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Introduction to Chemical Engineering
Introduction to Chemical Engineering

C.M. van ’t Land

Enschede, The Netherlands
Copyright © 2024 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey.

Published simultaneously in Canada.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: C.M. van ’t Land, 1937– author.

Title: Introduction to chemical engineering / C.M. van ’t Land.
Description: 1st edition. | Hoboken, NJ : Wiley, 2024. | Includes
bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2021035195 (print) | LCCN 2021035196 (ebook) | ISBN
9781119634089 (hardback) | ISBN 9781119634096 (adobe pdf) | ISBN
9781119634126 (epub)
Subjects: LCSH: Chemical engineering.
Classification: LCC TP155 .L26 2024 (print) | LCC TP155 (ebook) | DDC
660–dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021035195
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021035196

Cover Design: Wiley

Cover Image: Courtesy of C.M. van ’t Land

Set in 9.5/12.5pt STIXTwoText by Straive, Pondicherry, India

 v

Contents

Preface xvii
Prologue xix

Part I Transport Phenomena 1

1 Mass Balances 3
1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 Theory 5
1.3 Additional Material 9
Reference 10

2 Energy Balances 11
2.1 Definitions 11
2.2 The General Energy Balance 12
2.3 Applications of the General Energy Balance 13
2.3.1 Pump 13
2.3.2 Air Oxidation of Cumene 14
2.4 The Mechanical Energy Equation 17
2.5 Applications of the Mechanical Energy Balance 18
References 22

3 Viscosity 23
3.1 Definition 23
3.2 Newtonian Fluids 25
3.3 Non-Newtonian Fluids 25
3.3.1 The Viscosity is a Function of the Temperature and the Shear Rate 25
3.3.2 The Viscosity is a Function of Time 28
3.4 Viscoelasticity 29
3.5 Viscosity of Newtonian Fluids 29
3.5.1 Gases 29
3.5.2 Liquids 30
References 32
vi Contents

4 Laminar Flow 33
4.1 Steady-state Flow Through a Circular Tube 33
4.2 Rotational Viscosimeters 37
4.3 Additional Remarks 39

5 Turbulent Flow 41
5.1 Velocity Distribution 41
5.2 The Reynolds Number 42
5.3 Pressure Drop in Horizontal Conduits 42
5.4 Pressure Drop in Tube Systems 45
5.5 Flow Around Obstacles 47
5.5.1 Introduction 47
5.5.2 Dispersed Spherical Particles 48
5.6 Terminal Velocity of a Swarm of Particles 53
5.7 Flow Resistance of Heat Exchangers with Tubes 53
References 54

6 Flow Meters 57
6.1 Introduction 57
6.2 Fluid-energy Activated Flow Meters 57
6.2.1 Oval-gear Flow Meter 57
6.2.2 Orifice Meter 57
6.2.3 Venturi Meter 60
6.2.4 Rotameter 60
6.3 External Stimulus Flow Meters 61
6.3.1 Thermal Flow Meter 61
6.3.2 Ultrasonic Flow Meters 62
References 62

7 Case Studies Flow Phenomena 63

7.1 Energy Consumption: Calculation of the Power Potential of a High
Artificial Lake 63
7.2 Estimation of the Size of a Pump Motor 64

8 Heat Conduction 67
8.1 Introduction 67
8.2 Thermal Conductivity 68
8.3 Steady-state Heat Conduction 71
8.4 Heating or Cooling of a Solid Body 75
References 78

9 Convective Heat Transfer 79

9.1 Heat Exchangers 79
9.2 Heat Transfer Correlations 84
References 86
 Contents vii

10 Heat Transfer by Radiation 87

10.1 Introduction 87
10.2 IR 87
10.3 Dielectric Heating 91
10.3.1 General Aspects 91
10.3.2 RF Heating 93
10.3.3 Microwave Heating 94
References 97

11 Case Studies Heat Transfer 99

11.1 Bulk Materials Heat Exchanger 99
11.2 Heat Exchanger 100
11.3 Surface Temperature of the Sun 102
11.4 Gas IR Textile Drying 102
11.5 Heat Loss by IR Radiation 103
11.6 Microwave Drying of a Pharmaceutical Product 103
References 104

