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 OSC
OSC IB Revision Guides
Published by OSC Publishing,
Belsyre Court, 57 Woodstock Road
Oxford OX2 6HJ, UK

IB Biology HL
3 edition 2015
Copyright © 2015 Ashby Merson-Davies

978-1-907374-96-8

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,

or transmitted in any form or by any means, without the prior permission
of the publishers.

PHOTOCOPYING ANY PAGES FROM THIS PUBLICATION IS PROHIBITED.

Ashby Merson-Davies has asserted his right under the Copyright, Design and
Patents Act 1988 to be identified as the Author of this work.

The material in this Revision Guide has been developed independently of the
International Baccalaureate Organisation.

OSC IB Revision Guides are available in most major IB subject areas.

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About the author

Ashby Merson-Davies has been teaching IB Biology courses for over 20 years.
He teaches regularly on OSC Spring Revision Courses.

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The OSC team are extremely proud that our profits benefit the McCall MacBain
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Title texture: Marble :

Printed by: WFM Print Solutions, Tonbridge, Kent
 International Baccalaureate
Higher Level Biology
Using this Revision Guide

Welcome to the International Baccalaureate Higher Level Biology Revision Guide, 2016
edition.

The format is clear, colourful and simple to follow. Key points, facts and principles are listed
for easy learning, and diagrams are designed to make them easy to learn and reproduce in
an exam. Remember that a clear diagram provides an instant essay plan therefore helping
you to gain the extra mark for clarity and organisation.

Although the guide covers every aspect of the Higher Level course the layout does not follow
the sequence of the syllabus. Instead it has been reorganised to follow a more
developmental sequence as Chapters, starting with Mathematical Requirements, Molecular
Biology, Cell Biology, Cell Metabolism, Animal Physiology and Plant Physiology. These are
followed by Ecology, Genetics and finally Evolution and Biodiversity.

‘Pale blue boxes’ contain information that helps with understanding by providing additional
information. However you do not need to learn this.

B AR e |
- Other ‘coloured boxes’, such as these green and yellow ones,
contain information that you do need to know.

This means you need to be This means you need to be able

able to ‘draw’ the diagram or * to ‘identify’ the diagram when it is
diagrams. given in an exam question.
* ‘Annotate’ means adding some further information to the labels.

This is your revision book, so every few pages are

sets of ‘Grey Box Questions’. These contain simple 24. What type of cell division do prokaryotic cells
?
questions and you should be able to complete b
these. The answers are at the end of the chapter.

In addition to these there are a few larger ‘Revision’ boxes. Krebs Cycle

At the end of each chapter there are a number of Self-test Quizzes, containing ‘multiple
choice questions’. A suggested way to approach revision would be to work your way through
a chapter and test yourself with the Grey Box Questions. Then at a later date check how
much you have really learnt by trying the Self-test Quizzes.
Remember that when you answer multiple choice questions NEVER choose the first one that
sounds right. Examiners sometimes put in a trick answer as A or B. Always read ALL four
answers and try to think of the reason why the other three are wrong. The answers are in
Appendix 1 on pages 304-7.
In Chapter 8, Genetics, there is a ‘worked example’ for each section followed by a problem
for you to practise. The answer is at the end of the chapter. Then at the end of the chapter
there are a further 18 problems with the worked answers in Appendix 2 on pages 308-315.

The ‘External Exam Assessments’ are given in Appendix 3 on page 316.

The extended response exam questions start with a ‘Command Term’ and so it is essential
that you understand what these mean as you will be expected to apply them in your answers.
There are three levels of depth of treatment and are all given in Appendix 4 on page 317.

Appendix 5 on pages 318-322 has model answers for ‘Extended Response’ answers using
some of these command terms.

Appendix 6 on page 323 gives you some advice on what you should, and what you should
not take into your exams.

Interesting websites worth looking at are http://www.sciencedaily.com and also

http://www.sci-news.com/biology.

| am grateful to Pam Watson, Senior Biology Technician, and Georgina Kemp, Assistant
Biology Technician at Sevenoaks School, for their invaluable help with experiments and
microscope slide photographs, and also to Tony Stuart for his idea for the diagram of the
endosymbiotic theory. Thanks also to many people for generously allowing me to use their
images.

| would greatly value any feedback on this Revision Guide so that later editions can continue
to help students throughout the world. Please feel free to email me at Oxford Study Courses
— [email protected].

Ashby Merson-Davies
 Contents

Mathematical Requirements and Statistics

-

Molecular Biology Part 1

WNDN

Molecular Biology Part 2

Cell Biology
Cell Metabolism
Animal Physiology
O

Plant Biology
O

Ecology
N

Genetics
00

Evolution and Biodiversity

©

Appendix 1 Answers to Self-test Quizzes

Appendix 2 Answers to Ch8 (Genetics) Test Problems
Appendix 3 External Assessment Specifications
Appendix 4 Command Terms
Appendix 5 Extended Response — Maximising Your Marks
Appendix 6 Exam Equipment Kit and Mobile Phones
Acknowledgements

=
{3
g
§ BIBLIOTEKA
2 . -
 Chapter One
Mathematical Requirements
and Statistics
Many aspects of modern Biology require mathematical
manipulation of data. This chapter looks at some basic
maths along with graphs and statistics. Further
information on this is available in the Student Guide for
Internal Assessment in Biology.

Section

v
«Q
2
o
Size units in Biology

COOWOWWONNANUTITERDRDRDRDWWWWWNNNN
Relative sizes
Scale bars
Calculating magnification
Averages
Calculating the mean
Calculating the median
Calculating the mode
Calculating a percentage
Calculating a percentage change
Calculating a ratio
Variables
Standard deviation
Calculating standard deviation
Graphs
Bar charts
Histograms
Line graphs
Scattergraphs and correlation
Error bars
Hypotheses and significance testing
Statistics — chi-squared test
Chi-squared in genetics
Table of chi-squared values
-

Chi-squared in ecology
w =
-

Nomograms

Glossary
Answers to Grey Boxes Questions
Self-test Quiz
Answers to Self-Test Quiz

IBHL Biology 2016 © Ashby Merson-Davies

Size units in Biology
Scientists now use the International System of units or Sl units. Ones commonly used in Biology are:

Length
= metre or m
= millimetre or mm = 107 of a metre
= micrometre or um = 10" of a metre or 10° of a millimetre
= nanometre or nm = 10°° of a metre or 10° of a millimetre or 10° of a micrometre

Time Area Volume

= hourorh = Square metre or = Cubic metre or
= minute or min m’etc m’etc
= second or s

Concentration
= mol dm™

Relative sizes

Molecules Me.mbrane Viruses Bacteria Organelles Cells

thickness
1nm 10nm 100nm 1um upto 10um upto 100um

Scale bars
A scale bar is a short line usually drawn on an electron micrograph that will allow you to calculate the
magnification of the photograph.

