Don Bosco Institute of Technology, Bengaluru

Department: Electronics & Communication Engineering

Course: Engineering Electromagnetics (BEC401)
IV sem B.E. (ECE) (CBCS)
Module -2-Gauss’s law and Divergence, Energy, Potential and Conductors
(Text: Chapter 3.2 to 3.7, 4.1 to 4.2, 5.1, 5.2)
2.1 Gauss’s law and applications
2.1.1 Gauss Law
Solid angle: Let ds denote an element of
surface area. Join all the points of the
boundary of ds to ‘O’ thereby forming a
cone. Draw a sphere of radius ‘r’ with center
‘O’ and let dso denote the area at that
position at this sphere which is cut by the
cone with radius ‘r’. Then the solid angle d
subtended at ‘O’ by the surface element ds is
the area cutout on the unit sphere with center

Fig. 2.1 ‘O’ by the cone ds.

From the above figure 2.1
A.B = AB cos 
dso = ds cos lr. ln= lrln cos 
= lr.ln ds lr. 1n = cos

Also the area

dsO d
=
4 r 4 1
2 2

4 dso
 d =
4 r 2
Now ln ds is a vector whose direction is normal to plane of ds.
l .ds
d = r 2 ds = 1nds
r
Thus the solid angle subtended by the surface at ‘O’ is

Ir.ds
 =
r2
The unit in which solid angle is measured is steradin.
For a closed surface the solid angle is given by

(i) at an internal point = the whole area of unit sphere

= 4
(ii) at an external point = zero

Dr. Basavaraj Neelgar

 Don Bosco Institute of Technology, Bengaluru
Department: Electronics & Communication Engineering
Course: Engineering Electromagnetics (BEC401)
IV sem B.E. (ECE) (CBCS)
Module -2-Gauss’s law and Divergence, Energy, Potential and Conductors
(Text: Chapter 3.2 to 3.7, 4.1 to 4.2, 5.1, 5.2)
Gauss Law: Gauss Law states that the total flux emerging from a closed surface is equal to the
charge enclosed by the surface. The surface over which the integral is taken is called Gaussian
surface.
i.e.  D  ds  Q
Proof:
Fig. 2.2

Let ‘Q’ be the point a closed surface ‘S’. Let P be a point

on the surface contained within flux density at the point P.
Now D =  E
Q
= Ir
4  r 2
Q
= Ir
4 r 2
The flux passing through the element ds is d = D.ds

 The total flux passing through the surface S is

 =  D.ds
S

Q
=  4 r
S
l .ds
2 r

Q I r .ds
4 S r 2
=

Q
4  S
= d (from solid angle)
Since point ‘P’ is inside the closed surface
 d = 4
S

Q
 = .4 = Q
4

Then  D.ds = Q
If instead of point charge at ‘P’ it is assumed that a volume distribution of charge density v is
contained then gauss law may be expressed as

S
 D.ds =∫

Dr. Basavaraj Neelgar

 Don Bosco Institute of Technology, Bengaluru
Department: Electronics & Communication Engineering
Course: Engineering Electromagnetics (BEC401)
IV sem B.E. (ECE) (CBCS)
Module -2-Gauss’s law and Divergence, Energy, Potential and Conductors
(Text: Chapter 3.2 to 3.7, 4.1 to 4.2, 5.1, 5.2)
Applications of Gauss Law for some Symmetrical Charge Distributions
From Gauss Law

Q=  D .ds
S
s

Ds can be determined if the charge distribution is known.

A closed surface has to be chosen which satisfied the two conditions.
1. Ds is everywhere either normal or tangential to the closed surface so that Ds.ds becomes either
Dsds or zero respectively.
2. On that portion of the closed surface for which Ds.ds is not zero Ds = constant.

Case1: Consider a point charge ‘Q’ at the origin of a spherical surface co-ordinates system.
Consider a spherical surface centered at origin and radius r. Ds is everywhere normal to the
surface. Ds has the same value at all points on the surface.
Then
Q =  D.ds =  D.ds
S Sph
2 
= Ds  D.ds = Ds   r2sin dd
O O
Sph

= 4r2Ds.
Q Q
 Ds = ar & E = ar
4 r 2
4  r 2
Case 2 : Consider a uniform line charge distribution ρl lying along z-axis. and extending from-
to  as shown in Figure 2.3 It is known that for a uniform line charge only the radial component
of D is present.
A cylindrical surface can be chosen to which Dr is everywhere
normal A closed right circular cylinder of radius ‘r’ extending from
z= 0 to z =l is shown in figure. Applying gauss law.

Q=  Ds.ds = 
c 41
Top
Ds.ds + sides
Ds.ds + Bottom
Ds.ds

= Ds  ds + 0 + 0
sides
L 2
= Ds   r d dz
O O
= Ds 2 rl
Q
= Dr =
2 rL
 L L
In terms of charge density Q = ρlL.  Ds = L E= aρ
2 rL 2  r

Dr. Basavaraj Neelgar

 Don Bosco Institute of Technology, Bengaluru
Department: Electronics & Communication Engineering
Course: Engineering Electromagnetics (BEC401)
IV sem B.E. (ECE) (CBCS)
Module -2-Gauss’s law and Divergence, Energy, Potential and Conductors
(Text: Chapter 3.2 to 3.7, 4.1 to 4.2, 5.1, 5.2)
1. By using Gauss law develop on expression for electric field intensity in the dielectric
medium between concentric spherical conductor having radius R1& R2 charged with +Q
and -Q coulombs respectively.
Sol:

Assume that charges are uniformly distributed over spherical conductors

(i) for r < R1
 D.ds = Q
Since no charge is enclosed
 D.ds = 0
o  E.ds = 0
E=0 r < R1

