the target language. The fundamental The Application of L-2 Learning
question is whether it is possible to Theory in Speaking Classes

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Learning Theory and Its Application in Spaking Classes

Speaking (speaking skills) is and improve their ability to

one of the courses in the English understand spoken language. After
language and literature department the teacher reads the dialogue, the
whose credit weights are quite large teacher immediately asks the
ranging from 10 to 14 credits and students about the contents of the
are usually distributed from dialogue to check whether the
semester one to semester four. This students understand it. The questions
course aims to train students to asked revolve around the people
speak English as a L-2 or foreign involved in the dialogue, where the
language fluently and accurately. dialogue takes place, the relationship
So, the level of student progress is between the people in the dialogue,
assessed from fluency and accuracy. and what they talk about. In short, it
Accuracy refers to appropriate is about the context.
speech, grammar, word choice,
and style. To achieve a high level of B. Building Habit Formation in
fluency and accuracy like native the Early Levels
speakers in this speaking classes, Second, for the elementary
lecturers need to consider and apply level (Speaking I and Speaking II),
some concepts of L-2 learning it is recommended that more
theory as described below. behavioristic learning models be
applied. Meanwhile, the cognitive
A. Comprehension learning model is mostly applied at
First, Production of Sounds; the intermediate and advanced
understanding precedes the levels. This is the trick. In
production of sound. In practice, if introducing a dialogue, the teacher
the teacher starts this class by is recommended to drill students
introducing a dialogue as a model, with techniques such as imitation,
when the teacher reads the dialogue, repetition with a clear meaning
students are asked not to look at the (meaningful) to form correct habits,
text. They just listen. It is important especially in terms of speech. For
for students to practice concentration intermediate and advanced levels,

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teachers are recommended to apply understandable'. However, teachers

learning with a cognitive model that of speaking in the English language
emphasizes mental processes, department should not be trapped
namely the individual's ability to with this general opinion and
understand and be creative in sacrifice the principle of accuracy.
forming and constructing new Preferably, at the initial stage,
sentence patterns and the ability to fluency is prioritized, but the higher
solve problems with different the level, fluency and accuracy
sentence patterns. should be given balanced. Once we
sacrifice accuracy, it is difficult to
Dealing with Accuracy and Fluency change since it has been frozen. I
Third, the age factor has a big still believe in habit formation. This
influence in the effort to master L- is different from those who study
2. In speaking classes, teachers English in English courses for a
don't need to be too idealistic and short term and are prepared to
expect their students to speak become guides, etc.(Hussein, 2017;
English as L-2or a foreign language Harmer, 2004)
with perfect accents like native
speakers. This is not possible Dealing with Extrovert and
because the students who take this Introvert Students.
speaking course are over 18 years Fourth, teachers need to know
old; Thus, the lateralization process their students individually and
has been completed and the vocal group them according to extroverts
cords are no longer elastic. and introverts because affective
Therefore, the target in speech factors play a very important role in
mastery is "nativelike" and improving oral communication
"understandable". With the skills. An extrovert person will
development of a communicative progress faster because he is actively
approach to language teaching, talking with friends or with the
manypeople say that in mastering L- teacher and is willing to take the
2, what is important is 'fluent and initiative to make a presentation in

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Learning Theory and Its Application in Spaking Classes

front of the class like a role-play. freedom and trust in class. Give
On the other hand, introverts don't students the freedom to speak
dare to try because they are shy. For without being afraid. Give each
this type of personality, the teacher individual the opportunity to present
should not force him to come in class. Students will feel proud that
forward in front of the class because he/she is trusted and empowered.
this can be fatal: he feels cornered Second, build a sense of dignity and
and discouraged. During pair up and self-esteem in the students’ mind. As
practice, he/she should choose a an illustration, if a student makes
friend who is suitable/close to him mistakes in class, don't embarrass
so that he can open up and want to him or her. Instead, make a
talk, especially for pair practice motivating comment and inspire
interviews about personal matters, him/her. This is important because
for example, family, likes and everyone wants to be regarded as
interests. worthy. Everyone has the dignity.
This does not mean that lecturers
Dealing with Student’s mistakes cannot correct student errors. In
Giving feedback on the principle, it can be done. In practice,
student performance in speaking or comments begin by pointing out
presentation should be done with positive things, then followed by
care, based on humanistic negative things without
approach. Too much correction is embarrassing the student.
counterproductive; but not
correcting student mistakes at all is D. Conclusion
counterproductive as well. As a conclusion from this
description of the L-2 learning
Making the Students Empowered theory, there are three things that
In speaking classes at need to be emphasized here again.
intermediate and advanced levels, First, learning L-2 is a different
lecturers should apply a humanistic process from acquiring L-1.
approach. First, give students However, the behavioristic learning

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model and the cognitive model will handled with care, based on
remain the basic principles when we humanistic approach. Finally, a good
ask: how do people learn a language. teacher tells the students and
Second, there are three important demonstrate, but a great teacher
variables that influence L-2 learning, inspires.
namely neurological aspects,
psychological aspects and psycho- References
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Bell, Roger. 1981. An Introduction
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though it gets a lot of criticism.
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influence of age factors and the
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who is successful in teaching Language Learners' Theories
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speaking skills is the one who
Articles: Studies in Second
incorporates the above concepts in Language Acquisition, 24(3),
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speaking class and he/she
himself/herself is an extrovert Harmer, J.2004. Teacher
Knowledge. London. Pearson.
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and Implications.
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Learning Theory and Its Application in Spaking Classes

English and Education, 2(2),

114-118

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