Using a scale bar to calculate magnification. (See photo on right.)

1. Measure the scale bar on the photograph in mm with your ruler.
15mm
2. Convert these mm into the same units as the scale bar using the
information above. !
15mm = 15000pm
3. Divide this number by the number on the scale bar.
15000 + 5 = 3000
1.1 Scale bar on an image
Therefore magnification = 3000x.

Calculating magnification
An alternative is that the image states the magnification. From this you can calculate the actual size.

Example:
The ‘cell’ on the right has been magnified 750x. @
Calculate its actual length.

1. Measure the length of the cell.

41mm
2. Divide this by the magnification. @
41 +750 =0.055mm
3. Convert to a sensible unit.
0.055mm x 1000 = 55um
41mm

IBHL Biology 2016 © Ashby Merson-Davies

 1.22mm = um || 2. How many 3. How many 4. List the three steps in determining
nanometres in a micrometres in a magnification from a scale bar.
millimetre? millimetre? i8

Averages
fii.
The term average is often used when talking about
samples. There are three ways of measuring the average
— mean, median, and mode. Which one is used
depends on what you want to do with the data. 5. How would you write in S|
unit symbols cubic millimetres
per minute?
Calculating the mean

The mean is the sum of a set of values divided by the number of values.
The mathematical symbols used have been standardised.
Each measurement or value from a sample is given the symbol x.
The sum of all measurements is written as Yx. (X is the Greek letter sigma).
The number of values in the sample is n.
The mean of the sample is x-bar, x
x
The mean = sum of all samples X = Z_
sample size n

Calculating the median

This is the middle number for the results when arranged in rank order. (Remember median and
middle).

Calculating the mode

This is the measurement that occurs the most number of times. (Remember mode and most).
Take the following set of results obtained from measuring the width of 10 beech leaves.

The same data, but sorted into ascending rank order.

Raw data

Sample | Leaf width / cm £0.5cm Leaf width / cm 20.5cm

1 1.6 1:2
2 1.4 1.4
3 1.7 1.4
4 1.4 1.4
5 1.4 1.5
Je 6 2.0 1.6
7 1.2 1.6
8 1.6 1.7
9 1.8 1.8
10 15 2.0
mean 1.56
median 1.55
mode 1.4

Calculating a percentage
Suppose there are 15 students in your class and 11 of these are girls.
Calculate the percentage of girls in the class. My calculat
number of girls 100 11 x100 =73% "@g'fi?
total number of students 15

IBHL Biology 2016 © Ashby Merson-Davies

3
r

Calculating a percentage change

Suppose three more students joined your class after the start of term.
Calculate the percentage change in the number of students.

change in numbere of students % 100 3 x100 =20% increase

SE e
original number of students 15

However a little later 2 students left.

Calculate the percentage change in the number of students.

cha_nge in number of students % 100 3 x 100 = 13% decrease

original number of students 15

Calculating a ratio
Key points
» Always bring one of the values to 1.
» This should be the first one stated in the ratio.

In a class of 28 students there are 11 girls and 17 boys.

What is the ratio of girls to boys? What is the ratio of boys to girls?
11 girls =1 17 boys = 1.5 17 boys =1 11 girls = 0.6
11 11 17 17
The girl : boy ratiois 1: 1.5 The boy : girl ratio is 1: 0.6

Variables
There are four categories
» Independent — This is the one that is manipulated over a range of values.
» Dependent — This is the one that is measured.
» Controlled or Fixed — These are all the ones that are controlled at a fixed value.
» Uncontrolled — These are the ones that cannot be controlled.

Standard deviation
Key points
» Standard deviation is used to summarise the spread of values around the mean.
» A small value for standard deviation indicates that the data is close to the mean.
» Alarge value indicates that the data is spread out.
» If the standard deviation is greater than 33% of the mean then that is large.
» Inanormal distribution:
e 68% of the data falls within + or — one standard deviation of the mean,
e 95% falls within + or — two standard deviations.
» Standard deviation has the same units as the values.

If the SD value is
Example
small then the data is
close to the mean. Let us say the mean is 30 seconds and
frequency the standard deviation is 5 seconds.
If the SD value is
68% of the values will fall within the
large then the
time 0 35 seconds, and 95% of
data is spread out
e -will fall within the times of
from the mean.
20 to 40 seconds.

mean characteristic

IBHL Biology 2016 © Ashby Merson-Davies

 Calculating standard deviation
The symbol for standard deviation is s or sometimes o.
< You should learn how to calculate standard deviation using your calculator.
« Remember that standard deviation has the same units as the data values.
When using your calculator to find standard deviation for a sample it may give
you two possible standard deviations. Always choose the larger one as this uses Take great care that any
n-1 rather than n. Likewise with other calculators if there is a key 0,4 Or s, then | calculator you take into
use that in preference to o, or s,. your IB exams is a
permitted model — see
Appendix 6 on page 321.

Graphs
Graphical representation of data allows for an easy interpretation of a set of data and also
comparisons between sets of data. Bar charts, histograms and line graphs are the most common
types but in Papers 2 and 3 expect to see some more unusual ones.

Bar charts
Key points
» Each set of data is represented by a bar which can go vertically or horizontally.
» There must be a space between each bar or groups of bars.

Example 1
A student set up clear glass dishes containing sugar water on different coloured backgrounds and
counted the number of bees visiting each colour over a 2-hour period at midday.