12 Steady-state Diffusion 105

12.1 Introduction and Definition of the Diffusion Coefficient 105
12.2 The Diffusion Coefficient 106
12.3 Steady-state Diffusion 107
References 112

13 Convective Mass Transfer 113

13.1 Partial and Overall Mass Transfer Coefficients 113
13.2 Mass Transfer Between a Fixed Wall and a Flowing Medium 116
13.3 Simultaneous Heat and Mass Transfer at Convective Drying 118
References 121

14 Case Studies Mass Transfer 123

14.1 Equimolar Diffusion 123
14.2 Diffusion through a Stagnant Body 123
14.3 Sublimation of a Naphthalene Sphere 124
Reference 126

Notation I 127
Greek Symbols 131

Part II Mixing and Stirring 135

15 Introduction to Mixing and Stirrer Types 137

References 142

16 Mixing Time 143

16.1 Introduction 143
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viii Contents

16.2 Approach of Beek et al. 144

16.3 Approach of Zlokarnik 147
References 151

17 Power Consumption 153

References 156

18 Suspensions 157
18.1 Introduction 157
18.2 Power Consumption 162
18.3 Further Work 163
References 164

19 Liquid/Liquid Dispersions 165

Reference 167

20 Gas Distribution 169

20.1 Introduction 169
20.2 Turbine 169
20.3 Pitched-Blade Turbine Pumping Downward 175
20.4 Turbine Scale Up 176
20.5 Batch Air Oxidation of a Hydrocarbon 177
20.6 Remark 178
Appendix 20.1 178
References 179

21 Physical Gas Absorption 181

21.1 Introduction 181
21.2 kl a Measurements 181
21.3 Power Consumption on Scaling Up 184
21.4 Remarks 184
References 184

22 Heat Transfer in Stirred Vessels 185

22.1 Introduction 185
22.2 Heat Transfer Jacket Wall/Process Liquid 185
22.3 Heat Transfer Coil Wall/Process Liquid 188
22.4 Heat Transfer Jacket Medium/Vessel Wall 190
22.5 Heat Transfer Coil Medium/Coil Wall 192
22.6 Batch Heating and Cooling 192
References 193

23 Scale Up of Mixing 195

23.1 Introduction 195
23.2 Homogenization 196
23.3 Suspensions 198
23.4 Liquid/Liquid Dispersions 198
23.5 Gas Distribution 198
23.6 kl a 198
 Contents ix

23.7 Heat Transfer 199

References 199

24 Case Studies Mixing and Stirring 201

24.1 Mixing Time—Comparison of Stirrers 201
24.2 Mixing Time—Scale Up of Process 202
24.3 Suspensions 202
24.4 Air Oxidation Optimization 203
24.5 Calculating kl a 205
24.6 Heating Toluene in a Stirred Vessel 206
24.7 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient of a Jacketed Reactor 207
24.8 Scale Up of Mixing 209
References 210

Notation II 211
Greek Symbols 213

Part III Chemical Reactors 215

25 Chemical Reaction Engineering—An Introduction 217

25.1 Fluidized Catalytic Cracking (FCC) 217
25.2 Kinetic Rate Data and Transport Phenomena 218
25.3 Reactor Types 219
25.4 Batch Reactions Versus Continuous Reactions 221
25.5 Adiabatic Temperature Rise 222
25.6 Recycle 223
25.7 Process Intensification 224
References 226

26 A Few Typical Chemical Reactors 227

26.1 The Carbo-V-Process of Choren 227
26.2 Coal Gasification 227
26.3 Biofuels 229
26.4 Pyrogenic Silica 230
26.5 Microwaves 231

27 The Order of a Reaction 233

27.1 The Rate of a Reaction 233
27.2 Introductory Remarks on the Order of a Reaction 233
27.3 First-Order Reaction 234
27.4 Second-Order Reactions 236
References 239