(ii) For R1 r  R2

For r  R1
 D.ds .ds = Q
 oE4r2 = Q
Q
E= R1 r  R2
4 o r 2

Q
& E= at r = R1
4 o r 2

Dr. Basavaraj Neelgar

 Don Bosco Institute of Technology, Bengaluru
Department: Electronics & Communication Engineering
Course: Engineering Electromagnetics (BEC401)
IV sem B.E. (ECE) (CBCS)
Module -2-Gauss’s law and Divergence, Energy, Potential and Conductors
(Text: Chapter 3.2 to 3.7, 4.1 to 4.2, 5.1, 5.2)
(iii) For r  R2
At any point outside both the shells charge enclosed is +Q – Q = 0
E=0 r > R2
E=0 r < R1
Q
E= r = R1
4 o r 2

Q
E= R1 r  R2
4 o r 2
Q
E= r = R2
4 o r 2
E=0 at r > R2

2. A charge at +Q coulombs is distributed uniformly throughout the volume of a sphere of

radius R meter. Find E everywhere.
Sol:

(i) r< R
Since charge Q is uniformly distributed ever the
entire volume. The charge enclosed by a concentric
sphere of radius r < R is proportional to volume of
radius r.

3
4 Qr  r 
i.e. Qr  r 3 , but Q =  = 
3 Q R
From gauss law
r3
 D.ds  Q R 3
r3
D.4r 2  Q
R3
Qr
D ar
4R 3
Qr
E ar
4 0 R 3
Q
E will be maximum at r =R i.e E  ar
4 0 R 2

Dr. Basavaraj Neelgar

 Don Bosco Institute of Technology, Bengaluru
Department: Electronics & Communication Engineering
Course: Engineering Electromagnetics (BEC401)
IV sem B.E. (ECE) (CBCS)
Module -2-Gauss’s law and Divergence, Energy, Potential and Conductors
(Text: Chapter 3.2 to 3.7, 4.1 to 4.2, 5.1, 5.2)
E at the surface at r = R
E= ar
For r > R

 D.ds = Q
 oE4r2 = Q
Q
E= ar
4 o r 2
Qr
Thus E = ar r< R
4 o R3

= ar r=R
Q
= ar r> R
4 o r 2

2.1.2 Gauss’s law in point form

Gauss’s law in point form states that the divergence of electric flux density is equal to the
volume charge density, that is,
.D  
Proof: Consider a differential parallelepiped as shown in figure 2.3

Figure 2.3

Dr. Basavaraj Neelgar

 Don Bosco Institute of Technology, Bengaluru
Department: Electronics & Communication Engineering
Course: Engineering Electromagnetics (BEC401)
IV sem B.E. (ECE) (CBCS)
Module -2-Gauss’s law and Divergence, Energy, Potential and Conductors
(Text: Chapter 3.2 to 3.7, 4.1 to 4.2, 5.1, 5.2)
Assumptions
1. The differential parallelepiped has the dimensions x, y and z.
2. The point, P is in the center of the element.
3. The flux density D at the center is given by
D  D0  Dx 0 a x  Dy 0 a y  Dz 0 a z
The integral form of Gauss’s law is

 Front  D front  S front

  D front  yza x
 D front yz
The front face at a distance ∆x/2 from centre. Hence
Dx x
D front  Dx 0 
x 2

 D x x 
Thus,  front   Dx0 
 x 2 
yz

 back  Dback  S back

Similarly,   Dback  (yza x )
  Dback yz
D x
And Dback  Dx 0  x
x 2

Dr. Basavaraj Neelgar

 Don Bosco Institute of Technology, Bengaluru
Department: Electronics & Communication Engineering
Course: Engineering Electromagnetics (BEC401)
IV sem B.E. (ECE) (CBCS)
Module -2-Gauss’s law and Divergence, Energy, Potential and Conductors
(Text: Chapter 3.2 to 3.7, 4.1 to 4.2, 5.1, 5.2)
 D x x 
Hence,  back    Dx 0  x 2 yz
Dx
Thus,  front   back 
x
xyz
Proceeding in similar manner,

D y
 left   right 
y
xyz

Dz
And  top   bottom 
z
xyz

 D x D y D z 
Thus  D.dS  
s
x

y

z
xyz  Q

If   xyz
D.dS Dx D y Dz Q
s   x  y  z 
This becomes exact if   0.

Lt D.dS Dx D y Dz  Q 

  0          
s
 x y z
Dx D y Dz
But    D
x y z
  .D   Hence proved.

2.1.3 Divergence
For a differential volume element, it is known that
 Dx Dy Dz 
 D.ds = Q =  x  y  z   ----------(1)

By allowing the volume element  to shrine to zero.

Dx Dy Dz

  =
 D.ds =
Q
x y z  

is
Dx Dy Dz
  = lim
 D.ds = lim
Q
x y z  0   0 

Dr. Basavaraj Neelgar

 Don Bosco Institute of Technology, Bengaluru
Department: Electronics & Communication Engineering
Course: Engineering Electromagnetics (BEC401)
IV sem B.E. (ECE) (CBCS)
Module -2-Gauss’s law and Divergence, Energy, Potential and Conductors
(Text: Chapter 3.2 to 3.7, 4.1 to 4.2, 5.1, 5.2)

= lim 
Dx Dy Dz D.ds v = volume charge density
is   = v
x y z v  0 
Thus, we have two equations.