Number of bees on each colour

Red Yellow Blue
3 25 14

[| .
30— - ] B -
Number of bees
o

10 -

5- 0 5 10 15 26 25 30
0- ‘ Number of bees
Red Yellow Blue | L

IBHL Biology 2016 © Ashby Merson-Davies

 Example 2
A student noticed that several species of plant growing in a shaded woodland had leaves a different
shade of green from members of the same species growing in a meadow. He made acetone extracts
of the chloroplast pigments and measured the % light transmission using a colourimeter.

Plant species |% light transmission £3%

Sun Shade
A 45 61
B 36 40 Table 1. Colourimeter % transmission of acetone extracts
c 22 59 from sun and shade leaves of three plant species.

@BSun
B
Plant Species BShade

Graph 1. Colourimeter % transmission of acetone extracts from

sun and shade leaves of three plant species

6. State the formula for calculating a 11. State the formula for calculating the
percentage change. mean of a set of values.

9. What percentage of values

falls within +1 standard deviation
of the mean? 12. What is the mode of a set of
7. In order for the standard deviation to be values?
called large, what percentage of the mean

mustithe gieetaniiond 10. What percentage of values

falls within +2 standard
deviations of the mean?
8. If the standard deviation is large what
does that tell you about the data? 13. What is the median of a set of
values?

6 IBHL Biology 2016 © Ashby Merson-Davies

 Histograms
Key points
» Also have a bar format.
» There is no space between each bar.
» The independent variable is continuous.

Example
A student collected the lengths of 24 leaves from each of two laurel bushes, one growing in a sunny
environment and one in shade, and organised the data into groups as shown in the table below.

Leaf length / | Number of leaves

mm +0.5mm sun shade
90— 94 2 1 8
95-99 3 1
100 — 104 3 2 7
105 - 109 5 4
110-114 4 7 @Sun leaves
115-119 3 7 % 6 @ Shade leaves
120 - 124 3 5 2
125129 1 3 35
1 To 4 1
Note that each set of values o
continues from the one -g
before, i.e. 95 follows from 5 3 A
94 and 100 follows from 99, Z
a_nd each group is the same 2
size.

90 -94 95-99 100-104 105-109 110-114 115-119 120-124 125-129

Leaf lengths / mm

Line graphs
Key points
> Plotting dependent variables against independent variables.
> Plotting one variable against another to show a correlation.
> The relationship can be linear or non-linear.

5 co
Q. = £
2% 8 .c
3 B
9
g3
3D
£3
S
S 2 S
> o >0

Surface area of skin cm? Concentration of salt solution gm cm™

es | IBHL Biology 2016 © Ashby Merson-Davies

£
 Scattergraphs and correlation

Key points
» A scattergraph is a plot of two sets of variable data.
» The line may show a positive correlation, negative correlation or no correlation.

Variable A
Variable A

Variable B Variable B

A scattergraph showing
no correlation.
Variable A

°
e %%e%; O °e
o.. % .."....u' °

Variable B

Example 1: In many countries obesity has increased and so has the incidence of type Il diabetes,
i.e. a positive correlation implying obesity causes diabetes. Experimental data would need to be
collected to provide evidence that this is the case, and in fact this has proved to be correct.
Example 2: Shale gas production in the USA has increased dramatically in the last few years and
the population of honey bees has decreased dramatically — there is a negative correlation.
However it would be unreasonable to state that the fall in honey bee populations has been
caused by shale gas production.

Error bars
Key points
» Error bars show the variability or uncertainty in a set of data.
» This may take several forms such as simply the range of values, or standard deviation, or
standard error of the mean.

Here is a basic table of some data.

19
Data +18D 18.5

12 mean 16.9 mean 16.9

19 - 18D 15.15.3

15 15
15
17
18
Mean 16.9
Standard deviation | 1.6
Here the error bar Here the error bar
shows the mean and shows the mean and
range from 15 to 19. +1 standard deviation.

IBHL Biology 2016 © Ashby Merson-Davies

 » Error bars can be used when comparing sets of data.

For example data set A is without using a drug, the control. Data set B is using the drug.

It appears that using the drug

has an effect. However if we
Mean A Mean A e
add error bars, say standard
deviation, we can see that the
Mean B upper values for data B overlap Mean B

a lot with the lower values for

data A. This indicates that the
drug may not in fact be having
an effect.
Data A Data B Data A Data B

Hypotheses and significance testing

Hypotheses
A hypothesis is a prediction of the outcome of an investigation. There are two forms that the
hypothesis can take and these are in opposition to each other. The statistical test you choose aims to
prove one hypothesis right and the other one wrong.
The two forms of the hypothesis are the null hypothesis, Ho, and the alternative hypothesis, H;.

The null hypothesis states that there is no link between the sets of data (observed and expected
values), whereas the alternative hypothesis states that there is.

The null hypothesis is used if you are not able to predict a result.

Significance
> In biology 5% is taken as the boundary, meaning that the probability of the difference happening
by chance is 5 times in 100.
> If the difference happens more than 5 times in 100, then it is due to chance.
> If the difference happens less than 5 times in 100, then it is probably due to a causal factor.
> Some statistics tests use tables of critical values and we compare the calculated result from a
statistics test with the critical value.
> If the calculated value is greater than the critical value then the difference is significant, i.e.
something has caused the difference.

Statistics — The chi-squared test

Key points
> This test compares the relationship between an
observed set of data and an expected set of data.
> Each measurement must be independent from the others.
> The expected values must be greater than 5.

Chi-squared in genetics
Key points
> Two values are needed, the observed value and the expected value.
> The expected value is calculated using the Mendelian ratio expected for that cross.
> The formula to use is:
) (0-Ey Where > Degrees of freedom value is
yi= Z‘ 3 = sum of number of classes -1.
& O = the observed result
E = the expected result You do not need to know what degrees of
freedom means but you do need to know how
to calculate it.

es IBHL Biology 2016 © Ashby Merson-Davies 9

Example
A breeding investigation was carried out with fruit flies. Long wing is dominant to short wing and red
eye is dominant to white eye. A number of flies that were all heterozygous for both characteristics
were crossed and the following numbers obtained.
Long wing, red eye 257
Long wing, white eye 81
Short wing, red eye 86
Short wing, white eye 24
Total 448
Since this was a standard dihybrid cross the expected
results were a 9 : 3 : 3: 1 ratio. The observed ratio is
10.7 : 3.4 : 3.6 : 1. The chi-squared test can be used
to determine if this difference in the ratio is significant
or not.