28 The Rate of Chemical Reactions as a Function of Temperature 241

28.1 Arrhenius’ Law 241
28.2 How to Influence Chemical Reaction Rates 242
Reference 243
x Contents

29 Chemical Reaction Engineering—A Quantitative Approach 245

29.1 Introduction 245
29.2 Batch Reactor 245
29.3 Plug Flow Reactor 247
29.4 Continuous Stirred Tank Reactor (CSTR) 248
29.5 Reactor Choice 251
29.6 Staging 251
29.7 Reversible Reactions 253

30 A Plant Modification: From Batchwise to Continuous Manufacture 257

30.1 Introduction 257
30.2 Batchwise Production 257
30.3 Continuous Manufacture 257
Reference 258

31 Intrinsic Continuous Process Safeguarding 259

31.1 Summary 259
31.2 Introduction 259
31.3 The Production of Organic Peroxides 260
31.4 Intrinsically Safe Processes 260
31.5 Intrinsic Process Safeguarding 261
31.6 Extrinsic Process Safeguarding 261
31.7 Additional Remarks 261
31.8 Practical Approach 262
31.9 Examples 263
References 265

32 Reactor Choice and Scale Up 267

32.1 Introduction 267
32.2 Parallel Reactions 267
32.3 Physical Effects 269

33 Case Studies Chemical Reaction Engineering 271

33.1 Order of a Reaction 271
33.2 Chemical Reaction Rate as a Function of Temperature 273
33.3 Reactor Size 273
33.4 Reversible Reactions 274
33.5 Competing Reactions 276
33.6 The Hydrolysis of Acetic Acid Anhydride 276
33.7 Cumene Air Oxidation 277
References 278

Notation III 279

Greek Symbols 280
 Contents xi

Part IV Distillation 281

34 Continuous Distillation 283

34.1 Introduction 283
34.2 Vapor–Liquid Equilibrium 283
34.3 The Fractionating Column 286
34.4 The Number of Trays Required 288
34.5 The Importance of the Reflux Ratio 292
34.6 A Typical Continuous Industrial Distillation 293
References 294

35 Design of Continuous Distillation Columns 295

35.1 Sieve Tray Columns 295
35.2 Packed Columns 299
Note 302
References 302

36 Various Types of Distillation 303

36.1 Batch Distillation 303
36.2 Azeotropic and Extractive Distillation 309
36.3 Steam Distillation 311
References 312

37 Case Studies Distillation 313

37.1 McCabe–Thiele Diagram 313
37.2 Diameter of a Sieve Tray Column and Sieve Tray Pressure Loss 316
37.3 The Distillation of Wine 317
37.4 Steam Distillation 320
Reference 321

Notation IV 323
Greek Symbols 325

Part V Liquid Extraction 327

38 Liquid Extraction – Part 1 329

38.1 Introduction 329
38.2 The Distribution Coefficient 333
38.3 Calculation of the Number of Theoretical Stages in Extraction Operations 334
References 336

39 Liquid Extraction – Part 2 337

39.1 Calculation of the Number of Transfer Units in Extraction Operations 337
Reference 342

40 Flooding 343
40.1 General 343
References 345
xii Contents

41 The Two Liquids Exchanging a Component Are Partially Miscible 347

41.1 Triangular Coordinates 347
41.2 Formation of One Pair of Partially Miscible Liquids 348
41.3 Continuous Countercurrent Multiple-contact Extraction 353
References 355

42 Case Studies Liquid Extraction 357

42.1 A Series of Centrifugal Extractors 357
42.2 Extraction by Means of An Ionic Liquid 359
42.3 Overall Transfer Coefficient/Height of a Transfer Unit 360
42.4 Calculation of the Column Height 362
42.5 Two Partially Miscible Liquids Exchange a Component 363
References 365

Notation V 367
Greek Symbols 369

Part VI Absorption of Gases 371

43 Absorption of Gases 373

43.1 Introduction 373
43.2 Determination of the Number of Theoretical Stages at Absorption of Gases 374
43.3 Estimation of the Diameter of an Absorption Column for Natural Gas 377
43.4 The Absorption of Carbon Dioxide 378
43.5 Design of Absorption Columns 379
References 381