= lim 
Dx Dy Dz D.ds
  --------------------(2)
x y z v  0 

Dx Dy Dz

&   = v ------------------(3)
x y z
Equation (2) can be used on any vector A to find  A.ds . a small closed surface and is called
divergence. Thus, divergence is defined as

Divergence A = div A = lim

 D.ds
v
v  0

The divergence at any vector flux density is the overflow of flux from a small closed surface per
unit volume as the volume shrines to zero. Thus

Dx Dy Dz

div D =   (Cartesian)
x y z
div D = ( ) (cylindrical)
1  2 1  1 D
& div D = (r Dr) + (sin D)+ (spherical )
r r
2
r sin   r sin  
Note: The Divergence equations for any system can be derived from the general equation
1   
-D =   h2 h3 Du    h3h1D    h1h2 Dw
h1h2 h3  u   
Where
Cartésien :
=x =y w=z
h1 = 1 h2 = 1 h3 = 1
Cylindrical :
u=ρ = w=z
h1 = 1 h2 = ρ h3 = 1
Spherical:
u=r = w=
h1=1 h2 = r h3 = r sin

Dr. Basavaraj Neelgar

 Don Bosco Institute of Technology, Bengaluru
Department: Electronics & Communication Engineering
Course: Engineering Electromagnetics (BEC401)
IV sem B.E. (ECE) (CBCS)
Module -2-Gauss’s law and Divergence, Energy, Potential and Conductors
(Text: Chapter 3.2 to 3.7, 4.1 to 4.2, 5.1, 5.2)
2.1.4 Maxwell’s First Equation
We have

Div D = lim 
D.ds
 0 v
Dx Dy Dz
& div D =  
x y z
Also, div D = v
Equation (3) can also be realized from gauss law as
 D.ds = Q
Per unit volume
 D.ds =
Q
v 
As the volume shrine li zero

lim
 D.ds = lim Q
 0 v  0 v

Div D = v
Equation (4) is the one of Maxwell’s, four equations as they apply to electrostatics steady field. It
stalls that the electric Flux per unit volume leaving a vanishingly small volume is exactly equal
to the volume charge density there. Thus, equation is also called the point form of Gauss law.

Problems:
1. Find the numerical value for the divergence of D at the point indicated if
(a) D = 20 xy2 (z+1) ax + 20x2y(z+1) ay + 10x2y2az c/m2 at PA (0.3, 0.4, 0.5)
(b) D = 4ρz sin aρ + 2ρz cos a + 2ρ2 sin az c/m2At PB (1, /2, 2)
(c) D = sin cosar + coscos a - sina c/m2at Pc (2, = /3,  = /6)
Solution:
  
(a)  . D = [20xy2 (z+1)] + [20x2y (z+1)] + 10x2y2
x y z
 . D = 20y (z+1) + 20x (z + 1) + 0
2 2

at point PA (0.3, 0.4, 0.5)

 . D = 20 . (0.4)2 (0.5+1) + 20 . (0.3)2 (0.5 + 1)
= 20 x 0.16 x 1.5 + 20 x 0.09 x 1.5
= 4.80 + 2.70
= 7.5 C/m3

( ) ( )
(b)  . D = ( )

Dr. Basavaraj Neelgar

 Don Bosco Institute of Technology, Bengaluru
Department: Electronics & Communication Engineering
Course: Engineering Electromagnetics (BEC401)
IV sem B.E. (ECE) (CBCS)
Module -2-Gauss’s law and Divergence, Energy, Potential and Conductors
(Text: Chapter 3.2 to 3.7, 4.1 to 4.2, 5.1, 5.2)
= .2ρ - z +0=8  - 2z 
At PB (1, /2, 2)
 . D = 16 – 4= 12 C/m3

1  2 1  1 
(c)  . D = (r sin cos) + (sin cos cos) - sin
r r
2
r sin   r sin  
1 1   sin 2  1
= 2 2r sin cos + cos  - cos
r r sin    2  r sin 
2 1 cos 2 1
= sincos + cos .2 - cos
r r sin  2 r sin 
2 3 3 1 3 1 1 3
= . . + . (- ) -
2 2 2 3 2 2 3 2
2. 2.
2 2
3 1 1
= - -
4 4 2
=0

2. Given D = 4ρ2aρ C/m2i). What is volume charge density at ρ = 2m. ii) How much flux
passes the cylinder ρ = 2m; |z| ≤ 5.
Sol: D = 4ρ2aρ C/m2
Volume Charge density

v   D
1 ( D  ) 1 (  4 2 )
   12 
   
Hence at ρ = 2 ρv = 24 C/m3
Flux crossing ρ = 2 m and |Z| <=5
 =  D.ds

= ∬ ∫ ∫

Dr. Basavaraj Neelgar

 Don Bosco Institute of Technology, Bengaluru
Department: Electronics & Communication Engineering
Course: Engineering Electromagnetics (BEC401)
IV sem B.E. (ECE) (CBCS)
Module -2-Gauss’s law and Divergence, Energy, Potential and Conductors
(Text: Chapter 3.2 to 3.7, 4.1 to 4.2, 5.1, 5.2)
3. Find div D for
a. D = (2xyz – y2) ax + (x2z – 2xy)ay + x2y az c/m2 at PA(2, 3, -1)
b. D = 2ρz2sin2ϕ aρ + ρz2sin2ϕ aϕ + 2ρ2zsin2ϕ az C/m2 at PB(2, 110°, -1). (VTU-dec-
2018)
Dx Dy Dz
Sol: a. div D =  
x y z
  2  2
.D= [2xyz – y2)] + [x z – 2xy)] + [x y]
x y z
= 2yz - 2x + 0
At PA(2, 3, -1) . D = 2 x 3 x -1 – 2 x 2 = -10 C/m3
b. div D = ( )
( ) ( )
= ( )
= ( )
=4 +2 +
At PB (2, 110°, -1).  . D = 4 x 1 x (110°) + 2 x 1 x ( 110°) + 2 x 4 x (110°)
3
= 3.532 – 1.532 + 7.06 = 9.06 C/m