Classes Observed Expected 2 0 —Ef

(Phenotypes) (] E 9=E (0-E) E
Long wing, red eye 257 252 5 25 0.1
Long wing, white eye 81 84 -3 9 0.1
Short wing, red eye 86 84 2 4 0.04
Short wing, white eye 24 28 -4 16 0.57
Totals* 448 448 0 > =0.81

* The totals row is not really necessary, but it helps prevent calculation errors. The totals of the Observed and Expected
columns must be the same, and the total of the O — E column must = zero.

Significance Level
Probability
Degrees of 20% 10% 5% 2% 1% Degrees of freedom =
freedom 0.2 0.1 0.05 0.02 0.01 Number of classes — 1 J
1 1.64 2.71 3.84 5.41 6.64 .
2 3.22 4.61 5.99 7.82 9.21
B 4.64 6.25 [ ] 9.84 11.34
4 5.99 7.78 9.49 11.67 13.28
5 7.29 9.24 11.07 13.39 15.09
4———— decreasing significance increasing ————p

Table of chi-squared values

Here there are 4 classes so degrees of freedom = 4-1 = 3.

Null hypothesis — there is no difference between the observed and expected ratios.

The 5% critical value on the table for 3 degrees of freedom is 7.82. Remembering that if the calculated
value is greater than the critical value then the difference is significant. Since the calculated figure of
0.81 is well below this then the observed difference from the 9:3:3:1 ratio is not significant. We have
proved our null hypothesis to be correct.

IBHL Biology 2016 © Ashby Merson-Davies

 Chi-squared in ecology
Key points
» In ecology it often is not possible to predict what the results should be as this would simply be
guessing.
» Therefore we use the null hypothesis and the statistics is used to prove or disprove it.
» The data is collected using quadrats positioned randomly in the sample area.
» Inorder to test for an association between two species, in each quadrat the
number of both species is recorded.
» The data is recorded as a 2 x 2 contingency table.

Number of Number of quadrats

quadrats Species A present | Species A absent | Row totals
Species B present present/ present present
/ absent
Species B absent absent / present absent
/ absent

Column totals Grand

total Adding the row totals or
the column totals should
A 2 x 2 contingency table NB. The table must be set out in this way. give the same grand total,

The formulae
To calculate the expected frequencies: To calculate degrees of freedom:
E = row total x column total (number of rows — 1) x (number of columns — 1)
grand total
Again you need to know
To calculate chi-squared: how to calculate degrees
of freedom.

e ) =Z( O-E)?
- ) Where
> =sum of
O = the observed result
E = the expected result

Example
The diamond leaf willow (Salix pulcha) and the Arctic willow (Salix arctica) are both found on rocky
outcrops in marshy ground in the Arctic tundra. A survey was carried out to see if there was an
association between these two species.

Number of Number of quadrats

quadrats S. pulcha present | S. pulcha absent Row totals
S. arctica present 52 38 90
S. arctica absent 45 20 65
Grand total
Column totals 97 58 155

We now calculate the expected values, E.

Number of Number of quadrats

quadrats S. pulcha present | S. pulcha absent | Row totals E = row
column
total x total
S. arctica present 90 %97 =56.3 90 x 58 = 33.7 5 grand ol
155 155
S. arctica absent 65 x 97 =40.7 65 x 58 =24.3 65
155 155 Check that your expected row
Grand total and column totals match the
Column totals 97 58 155 observed totals.

IBHL Biology 2016 © Ashby Merson-Davie

s 11
 This data can now be entered into a standard chi-squared table

0o E O0-E (0 -Ef* 0 —Ef

E
Both present 52 56.3 -4.3 18.49 0.328
S. puicha only 45 40.7 4.3 18.49 0.454
S. arctica only 38 33.7 4.3 18.49 0.549
Both absent 20 243 -4.3 18.49 0.761
Totals 155 155 0 > =2.09

Significance Level
Probability
Degrees of 20% 10% 5% 2% 1% Degrees of freedom =
freedom 0.2 0.1 0.05 0.02 0.01 DY O =1
I 1.64 2.71 B 5.41 6.64 ( ) )
2 3.22 4.61 5.99 7.82 9.21
3 4.64 6.25 7.82 9.84 11.34
4 5.99 7.78 9.49 11.67 13.28
5 7.29 9.24 11.07 13.39 15.09
4——— decreasing significance increasing ————p

Table of chi-squared values

The null hypothesis, Hy, states that there is no association between the two Salix species.

The 5% critical value on the table for 1 degree of freedom is 3.84 Remembering that if the calculated
value is greater than the critical value then the difference is significant. The calculated figure of 2.09 is
smaller than this so the observed difference is not significant. We would accept the null hypothesis —
there is no association between the two species of Salix.

IBHL Biology 2016 © Ashby Merson-Davies

[ L
 Nomograms
Key points
A nomogram is a group of three or more scales.
YNVW

Each scale shows a different set of values.