Notation VI 383
Greek Symbols 384

Part VII Membranes 385

44 Membranes—An Introduction 387

44.1 General 387
44.2 Membranes 387
44.3 Three Pressure-Driven Membrane Separation Processes for Aqueous Systems 389
44.4 A Membrane Separation Process for Aqueous Solutions Which Is Driven by an
Electrical Potential Difference 390
44.5 Gas Separation 391
44.6 Pervaporation 392
44.7 Medical Applications 392
44.8 Additional Remarks 393
References 394
 Contents xiii

45 Microfiltration 395
45.1 Introduction 395
45.2 Membrane Types 396
45.3 Membrane Characterization 397
45.4 Filter Construction 397
45.5 Operational Practice 398
References 399

46 Ultrafiltration 401
46.1 Introduction 401
46.2 Membrane Characterization 401
46.3 Concentration Polarization and Membrane Fouling 402
46.4 Membrane Cleaning 406
46.5 Ultrafiltration Membrane Systems 407
46.6 Continuous Systems 408
46.7 Applications 409
References 411

47 Reverse Osmosis 413

47.1 Osmosis 413
47.2 Reverse Osmosis 414
47.3 Theoretical Background 415
47.4 Concentration Polarization 417
47.5 Membrane Specifications 417
47.6 Membrane Qualities 417
47.7 Reverse Osmosis Units 418
47.8 Membrane Fouling Control and Cleaning 419
47.9 Applications 420
47.10 Nanofiltration Membranes 421
47.11 Conclusions and Future Directions 421
References 421

48 Electrodialysis 423
48.1 Introduction 423
48.2 Functioning of Ion-Exchange Membranes 424
48.3 Types of Ion Exchange Membranes 424
48.4 Transport in Electrodialysis Membranes 425
48.5 Power Consumption 427
48.6 System Design 427
48.7 Applications 428
References 429

49 Gas Separation 431

49.1 Introduction 431
49.2 Theoretical Background 431
49.3 Process Design 436
49.4 Applications 437
References 441
xiv Contents

50 Case Studies Membranes 443

50.1 Gel Formation 443
50.2 Osmotic Pressure 443
50.3 Membrane Gas Separation 444
References 445

Notation VII 447

Greek Symbols 448

Part VIII Crystallization, Liquid/Solid Separation, and Drying 449

51 Crystallization 451
51.1 Introduction 451
51.2 Solubility 451
51.3 Nucleation 452
51.4 Crystal Growth 453
51.5 Crystallizers and Crystallizer Operations 454
51.6 The Population Density Balance 457
51.7 Interpretation of the Results of Population Density Balances 463
References 466

52 Liquid/Solid separation 467

52.1 Introduction 467
52.2 Filtration 467
52.2.1 Introduction 467
52.2.2 Cake Filtration 468
52.2.3 Filter Aids 471
52.2.4 Deep-Bed Filtration 472
52.2.5 Filtration Equipment 472
52.3 Centrifugation 475
Reference 478

53 Convective Drying 479

53.1 Introduction 479
53.2 Four Important Continuous Convective Dryers in the Chemical Industry 480
53.3 A First Example of Convective Drying 482
53.4 The Adiabatic Saturation Temperature 483
53.5 The Wet-Bulb Temperature 485
53.6 The Mollier Diagram 486
53.7 Drying Vacuum Pan Salt in a Plug Flow Fluid-Bed Dryer 488

54 Design of a Flash Dryer 489

54.1 Introduction 489
54.2 Design 489
Reference 491
 Contents xv

55 Contact Drying 493

55.1 Introduction 493
55.2 Scaling Up of a Conical Vacuum Dryer 493
55.3 An Additional Remark Concerning Vacuum Drying 497
55.4 Testing a Small Plate Dryer 498
55.5 Testing a Continuous Paddle Dryer 500
55.6 Scale Up of a Thin-Film Dryer 503
Reference 506

56 Case Studies Crystallization, Liquid/Solid Separation, and Drying 507

56.1 Ultracentrifuges 507
56.2 Le2/3 507
56.3 Convective Drying-1 508
56.4 Convective Drying-2 509
56.5 Analysis of a Spray-Drying Operation 509
56.6 Estimation of the Size of a Contact Dryer 512
References 515