4. Find the volume charge density that is associated with each of following that is associated
with each of following fields
(a) D = xy2ax + yx2ay + zaz C/m2
(b) D = ρz2sin2aρ + ρz2 sin cos a + ρ2z sin2az C/m2
(c) D = ar C/m2
Solution: (a) div D = v
  
(xy2) + (yx2) + (z) = v
x y z
v = y2 + x2 + 1 C /m3

(b) div D = v
1  1   2
v = 2 (r.rz2 sin2) + (rz2sin cos) - ( r z sin2)
r r r  z
1 1 cos 2
= 2 r z sin  +
2 2
rz 2 2 + r2 sin2
r r 2
= 2z sin  + z cos  + r2sin2
2 2 2 2

= 2z2 sin2 + z2 cos2 - z2 sin2 + r2sin2

= z2 sin2 + z2cos2 - + r2sin2
= z2 + r2sin2 C/m3

Dr. Basavaraj Neelgar

 Don Bosco Institute of Technology, Bengaluru
Department: Electronics & Communication Engineering
Course: Engineering Electromagnetics (BEC401)
IV sem B.E. (ECE) (CBCS)
Module -2-Gauss’s law and Divergence, Energy, Potential and Conductors
(Text: Chapter 3.2 to 3.7, 4.1 to 4.2, 5.1, 5.2)

(c) div D = v
1  2
v = 2 (r Dr)
r r
1  2
= 2 (r .1)
r r
1 2
= 2 2r = c/m3
r r

5. If the field of a region is given by

E = 5 coszaz, is the region charge free?

Solution:  . D = v
 . ( E) = v
E
 = v
z

 (5 cosz ) = v
z
v =- 5 sinz
Thus, region is not charge free

6. Let D = 5 r2armC/m2 for r < 0.08m

0.1ar
And D = 2
mC/m2 for r > 0.08m
r
Find (i) v for r = 0.06 m
(ii) v for r = 0 .1 m

Solution: .D = v
For sp. Co-coordinating .D in ar direction.
1  2
= 2 (r Dr)
r r
Case 1:
For r = 0.06m.
1  2 2
v = 2 (r 5r )
r r
1 
= 2 ( 5r4)
r r

Dr. Basavaraj Neelgar

 Don Bosco Institute of Technology, Bengaluru
Department: Electronics & Communication Engineering
Course: Engineering Electromagnetics (BEC401)
IV sem B.E. (ECE) (CBCS)
Module -2-Gauss’s law and Divergence, Energy, Potential and Conductors
(Text: Chapter 3.2 to 3.7, 4.1 to 4.2, 5.1, 5.2)
1
= 2 20r3
r
= 20 r mC/m3
at r = 0.06m v = 1.20 mC/m3
Case 2
 r = 0.1 m.
1   2 0.1 
v = 2 r 
r r  r2 
= 0.
 v = 0 at r = 0.1 m

2.1.5 Divergence Theorem

From Gauss law
∮
Also ∫

Thus ∮ ∫ ∫
Taking first and last terms
∮ ∫
This is known as Divergence theorem, which states that the integral of the normal
component of any vector field over a closed surface is equal to the integral of the divergence of
this vector field throughout the volume enclosed by the closed surface.
Problems:
1. Given D = 2xyax + x2ay C/m2, evaluate both sides of Divergence theorem for a
rectangular parallelepiped formed by the planes x =0 and 1, y = 0 and 2 & z = 0 and 3.
Sol: D has no z component and hence D.ds = 0 along z.
From Divergence Theorem, ∮ ∫
L.H.S=∮ ( ) ∮ ( ) ∮ ( ) ∮ ( )
=∮ ∫ ∫ ( ) ∮ ∫ ∫ ( ) ∮ ∫ ∫ ( )
∮ ∫ ∫ ( )
=∮ ∫ ∫ ( ) { } { }
= 12 C
  2
(2xy) + (x ) = 2y
x y
R.H.S. = ∫ ∫ ∫ ∫ { } { } { }
Thus L.H.S = R.H.S Hence proved

Dr. Basavaraj Neelgar

 Don Bosco Institute of Technology, Bengaluru
Department: Electronics & Communication Engineering
Course: Engineering Electromagnetics (BEC401)
IV sem B.E. (ECE) (CBCS)
Module -2-Gauss’s law and Divergence, Energy, Potential and Conductors
(Text: Chapter 3.2 to 3.7, 4.1 to 4.2, 5.1, 5.2)
2. Given that D=(10ρ3/4)aρ C/m2 in cylindrical coordinates evaluate both sides of
divergence theorem for the volume by between ρ= 2m; z = 0 and z =10m.
Sol: ∮ ∫

L.H.S = ∮ ∫ ∫ ( ) ∫ ∫
( ) ( )

R.H.S. = ∫ ∫ ∫ ∫ { }

Thus L.H.S = R.H.S Hence proved

3. Given that D = (5r2/4)ar C/m2in spherical coordinates evaluate both sides of divergence
theorem for the volume enclosed between r = 1m and r = 2m.
Sol: ∮ ∫
Note: for r = 1m the unit normal ar is in –ve direction and for r = 2m the unit normal ar is
in +ve direction
L.H.S =∮ ( ) ∮ ( )
=∮ ∫ ∫ ( ) ∮ ∫ ∫ ( )

= ∮ ∫ ∫ ∮ ∫ ∫
= [ ]{ } [ ]{ }
=

( ) ( ) ( )