Data is collected for two of the values and these are used to read off a value on the third scale.
The scales can be positioned vertically or horizontally
Y

Example

Scale 1 Scale 2 Scale 3

Glossary

CAUSAL RELATIONSHIP A relationship between one event, X, and another, Y, in which X precedes and causes Y.
A relationship between two variables where a change in one causes a corresponding or proportional
CORRELATION change in the other values.
Used on a graph to show some measure of upper and lower values about the mean. Commonly this
ERROR BAR ; L
is standard deviation.
HYPOTHESIS A testable explanation of an observed event.
QUADRAT A measured square area which encloses a sampling area.
NORMAL DISTRIBUTION A bell shaped curve on a graph which is symmetrical each side of the mean.
NULL HYPOTHESIS Used in statistics, this states that there is no difference between the observed and predicted values.
In a statistics test the significance is whether one variable has an effect on another variable or if the
Si result is simply due to chance, In Biology the most common level of significance is 5%, i.e. if the
CNIFICANGE investigation was carried out 100 times then it is acceptable to have 5 of them where the effect was
due to chance.
A statistical measure of the spread of data about the mean of a set of values with a normal
STANDARD DEVIATION distribution.
68% of the values fall within +1 standard deviation of the mean,
95% of the values fall within +2 standard deviations of the mean.

ies IBHL Biology 2016 © Ashby Merson-Davies 13

 Answers to Grey Box Questions

22000pum
10°
R o
B0

10°
a. Measure the scale bar on the photograph in mm.
b. Convert these mm into the same units as the scale bar.
¢. Divide this number by the number on the scale bar.
mm? min”
o

difference in values x 100

original value
33%
It is spread out on either side of the mean.
68%
10. 95%
11: total of all the values + number of values
12. the most frequent value
13. the middle value

Self-test Quiz
1. Which line in the table is correct?

Molecules | Membrane Viruses Bacteria Organelles Cells

thickness
a. 1um 10nm 1pm Upto 10pm 10nm Upto 100pm
b. 10nm Tpm 100nm 100nm Upto 10um Upto 100pm
€ 1nm 10nm Upto 10pum 1pm Upto 100pm 100nm
d. 1nm 10nm 100nm 1um Upto 10pm Upto 100um

2 Determine the magnification of these scale bars.

Determine the magnification of these scale bars. The answers are at the bottom of the page.

oo o o i
a.2um b. 3um c. 1um

3 Calculate the actual size of these drawings.

Magnification x0.15

14 IBHL Biology 2016 © Ashby Merson-Davies

 4. Use the data in the table to calculate the mean, median and mode.
height of student / m
1.5
1.6
1.6
1.7
1.9
2.0
mean
median
mode

The number of bacterial colonies on a petri dish on day 1 was 12 and on day 2 was 35.
Determine the percentage change in the number of colonies.

In a new forest plantation there are 376 planted forest trees and 85 self-seeded trees. Determine
the ratio of self-seeded to forest trees.

Use your calculator to calculate the mean and standard deviation of the following data.

Set 1 Set 2 Set 3 Set 4 Set 5 Standard

Mean ik
mm mm mm mm mm deviation
13 12 15 14 11

Which type of correlation does the graph below show?

Variable A

Variable B

A student calculated the mean and standard deviation for a set of measurements of light
transmission through an extract of anthocyanin, a red plant pigment. She found the mean value
was 47% with a standard deviation of 13%. Was she right in stating that the standard deviation
was very small?

10. Standard deviation can be applied to a population with a normal distribution. In this case:
a. 68% of the population falls within + 1 standard deviation of the mean,
b. 95% of the population falls within + 1 standard deviation of the mean,
C. 68% of the population fits under the curve,
d. 68% of the population falls within + 2 standard deviation of the mean.

il Population A has a standard deviation of 2.7 units and population B has a standard deviation of
3.2 units. It can be deduced that:
a. Population A is smaller than population B.
b. The mean value of population B is greater than the mean value of population A.
c. Population B shows greater variation than population A.
d. The sampling procedure used for population A was different from that used for population B.

viesL IBHL Biology 2016 © Ashby Merson-Davies 15

 Table of chi-squared values
Significance Level
Probability
Degrees of 20% 10% 5% 2% 1%
freedom 0.2 0.1 0.05 0.02 0.01
1 1.64 2.71 3.84 5.41 6.64
2 3.22 4.61 5.99 7.82 9.21
3 4.64 6.25 7.82 9.84 11.34
4 5.99 7.78 9.49 11.67 13.28
5 7.29 9.24 11.07 13.39 15.09

12. Bean plants were grown in temperature controlled rooms at two different temperatures and after
10 days the mean height of a sample of 50 from each room was measured. State the null
hypothesis and use the chi-squared test to determine if there is a significant difference in the two
means. (The table of chi-squared values is at the top of the page.)

of 2
e height
Mean plgnt, Obsgrved Exptécted O-E © _E)? o EE ~
mm
10°C 17
20°C 31
Totals

13. A breeding investigation was carried out with fruit flies. The expected ratio was 1:2:1 and the
observed numbers were 22:28:6. A chi-squared test was carried out and the result was 9.14.
What would be your conclusion, giving reasoning for your answer?

14a. On the island of Madeira water channels called levadas have been cut into the rock to provide water
for irrigation. Over time the cut rock surfaces have become covered by a growth of mosses and
liverworts. A student wanted to find out if there was an association between the mosses and liverworts
and so she collected the following data:
= Rock surfaces with both moss and liverwort — 120
= Rock surfaces with only moss — 46
= Rock surfaces with only liverwort — 29
= Rock surfaces with neither moss nor liverwort — 5
Draw a contingency table for this data.

14b. Calculate the expected values based on the null hypothesis.

14c. Calculate the number of degrees of freedom.

14d. Calculate the chi-squared value and state whether the null hypothesis has been rejected or
accepted.

Obsgrved Exp;cted O-E (0 —E)? (© EEF

Both moss and liverwort 120

Moss only 46
Liverwort only 29
Neither 5
Totals 200 200 0

16 IBHL Biology 2016 © Ashby Merson-Davies A IE

 ture of water
/ °C T
o 0 5 10 15 20 25 30

% saturation

T rr 1 r 1 v 1T 1 T T T 7 T T
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 12
Oxygen concentration / cm® !
Use the nomogram above to answer the following.
15a. If the temperature of the water is 15°C what is the % saturation when the oxygen concentrat
ion is
4cm*'?

15b. Determine the temperature change that causes a change in % saturation from
25 to 35 while the
oxygen concentration remains at 2cm® .