Notation VIII 517

Greek Symbols 519

Part IX Gas/Solid Separation 521

57 Introduction 523

58 Cyclones 525
58.1 Introduction 525
58.2 Sizing and Process Data 525
References 527

59 Fabric Filters 529

59.1 Introduction 529
59.2 Fabrics 529
59.3 Baghouse Construction and Operation 531
Reference 532

60 Scrubbers 533
60.1 Introduction 533
60.2 Packed-Bed Scrubbers 534
60.3 Venturi Scrubbers 535
60.4 Mechanical Scrubbers 536
References 537

61 Electrostatic Precipitators 539

61.1 Introduction 539
61.2 Principle of Operation 540
xvi Contents

61.3 Process Data 540

61.4 Construction 540
Reference 542

Notation IX 543
Greek Symbols 543

Index 545
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 xvii

Preface

After graduation as a chemical engineer at the University of Twente in The Netherlands in 1971 I
worked in research for the multinational company Akzo Nobel. My retirement started in 2000. In
2005, I proposed the Dutch organization PAO Techniek en Management to organize a seminar
“Introduction to Chemical Engineering”. The goal was to enable chemists in the process industry
to acquire knowledge of chemical engineering. The seminar was given successfully in The
Netherlands between 2005 and 2015 and its scope was gradually extended. Material from standard
textbooks was combined with material obtained while at work. The seminar appeared to be
attractive also for, e.g., mechanical engineers and physicists. The seminar was written in English
as that is the “lingua franca” of the process industry. Then, in 2015, the interest declined. It is pos-
sible that internet information is the cause. I then proposed John Wiley & Sons to publish a book
containing the material of the seminar. An agreement was made and the present book is the result.
I am grateful for the permissions obtained for the incorporation of material from various sources.
The sources are mentioned in the book. I wish to thank especially the following publishers:
Delft Academic Press/VSSD at Delft in The Netherlands,
Elsevier at Amsterdam in The Netherlands,
McGraw-Hill at New York in the U.S.A.,
John Wiley & Sons at Hoboken in the U.S.A.,
Taylor and Francis Group at Abingdon in the U.K., and
Wolters Kluwer at Alphen aan den Rijn in The Netherlands.

I am greatly indebted to my wife, Annechien, for her constant encouragement and patience.