R.H.S = ∫ ∫ ∫ ∫ = ∫ ∫ ∫
= { }[ ]{ }
Thus L.H.S = R.H.S Hence proved
4. Given that D = 30e-ρaρ – 2zazC/m2 in cylindrical co-ordinates, evaluate both sides of
divergence theorem for the volume enclosed by ρ= 2m; z = 0 and z = 5m. (VTU-June-
2017).
Sol: ∮ ∫
L.H.S = ∮ ∮ ∮ ∮
=∮ ∫ ∫ ( ) ∮ ∫ ∫ ( ) ∮ ∫ ∫ ( )
=

Dr. Basavaraj Neelgar

 Don Bosco Institute of Technology, Bengaluru
Department: Electronics & Communication Engineering
Course: Engineering Electromagnetics (BEC401)
IV sem B.E. (ECE) (CBCS)
Module -2-Gauss’s law and Divergence, Energy, Potential and Conductors
(Text: Chapter 3.2 to 3.7, 4.1 to 4.2, 5.1, 5.2)
( )- ( )= ( )– = ( )

R.H.S = ∫ ∫ ∫ ∫ [ ( ) ]
=∫ ∫ ∫ [ ( )] ∫ ∫ ∫
= ∫ [ ( )] ] ∫ ∫ ∫ ∫ ∫
= 30 [- ( ) ∫ ( )]
= 30 [- ( ) ]{ }
= 30 [ ]{ }
= 30ρ { }
= 255.100 – 125.66 = 129.43 C
Thus L.H.S = R.H.S Hence proved

5. A volume charge density v = (5k/r) where r ≠ 0, k = constant exists within a sphere of

radius (a/2). Determine magnitude of point charge placed at origin which will produce
same electric field at r = a/2. (VTU June-July 2018)

Sol: At r = a/2
∫ =∫ ∫ ∫
= ∫ ∫ ∫

= 5k. =
( )
D at r = a/2
( )

E= (1)
Let the volume charge density be replaced by a point charge of +Q C. Then E at r = a/2 is
E= (2)
Equating (1) and (2)

Hence Q = 2.5 πka2 C

Dr. Basavaraj Neelgar

 Don Bosco Institute of Technology, Bengaluru
Department: Electronics & Communication Engineering
Course: Engineering Electromagnetics (BEC401)
IV sem B.E. (ECE) (CBCS)
Module -2-Gauss’s law and Divergence, Energy, Potential and Conductors
(Text: Chapter 3.2 to 3.7, 4.1 to 4.2, 5.1, 5.2)
Assignments:

1. Find the total charge in a volume define by six planes for which 1 x 2, 2 y 3, 2z 4
if D = (4x ax + 3y2 ay + 2z3az) C/m2.

2. If D = 2xy ax + 3yz ay + 4 xzazC/m2, how much electric flux pass through that portion on
x=3 plane for which -1  y  2, 0,  2  4.
r2
3. A spherical volume charge density by model  = v (1- 2 ) r  a
a
=0 r>a
(i) Calculate charge enclosed, Q
(ii) Find the electric field E outside the charge distribution.
(iii) Find E for r  a
(iv) Show that max. E is at r = 0.745a

4. Given D = 6ρsin(0.5ϕ)aρ + 1.5ρcos(0.5ϕ)aϕ C/m2, evaluate both sides of divergence

theorem for the region bounded by ρ = 2; ϕ =0; ϕ = π; z = 0 and z=5m.

2 cos sin 
5. Given D  3
ar  3 a c / m2 evaluate both sides of divergence theorem for the
r r
region bounded by 1 ≤ r ≤ 2; 0 ≤ θ ≤ π/2; 0 ≤ ϕ ≤ π/2.

6. A positive charge of ρv C/m3 occupies a solid sphere. At a point interior at a distance ‘r’
from the center, a small probe charge ‘+q’ is inserted. What is the force acting on this
charge?

Dr. Basavaraj Neelgar

 Don Bosco Institute of Technology, Bengaluru
Department: Electronics & Communication Engineering
Course: Engineering Electromagnetics (BEC401)
IV sem B.E. (ECE) (CBCS)
Module -2-Gauss’s law and Divergence, Energy, Potential and Conductors
(Text: Chapter 3.2 to 3.7, 4.1 to 4.2, 5.1, 5.2)
2.2 Energy and Potential

Figure 2.1
Due to the fact that an electric charge experiences a force in an electric field, some
amount of work must be done in order to move a charge in an electric field.
The amount of work done in moving a unit positive charge from one point to another
point in an electric field is called the potential difference between the two points.
Thus if a unit charge be moved from P to Q when PQ = dl, dl being a small elemental
length along the path P2 to P1, as shown in Fig. 2.1 then work done is
dw = - E dl cos
= -E .dl
The negative sign has been put it account for the fact that the work has been done against
the electric field; a point charge Q is moved then
dw = - Q E .dl
The total work done in moving a unit charge from P2 to P1 is


P1
W= - E.dl Joules/Coulomb or Volts
P2

For a point charge Q


P1
W=- QE.dl Volts
P2

Thus the difference in potential (P1) -  (P2) between the points P1 and P2


P1
V (P1) - V(P2) = - QE.dl
P2

If the point P1 is moved to  then considering that P2 is at zero potential.