16. To measure growth rate an apple grower collected 1000 apples from trees in one
of his fields.
Assuming the sample had a normal distribution how many apples would be within two
standard
deviations of the mean?
a. 680
b. 950
c. 500
d. 475

17. The apple grower also wanted to compare the productivity of the same apple
variety growing in
two different fields. The table shows the data he collected:

‘ Mean number of apples per tree | Number of trees sampled | Standard deviation
Field A 350 1000 7
Field B 300 800 2.5

Which of the following statements is correct?

a. The results from field A are more accurate because a larger number of
trees was sampled.
b. The results from field A are more reliable because the standard deviation is higher.
¢. Only the results from field B have a normal distribution.
d. The trees in field B each have a number of apples closer to the mean than
the trees in field A.

18. The number of peas in a sample of 10 pods was counted and the data shown
in the table.

(fi 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 | Mean|
5 6 6 7 7 7 7 8 8 9 7

What is the best estimate of the standard deviation?

a. 5
b. 9
c. 7
d. 1

i IBHL Biology 2016 © Ashby Merson-Davies

L 17
 19. The Carrot Root fly lays its eggs in the soil around the carrot plant. Soil samples were
collected from 10 plants and the number of eggs counted. The data is shown in the table:

Standard
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 | Mean deviation

44 52 71 45 69 72 83 68 75 81 66 141

What statistical percentage of the soil samples has between 52 and 80 eggs?
14.1%
oo

. 33%
. 68%
oo

. 95%

20. What do error bars on graphs indicate?

a. The variability of the data.
b. The method used to collect the data.
c. The statistical analysis used on the data.
d. The result which is closest to the mean value.

18 IBHL Biology 2016 © Ashby Merson-Davié

 Chapter Two
Molecular Biology Part 1
Carbon, water, carbohydrates, lipids

Molecular Biology looks at four major groups

of biological molecules — carbohydrates, lipids,
proteins and nucleic acids.
All organic molecules are based on the carbon atom.

Section
Molecules
Hydrophilic and hydrophobic
Amphipathic
Carbon
Water
Comparing the thermal properties of water and methane
Water as a heat transporter
Water as a habitat
Water as a coolant
Water as a transporter in blood
Water as a transporter in plants
Carbohydrates
Monosaccharides and disaccharides
Polysaccharides
Cellulose
Starch
Lipids
Triglycerides
Fatty acid structure
Phospholipids
Steroids
Carbohydrates and lipids as energy stores
Scientific evidence for health risks of trans fats and saturated fatty aids
Evaluation of evidence for health claims about lipids
Methods used to obtain evidence
Condensation and hydrolysis
Basic principles
Condensation and hydrolysis in carbohydrates
Condensation and hydrolysis in lipids
Condensation and hydrolysis in amino acids
Body mass index (BMI)
Are you the right weight?
Molecular visualisation software

Glossary
Answers to Grey Box Questions
Self-test Quiz
Answers to Self-test Quiz

esl IBHL Biology 2016 © Ashby Merson-Davies 19

 :
Molecules
)
Key points
Living organisms are made up from only a small proportion of all the elements.
YVVVYVY g
The four most common elements are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen.
Other important elements include calcium, sodium, potassium, phosphorus, sulphur, and iron.
Elements are bonded together to form compounds.
Organic compounds are those that contain carbon, but excluding carbonates, hydrogen
carbonates and oxides of carbon, e.g. carbon dioxide.
All other compounds are inorganic, e.g. water.
*VvVVYVv

Living organisms are made up of both inorganic and organic compounds.

The four major groups of organic carbon compounds are:
carbohydrates,
lipids,
proteins,
nucleic acids.
vVVvve

Living processes are the result of chemical interactions.

Molecular biology can explain these interactions.
Urea - is an organic compound that is produced by living organisms,
- can by synthesised artificially.

Hydrophilic and hydrophobic

Chemical substances can be hydrophilic or hydrophobic.
= A hydrophilic substance has an affinity for and interacts with
water through hydrogen bonding.
= A hydrophobic substance will not interact with water.

Amphipathic
An amphipathic molecule has part of it
hydrophilic and part hydrophobic.

Carbon
Key points
The dark grey ball is the carbon atom.

&
YVYVYYVY

The pale grey balls are other atoms that can be bonded on.
Carbon atoms can form four covalent bonds shown in black.
These bonds may be single as in methane CHy, or double as in carbon dioxide CO,
or even a mixture as in fatty acids — see page 24.
This allows carbon to form a large diversity of stable compounds.
v

Water
Key facts
Water is a dipolar molecule — it has negative and positive ends (poles).
VVVY

The oxygen atom has a slight negative charge.

The hydrogen atoms each have a slight positive charge.
The positive and negative charges on different molecules attract 5
each other.
This attraction forms hydrogen bonds s
YVV

This is called cohesion.

The polarity of water allows it to dissolve other polar
molecules such as sugars and amino acids with polar
side groups — see page 36.
» Other substances form ions in water and dissolve, e.g. sodium chloride (salt) forms sodium ions
Na® and chloride ions CI".
» Water is also attracted to other molecules.
> This is called adhesion. :
» Water has a high specific heat, i.e. it can store a large amount of heat.
» Water has a high latent heat of vaporisation, i.e. it takes a lot of energy to turn liquid water to water vapouft
» Water has a high density. ¥

20 IBHL Biology 2016 © Ashby Merson-Daviest 1B

Random documents with unrelated
content Scribd suggests to you:
 Dear Prof Wallace

Your letter was a great

pleasure to us, and my sister
was delighted to hope that
her diagrams may be of such
general use

I have now written to

Mr. Newman begging him to
write to you replying to
your enquiries,—and also
to send (to your kind acceptance
from my sister) by Parcel post
samples of the diagrams, so
far as they are printed
completely. That is with
the exception of the fly which
you have.