C.M. van ’t Land

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required; if a brown varnish is required, some soot from turpentine-oil
must be added to the spirit.
I have made innumerable experiments with other resins and
colouring matters, but in the end I always return to those mentioned
above as the best to be used. Dragon’s-blood must not be
employed, the colour not being fast.
When the varnish is dry, it must be very carefully polished with
finely powdered pumice-stone and linseed-oil, applied with a piece of
felt.
[1] Half a litre is very little less than a pint.
 XXI. THE CLEANING AND CARE OF
THE VIOLIN.
The instrument must always be kept thoroughly clean and after
use should be carefully wiped with a silken duster. If any dirt should
adhere to it in spite of this precaution, it can be easily removed by
gently rubbing it with a piece of linen, moistened with water, and
afterwards wiping it over with oil of turpentine. The resin which
accumulates on the finger-board and strings can in case of necessity
be removed by the application of a little spirit, or better still, by that of
Eau de Cologne, but great care must be taken in the application, so
that the spirit does not touch the varnish of the belly. Spirit will also
clean the strings and remove from them the effect of perspiration;
the bridge may also be cleaned with it from time to time, but as
stated before, it must be done cautiously, especially in the case of
old and valuable instruments of the time of Stradivarius. The more
recently constructed violins are mostly varnished with shellac, and
consequently are not at all or, at most, very little affected by the
application of spirit.
The interior of a violin should also sometimes be cleaned; this can
be done by putting through the F-holes two or three handsfull of
coarse kitchen salt; these should then be covered with a cloth and
the salt well shaken about, as it will thus collect all the dust, resin
and other dirt which may be in the violin, and when shaken out will
carry all these impurities with it. The strings need not be taken off in
order to effect this.
 XXII. THE BOW.
The rank of François Tourte among violin-bow makers is as
prominent a one as that of Stradivarius among violin makers. Each
has supplemented the other. Tourte died in Paris in the year 1835 at
the age of 88, after a life of usefulness almost as long as that of
Stradivarius. He brought the making of bows for stringed instruments
to such perfection, that those bow makers who have succeeded him,
have never deviated very far from the models he left.
I shall here make a few observations on the characteristics of real
Tourte bows which have crossed my path.
The quality, as well as money value, of a bow seems entirely to
depend upon its shape, whether the stick is round or angular. The
whole length of the bow from the point to the end of the nut should
be 73 to 74 centimetres. The length of the hair from the lower part of
the head to the nut should measure 63 to 64 centimetres; the height
of the head, including the stick and little plate, should be 23 m/m.;
the height of the nut with the stem to the outer ring where the hair
begins 26 m/m.; the breadth of the hair on the nut should be 11 m/m.
and on the head 10 m/m. Tourte used from 80 to 100 hairs for each
bow, but now from 150 to 160 are taken.
The stick is made of pernambuco-wood and the nut of ebony;
tortoise shell is however sometimes used for the latter. The
decoration may be in German silver, silver or gold, according to the
taste of the possessor.
The stick must be cut straight and lengthwise with the year-rings,
and is manipulated in such a way that the side-view of the bow
shows the horizontal lines. In this condition the prepared stick must
be held over a charcoal fire, be gradually and equally heated, until it
can be scarcely retained in the hand, and then it must immediately
be bent across the knee to such a degree, as to allow the hair of the
finished bow to lie upon the stick. To accomplish this successfully, a
certain amount of practice and caution is required. The weight of a
bow when finished should not exceed 54 to 57 grammes.
Tourte never polished nor varnished his bows, but only rubbed
them smooth with pumice-stone and linseed-oil. If varnish or polish
of any kind is ever found on one of his bows, it has been put there by
other hands than his.
It has often been asserted that Tourte only left the bows
unpolished and unvarnished from indifference, and I must confess
that I also was once inclined to this opinion until experience taught
me better. About 30 years ago I bought a beautiful Tourte bow which
I handed to Herr Joachim to test.
It seemed to him a little too heavy and I, in my want of experience,
imagined that I could easily meet the wish for diminished weight by a
little work. I therefore commenced to work with a file upon this
master-piece, but I found the outer layer of the wood as hard as iron,
so that I had a great deal of trouble to lessen the circumference of
the stick. This circumstance surprised me at the outset of the work,
as in the making of new bows it never occurred to me before. I was
in great fear, however, at the conclusion of my troublesome work, for
I found that the bow had lost all elasticity and power.
Later on, the opportunity presented itself to me of proving that
pernambuco-wood when exposed to the air hardens very rapidly,
and I am therefore convinced that this fact was known to Tourte and
that consequently he only rubbed his bows with linseed-oil, in order
to leave them open to the influence of the air, so that the sticks might
become hardened and strengthened.
If an old bow has become slightly twisted, which may happen with
bows of the best make, this fault can be rectified by cautiously
bending it back to its original form over a charcoal fire, and the bow
will regain its former elasticity.
If any of my readers desire to study more closely the history of
stringed instruments, I can recommend to them very highly the work
upon the subject from the pen of Julius Rühlmann.
Göttingen, Druck der Dieterich’schen Univ.-Buchdruckerei von W. Fr.
Kästner.
 Transcriber’s Notes
The figures referenced throughout the text are not present in the original English
edition. You can find them in the original German Die Geige und ihr Bau on Google
Books.
The numbering of the chapter on the back and edges was corrected to IV. instead of VI.
in the table of contents.
Page 10: “intsrument makers” changed to “instrument makers”
Page 28: “My opininon” changed to “My opinion”
Page 34: “opon this master-piece” changed to “upon this master-piece”
 *** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE VIOLIN
AND THE ART OF ITS CONSTRUCTION: A TREATISE ON THE
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