P1
V (P1) = - QE.dl Volts
P2
If the integral is taken along any closed path then limits would be set as P2 – P2 so that
for a unit charge

Dr. Basavaraj Neelgar

 Don Bosco Institute of Technology, Bengaluru
Department: Electronics & Communication Engineering
Course: Engineering Electromagnetics (BEC401)
IV sem B.E. (ECE) (CBCS)
Module -2-Gauss’s law and Divergence, Energy, Potential and Conductors
(Text: Chapter 3.2 to 3.7, 4.1 to 4.2, 5.1, 5.2)
E .dl = 0.
(Closed path, Electric potential difference around any closed path is zero)

2.2.1 Expression for the Potential at any Point due to a Point Charge Q:

Figure 2.2
Consider a point charge Q at O and let a unit positive charge be moved along any path C as
shown Fig. 2.2 FromP2 to P1


P1
 V(P1) - V(P2) = E.dl
P2
Q
E= lr
4  r 2
dl = dl1l
Q
 E. dl = dl cos
4  r 2
From  PQR dr = dl cos

Q
E.dl= , dr
4  r 2
dr

P1
Q
 V(P1) - V(P2) = -
4 
P2 r 2

P1 1
=
Q
 2 dr
4  P2 r
Q1 1 
=   
4   r1 r2 
When r2  let V(P2) = 0
Q
V(P1) = volts
4  r

Dr. Basavaraj Neelgar

 Don Bosco Institute of Technology, Bengaluru
Department: Electronics & Communication Engineering
Course: Engineering Electromagnetics (BEC401)
IV sem B.E. (ECE) (CBCS)
Module -2-Gauss’s law and Divergence, Energy, Potential and Conductors
(Text: Chapter 3.2 to 3.7, 4.1 to 4.2, 5.1, 5.2)
In general the potential at any point a distance ‘r’ from a point charge Q is
Q
V= volts
4  r
Note: Potential ‘V’ is a scalar quantity.

2.2.2 Relationship between E and V

From the equation
V = -  E .dl
The potential difference between two points separated by a length dl is

dV = - E . dl ---------------(1)
for a Cartesian co-ordinate system,

- E.dl = - (Ex ax + Ey ay + Ezaz).(dxaz + dyay + dzaz)

= - (Exdx + Eydy + Ezdz ) ----------------(2)

Combining (1) and (2)

dV= - [ Exdx + Eydy +Ezdz ] ----------------(3)
Also by Calculus
V V V
dV = dx  dy  dz ----------------(4)
x y z
From (3) and (4)
- Ex = - Ey = & - Ez = ---------------(5)
So that
E=-( )=

E = - V

V V V
V= ax  ay  az (Cartesian)
x y z

V 1 V V
V = a  a  az (cylindrical)
   z

V = (spherical)

Dr. Basavaraj Neelgar

 Don Bosco Institute of Technology, Bengaluru
Department: Electronics & Communication Engineering
Course: Engineering Electromagnetics (BEC401)
IV sem B.E. (ECE) (CBCS)
Module -2-Gauss’s law and Divergence, Energy, Potential and Conductors
(Text: Chapter 3.2 to 3.7, 4.1 to 4.2, 5.1, 5.2)
Problems on Work Done and Potential
1. Find the work done in moving a charge +2c from (2, 0, 0) m to (0, 2, 0)m along a st line path
joining the two points if the electric field is E = 2x ax – 4y ay V/m

Sol: The differential work is

dw = -Q E.dl
= -2 (2x ax – 4y ay) . (dx ax + dy ay + dz az)
= - 4x dx + 8y dy
The equation at st line from (2, 0, 0)m to (0, 2, 0) m
x  x1 y  y1 z  z1
= =
x2  x1 y2  y1 z2  z1
x2 y 0
= 0 2
02 20 x2  42 

2  2 2  0
-4 8
x2
= y/2
2 = + 8 + 16
2x – 4 + 2y = 0 = 24 Joules
x+y=2
dx = -dy
 = - 4x dx + 8 (2-x) (-dx)
= - 4x dx - 16dx + 8x dx
= (4x – 16) dx

  4x 16 dx
0
W =
2
0
x2 
= 4   16 x 2
0

2 2
16
= + 32
2
= 24 Joules

2. Find the work done in the field E = 2xax – 4yay V/m when a 2c charge is moved from
(2, 0, 0) to (0, 0, 0) along x axis and then (0, 0, 0) to (0, 2, 0) along y axis. Also prove that
the work done is same irrespective of path chosen by finding the work done on a straight-
line path from (2, 0, 0) to (0, 2, 0).

Sol: The path is shown in figure. On the first segment on path (1)
y = dy = dz = 0, dw = -2(2x ax – 4yay).dx ax = - 4x dx
On the 2nd segment on path (1)
dx = x = dz = 0dw= -2 (-4y ay) . dy ay= 8y dy
0 2
 W = - 4  x dx + 8  y dy
2 0

Dr. Basavaraj Neelgar

 Don Bosco Institute of Technology, Bengaluru
Department: Electronics & Communication Engineering
Course: Engineering Electromagnetics (BEC401)
IV sem B.E. (ECE) (CBCS)
Module -2-Gauss’s law and Divergence, Energy, Potential and Conductors
(Text: Chapter 3.2 to 3.7, 4.1 to 4.2, 5.1, 5.2)
0 2
x 
2
y  2
= -4  8 
2 2 2 0
4
= 4. + 8.4/2 = 24 Joules
2
Along the path (2) on straight line path it can be seen that the work done is same (Ref problem
1.)
Hence irrespective of path chosen work done is always same.
3. Find the work done in moving a point charge Q1 = -20c from origin to (4, 0, 0)m in the
x 
field E =   2 y  ax + 2x ay V/m. Also find the work done when the charge is moved
2 
from (4, 0, 0)m to (4, 2, 0)m. Show that the total work done is same when the charge on a
straight line path from origin to (4, 2, 0)m.
Sol:
For the path along x-axis dl = dx and y = z =0
dw = - Q E.dl
x 
= 20 x 10-6   2 y  dx
2 
x 
 w = 20 x 10-6    2 y  dx
4

0
2 

= 20 x 10-6( )
16
= 80 J.
= 20 x 10-6 x
4
When the charge is moved from (4, 0, 0) to (4, 2, 0) dl = dy and x = 4.
2
:W = (20 x 10-6) 0
2xdy
Y 0
2
= 20 x 10-6 x 2 x 4
= 20 x 10-6 x 8 x 2
= 320 J.