You ought I am sure to

see for yourself just what
it is that we are about

To Miss Anne Hartwell, Miss Ormerod’s private

secretary and confidential companion, I am indebted
for many of the following incidents in the home life.
The two sisters, though they were never robust,
enjoyed comparatively good health, when Miss
Hartwell, in May, 1888, went to reside with them,
and were at all times very busy. Miss Ormerod
(Georgiana) usually sat in the dining-room working
at her diagrams and Miss Eleanor in the study. They
generally worked all the morning, and in the
afternoon they would walk out together, take a drive,
or pay calls. They frequently had visitors for a few
days, and nephews and nieces would come and go—
which was always a pleasure to them. They were
devoted to each other and spent much time together.
Miss Georgiana’s death, on August 19, 1896, was a
sad blow to Miss Eleanor, who missed her sister’s
companionship and sympathy dreadfully. To a casual
observer time seemed to heal her wounded feelings
and she appeared cheerful and bright, but in reality
she was never again quite the same person—they
had been such lifelong friends and companions.
In a letter to the Rev. C. J. Bethune she wrote on
October 12, 1896:—

“I thank you gratefully for your kind comforting letter;

believe me such words as yours are a great consolation and
support to me, for I do miss my dear sister exceedingly.
“For her I fully hope that she is safe, and happy, and I love
to think of her as without fears or doubts serving the Lord
she so humbly trusted—but we were so completely one that
 I scarcely feel the same person without her. It was not only
our sisterly affection and colleagueship, but she had such a
good judgment that I am constantly longing for her sound
sense to help me. There is no use in idle grief, and I am
fairly well again. I have not at all put aside work through all
my sorrow, for I felt this would answer no good purpose, and
now I am working on my next Annual Report and am
arranging to have a good portrait of her as a frontispiece
(plate XXVII.). I think she would like it, and I am sure she
would have been deeply grateful for the kind respect paid by
the good friends whose friendship she so exceedingly valued.
I scarcely know how to write about it—there is so much I
should like to say. Perhaps I had better not write more, but
indeed I value your beautiful words of comfort which I have
repeatedly read.”

A touchingly sympathetic notice of the death

appeared in Miss Ormerod’s Annual Report for 1896.

Miss Ormerod rose early, breakfasted at eight

o’clock, and then read the “Times.” On getting to
work she made a special point of replying to inquiries
first, saying it served no good purpose to keep
people waiting for an answer; and, as a matter of
fact, delay or hesitation found no place in any of her
actions. Frequently there were specimens to examine
and report upon, and probably to put aside in a place
of safety to permit of maturation or further
development and to undergo subsequent
examination.
 After the entomological work was finished—work
which was a real pleasure, but proved a severe strain
as the Annual Report was taking form—her personal
correspondence was attended to. She wrote with
great facility and with extraordinary rapidity and
accuracy. She had many colonial and continental
correspondents who held standing invitations to pay
her visits, when in this country. Many came, and
graciously she received them, and courteously and
royally she entertained them with much pleasure to
herself. None so honoured can ever forget the
cordiality of the breezy welcome which, accompanied
by her hearty and genuinely natural and friendly
laugh, were merely harbingers of the intellectual
treat and the other good things that were in store for
them.
Among her most intimate immediate friends were
Lord[42] and Lady Grimthorpe, the Bishop of St.
Albans (Dr. Festing) and his sister, the Dean (Walter
John Lawrence, M.A.), General and Mrs. Bigge,
Colonel and Miss Cartwright, Dr. and Mrs. Norman,
and Dr. Lipscomb and Miss Lipscomb. She was
always pleased to see friends who called, and she
was very witty and cheerful with them. It was not at
all necessary that they should be scientific. One of
the little group mentioned, simply and perhaps too
modestly explains, “I always think that when Miss
Ormerod sent for me, she descended to my level,
and our conversation was generally on the most
homely subjects. She would be most interested in
the little events of our everyday life and thoroughly
enter into our pleasures and enjoyments.”

The lively sense of humour which has already been

mentioned as a family characteristic remained with
her throughout life. The following little anecdote told
by Mrs. Evans of Rowancroft, Dorking, is also
illustrative of the personal coolness and power of
action in times of difficulty which were conspicuous
among Miss Ormerod’s attributes, and it shows also
“the quietly determined manner in which she did
some things.”

“My poor little story was told to me a good many years

ago. My aunt was lunching with some friends, and the peace
of the entertainment was suddenly disturbed by the arrival of
a large and lively hornet. No one else ventured to interfere
with the enemy, but Miss Ormerod waited quietly till the
insect came close to her, caught it in her hand, and forthwith
deposited it in one of the little chip boxes which she
generally carried in her pockets. I leave you to imagine the
astonishment and admiration of the other guests, and the
quiet chuckle with which my aunt wound up her story with
the remark, ‘Of course I knew it was a “drone,” by the length
of the antennæ.’”
 Miss Ormerod was not the least nervous in the
sense of being afraid. When just a girl living at
Sedbury she became the centre of admiration of the
workmen on her father’s estate by fearlessly seizing
a farmyard dog by the back of the neck and hauling
him off her own dog, who had been rudely
assaulted. Great was the applause of “Miss Eleanor’s
sperrit.”

PLATE XXI.
Ap Adam Oak, Sedbury Park.
 Hedgehog Oak, Sedbury Park.

Another incident with a dog of a much more

dangerous character is best given in her own words:
“I only remember one instance of rabies. The animal
attacked was one of two beautiful Clumber spaniels
which had been left one day at our house with a
message that the sender, a friend of my brother,
desired him to select one of them, and accept it as a
gift. The two pretty creatures, named Cæsar and
Pompey, were introduced into our establishment, and
one of them—Cæsar—became a great favourite with
my father. How long it was after their arrival I do not
remember, but one day Cæsar vanished, and in the
course of the afternoon, although he was not one of
the house dogs, he came to me as I was standing in
the front hall. To my astonishment when I noticed
him as usual, he gave a kind of scream, or
extraordinary howl, such as I had never heard
before, and I saw that the expression of his eyes was
wild and distressed to an entirely unnatural degree.
The strange scream made me suspect what might be
wrong, and I called one of the head men. We took
the dog, who was perfectly gentle, into the butler’s
pantry and shut the door so that he might not
escape, whilst we tried to find out what was amiss. I
did not much like the business, but it happened I
was the only one at home, excepting a lady relation,
who, thinking “discretion the better part of valour,”
mounted herself pro tem. out of harm’s way, on the
top of a very large stone table, and awaited results in
safety. I knew that offering water was a very partial
test, but I had some poured out. The effect was
instantaneous. The moment the poor dog heard the
sound he almost flew to me, as if for protection, and
tried to wrap his head in my dress so as to exclude
the sound, calling out as if in great trouble. I had no
right to have my father’s favourite dog destroyed on
a suspicion in his temporary absence, and the dog so
far was not violent; it appeared to me that the only
reasonable course to adopt was to have him chained
securely and led away to an empty stable, where he
was fastened to a pole and the door shut. By this
course no harm could happen, except in prolonging
the poor creature’s sufferings. These, however,
though increasingly violent, were not endured for
very long. By the time my father returned, in about
an hour, the dog was tearing the woodwork all
around him to pieces. He was at once destroyed, the
attack being pronounced, by those better versed in
the matter than myself, undoubtedly a case of
rabies.”