Hence the total work done in moving the charge from origin to (4, 2, 0) along the path (0, 0, 0)
to (4, 0, 0) and then from (4, 0, 0) to (4, 2, 0) is80 + 320 = 400 J.

This can be proved same if a direct straight-line path from (0, 0, 0) to (4, 2, 0) m.is taken.
The equation of st. line is
x  x1 y  y1
=
x2  x1 y2  y1

Dr. Basavaraj Neelgar

 Don Bosco Institute of Technology, Bengaluru
Department: Electronics & Communication Engineering
Course: Engineering Electromagnetics (BEC401)
IV sem B.E. (ECE) (CBCS)
Module -2-Gauss’s law and Divergence, Energy, Potential and Conductors
(Text: Chapter 3.2 to 3.7, 4.1 to 4.2, 5.1, 5.2)
x y
i.e =
4 2
2dx = 4dy
1
i.e x = 2y; y = x
2

 W=-Q  E.dl
= +20 x 10-6[∫ ( ) ∫ ]
 4 x x 
= 20 x 10-6     2 .  dx   4 ydy 
2

 2 2 
0 0

= 20 x 10-6[∫ ∫ ]

= 20 x 10-6[ ( ) ]{ }
 3 16 8 4 2 4

= 20 x 10  .-6
4 . 
2 2 2
 
-6
= 20 x 10 [12 + 8]
= 400 J.

4. Given the potential V = 50 x2yz + 20y2 V. in free space. Find

(i) Voltage at P (1, 2, -3)
(ii) field strength at P
(iii) aN at P

Sol: V = 50 x2yz + 20y2

(i) at P (1, 2, -3)

V = 50 × 1 × 2 × -3 + 20 × 4
= -300 + 80
= -220 V
(ii) E = - V
= ( ) (50x2yz + 20y2)
= - [100xyz ax + (50x2z + 40y) ay + 50 x2yaz]
 E = - 100xyz ax – (50x2z + 40y) ay - 50 x2y az

At P= (1, 2, -3)
E = 600 ax + 70ay – 100 az V/m

Dr. Basavaraj Neelgar

 Don Bosco Institute of Technology, Bengaluru
Department: Electronics & Communication Engineering
Course: Engineering Electromagnetics (BEC401)
IV sem B.E. (ECE) (CBCS)
Module -2-Gauss’s law and Divergence, Energy, Potential and Conductors
(Text: Chapter 3.2 to 3.7, 4.1 to 4.2, 5.1, 5.2)
(iii) aN at P =
√

5. Given V = x2 – 3y2 + 9z find E at (4, -1, 2)

Sol:
E = - V
= ( ) [x2 – 3y2 + 9z)
= - [2x ax - 6y ay + 9az] V/m
At (4, -1, 2) E = - [8ax + 6 ay + 9 az] V/m
| E | = 13.45 v/m

6. A point charge of 5 nC is located at origin. If V = 2 V at [0, 6, -8] find (a) V at A(-3, 2, 6)

(b) V at B(1, 5, 7).

Sol: Q = 5 x 10-9 C at origin

V1= 2V at (0, 6, -8)

(a) VA = ? at (-3, 2, 6)
Q
V = -  E.dl = -  dr =
4 o r 2
rA = | (-3, 2, 6) – (0, 0, 0) | = 7
r1 = | (0, 6, -8) – (0, 0, 0) | = 10
Q
V1 - VA= [ ] = - 1.93 V
4 o
 VA = 2 + 1 .93 = 3.93 V

(b) VB = ? at B (1, 5, 7)
rB = | (1, 5, 7) – (0, 0, 0) | = 75 = 8.66
Q 1 1 
V1 - VB =    = - 0.695 V
4   r1 rB 
VB = 2.695 V

7. A point charge of 6nC is located at origin in free space. Find the potential at point P if P
is located at (0.2, -0.4, 0.4) and (i) V = 0 at ii) V = 0 at (1, 0, 0) (iii) V = 20 V at
(0.5, 1, -1). (VTU Jun-Jul 2017, Dec-2017, Jan-2018)

Sol: Q = 6nC P(0.2, -0.4, 0.4) √

(i) V = 0 at

Dr. Basavaraj Neelgar

 Don Bosco Institute of Technology, Bengaluru
Department: Electronics & Communication Engineering
Course: Engineering Electromagnetics (BEC401)
IV sem B.E. (ECE) (CBCS)
Module -2-Gauss’s law and Divergence, Energy, Potential and Conductors
(Text: Chapter 3.2 to 3.7, 4.1 to 4.2, 5.1, 5.2)
V∞ - VP = [ ]

- VP=
VP= 89.87 V

(ii) V = 0 at Q (1, 0, 0) and rQ = 1

VQ - VP = [ ] [ ]

VP = 35.91 V

(iii) V = 20 V at R(0.5, 1, -1) and rR = 1.5

VR - VP = [ ] [ ]

VP = 20 + 53.92 = 73.92 V

8. A point charge of 5 nC is located at origin. If V = 2 V at P (0, 6, -8),

Find a) V at A (-3, 2, 6) b) V at B(1, 5, 7).
Sol: a)
VP– VA = [ ] [ ]
2 – VA = -1.928, Hence VA = 3.928 V
b)
VP – VB = [ ] [ ]
2 – VB= -0.696, Hence VB = 2.696 V

Assignments:

1. Find the work done in moving a 5c charge from origin to P (2, -1, 4) through E=2xyz ax
+ x2z ay + x2y az V/m via the path : (a) straight line segment (0, 0, 0) to (2, 0,0) to (2, -1,
0) to (2, -1, 4) : (b) straight line x = -2y, z = 2x (c) curve x = 2y3. z = 4y2.

2. Given V in free space find ‘E’ at P(3, 60°, 25°) in spherical coordinates.
(VTU Dec-Jan-2017).

3. Given E = - 6y/x2ax + 6/x ay + 5 az V/m calculate potential (a) VPQ given P (-7, 2, 1),
Q (4, 1, 2)m (b) VP if V = 0 at Q (3) VP if V = 0 at R(2, 0, -1)m.

Dr. Basavaraj Neelgar

 Don Bosco Institute of Technology, Bengaluru
Department: Electronics & Communication Engineering
Course: Engineering Electromagnetics (BEC401)
IV sem B.E. (ECE) (CBCS)
Module -2-Gauss’s law and Divergence, Energy, Potential and Conductors
(Text: Chapter 3.2 to 3.7, 4.1 to 4.2, 5.1, 5.2)
4. Given V in free space find ‘E’ at B(2, 30°, 1) in cylindrical coordinates. (VTU
Jun-July-2018),

2.3 Current and Current density, Continuity of current

2.3.1 Current and current density

Electric charges in motion constitute a current, which is defined as a rate of movement of charge
passing a given reference point of one coulomb per second i.e
dQ
I= A ---------(1)
dt
Current density J is measured as Ampers per square meter which is a vector quantity.
The increment of a current  I crossing an incremental surface  S normal to current
density is
 I = JN  S
& in the case where current density is not perpendicular to surface
 I = J.  S
Total current I =  J .ds --------(2)
s

Figure 2.5

Current density may be related to velocity of volume charge density of a point. Consider the
element of charge ΔQ = VΔv = ΔSΔL as shown in figure 2.5 (a), it is assumed that the charge
element is oriented with it edges parallel to co-ordinate axes and that if possess only x
component of velocity. In a time interval Δt the element of charge has moved a distance Δx as
shown in figure.2.5 (b) thus

Dr. Basavaraj Neelgar

 Don Bosco Institute of Technology, Bengaluru
Department: Electronics & Communication Engineering
Course: Engineering Electromagnetics (BEC401)
IV sem B.E. (ECE) (CBCS)
Module -2-Gauss’s law and Divergence, Energy, Potential and Conductors
(Text: Chapter 3.2 to 3.7, 4.1 to 4.2, 5.1, 5.2)
Q
ΔI= = vΔS x
t t
i.e ΔI = vΔSvx
In terms of current density
Jx = vvx
 In general J = vv ---------------(3)

This type of current produced by a charge is motion is called convection current density.

1. Given vector current density J = 102z aρ - 4cos2 amA/m2 (a) find J at P(3, 30°,2)
(b) Determine total current flowing outward through circular band  = 3, 0 < < 2,
2 < z < 2.8.
Solution:
J = 102z aρ - 4cos2 a
a) At P, J = 10 × 32 × 2a – 4 × 3 cos2 (30O) a
= 180 a - 9 avmA/m2
b) I =  J .ds =  (102z a - 4 cos2 a) 10-3 .ddzaρ
S S

= 
S
102z ddz x 10-3
2.8
z2 
= 10 ×  .2 ×  3
2 2
1
= 10 × 27 × 2 ×  × [2.82 - 22] x 10-3
2
= 10 × 27 ×  × [3.84] x 10-3
= 3257.20 x10-3 = 3.26A

2.3.2 Continuity of Current:

The principle of conservation of charge states that charge can be neither created nor
destroyed although equal amount of possible & negative charge may be simultaneously created,
obtained by separation, destroyed or lost by recombination.
The continuity equation applies to any region bounded by a closed surface i.e
I =  J .ds
S
And this outward flow of positive charge must be balanced by decrease of charge (increase in
negative charge) within closed surface. If charge inside the closed surface is destroyed by Qi
dQ1
than rate of decrease is and principle of conservation of charge requires,
dt

Dr. Basavaraj Neelgar

 Don Bosco Institute of Technology, Bengaluru
Department: Electronics & Communication Engineering
Course: Engineering Electromagnetics (BEC401)
IV sem B.E. (ECE) (CBCS)
Module -2-Gauss’s law and Divergence, Energy, Potential and Conductors
(Text: Chapter 3.2 to 3.7, 4.1 to 4.2, 5.1, 5.2)
dQ1
I =  J .ds = ----------(a)
S dt
Using div. theorem
 J .ds =   .J  d
S
V 1


v
 .J  d
V 1
= 
V 1

t
dv
v
i.e  .J   = v
t
 v
i.e .J = ----------(b)
t
Point from of Continuity equation
1. Current density is given in cylindrical co-ordinates as J = -106z1.5az A/m2 in region
0    20 m, for   20m, J = 0.
(a) Find total current crossing surface z = 0.1m in az direction.
(b) If charge velocity to 2 × 106 m/s at z = 0.1m find vthere.
(c) If volume charge density at z = 0.15m is -200 C/m3 find charge velocity there.

Solution:
(a) I =  J .ds = 
S
S
-106z1.5az. ddaz

z = 0.1

20 m
2
I = -106 × 0.1 1.5  d 
0
0
d

2
= -106 × 0.11.5 × {0, 20μm} × 2 = -39.7 A
2
J 10  0.11.5
(b) J = vv = = = -16.81 mC/m3
v 2 10 6

J 10  0.15
6 1.5
(c) = = 290 m/s
v 2000

Dr. Basavaraj Neelgar