Miss Ormerod’s brother, Dr. E. L. Ormerod, of

Brighton, author of “British Social Wasps,” testified to
the courage and skill with which she assisted him in
taking the hanging wasps’ nests from trees. The “Ap
Adam” oak shown in plate XXI. which she climbed
after a hornet’s nest by means of the library folding
ladder, was one of the very ancient hollow oaks in
Sedbury Park, about one-third of a mile from the
house. She had a sick headache next day about
which her brother John made the sympathetic (?)
remark, “If young ladies will play at lamplighters they
must take the consequences!” The Hedgehog oak, at
the root of which in plate XXI. Miss Ormerod is seen
sitting in rather an uncomfortable position, was
another hollow remnant of the primeval forest. She
had remarked that she thought she was sitting on a
wasps’ nest when Waring, her second brother,
promptly admonished her in the interests of the
safety of the party to “sit tight”! The two hollow
shells of what must have been at one time splendid
timber trees, were historically interesting, having
been boundary marks of the country referred to in
the time of Edward III. Both trees have been cleared
away and the ancient oak now known as that of “Ap
Adam” stands only a few hundred yards from the
original tree, within the moat which formerly
surrounded old Badam’s Court. There are several
other very ancient oaks in the park. Two on the left
of the carriage drive, going in the direction of the
mansion house, were christened “Darby and Joan”
by Miss Ormerod.
On one occasion the eldest sister, Mary, had the
misfortune to run a crochet hook through her hand.
The mother fainted away. Miss G. S. Ormerod, who
supplied this information, concludes, “My Aunt
Eleanor fetched her forceps, nipped off the hook and
drew out the stem without waiting for the doctor’s
arrival, showing not only her courage but her
presence of mind.” The same authority goes on to
say:—

“She was very fond of children and young people. When

staying at Sedbury, we always enjoyed our walks with her.
She made everything interesting. She taught me a great deal
about insects, helped me to begin a collection of butterflies,
&c., showing me how to destroy them mercifully and how to
set them out properly. I remember stuffing a splendid
dragon-fly under her superintendence.
“Fully occupied as her life was up to the time of her last
illness, yet she was always full of sympathy and interest for
her poorer neighbours, always ready to assist in any good
work that came before her.
“You may like to hear how my aunt was beloved by the
servants for her practical kindness and for the keen interest
she took in all outdoor surroundings. Any curiosity discovered
by them, whether animal or vegetable, was always carefully
brought in for her inspection. Many were the snakes, birds,
nests, insects, fungi, &c., handed to her, especially at the
time when she did so much modelling.”

She maintained throughout a practical interest in

the survivors of her mother’s old servants, and she
extended her kindness and thoughtfulness to those
of her own household. Her strong loyalty was
curiously instanced on one of these occasions, on the
King’s accession to the throne, when she summoned
all her household, including outdoor servants, and
produced some rare old white port in which they
drank the King’s health. She subscribed liberally to
St. Albans’ charities and other public objects in the
Abbey parish in which she lived, as well as in St.
Michael’s, where she attended church. Dr. Lipscomb
gives, in a few words, “An instance of her great
generosity, so well known to all who were intimate
with her, though she ever did such deeds by stealth
and blushed to find them fame.” He goes on: “I may
mention a day she asked me to see her. Being rather
late I apologised, telling her that the annual meeting
of the governors of our local hospital detained me.
She said she hoped we had had a successful
meeting, and on my saying ‘Yes, with the exception
that the accounts showed a deficit of some thirty odd
pounds,’ she immediately produced her cheque book
and gave me a cheque for the amount.” She also
extended personal sympathy and practical help to
many of her poor neighbours by whom she was
loved and esteemed.

She never lost taste for the pastime of modelling in

plaster of Paris, and at leisure moments, when
unable to go out of doors, she would occupy spare
time in this way. She modelled some beautiful
specimens of common fruits and made the cast of
her own hand. In the evening, when tired of writing,
she would read or crochet. Her great skill in what is
generally regarded as exclusively woman’s work is
independently testified to by Miss Emma Swan, niece
of Professor Westwood, who is so well able to speak
with authority, in the following words: “What
particularly struck me as a young girl at the time I
visited her was the very beautiful needlework she
found time to do, and pleasure in doing. Whatever
she did, she seemed to do well!” From the same
source we learn that “she sang and played the piano
very well indeed.” She also composed music with
facility and might have developed musical tastes, but
for the overpowering love of science which was the
absorbing interest of her life.[43]
We have it on excellent authority that the very
greatest pleasure of all her public recognitions was
experienced on April 14, 1900, in the McEwan Hall,
Edinburgh, when the LL.D. of the University was
conferred upon her in company with a group of
distinguished recipients of that honour[44] before an
assemblage of about 3,000 people. The trials of the
occasion, which are described in her letters, were
greatly lessened by the courtesy and kindness and
whispered words of encouragement of his Excellency,
the American Ambassador, who was placed beside
her during the ceremonial, and preceded her in
undergoing the ordeal of capping. In presenting her
to the Vice-Chancellor (Principal Sir Wm. Muir) the
Dean of the Faculty of Law (Sir Ludovic Grant) said,
with his usual eloquence:—

“A duty now devolves upon you, sir, which has devolved

upon none of your predecessors, and of which the
performance will render the present occasion memorable in
the annals of the University. Our roll of Hon. Graduates in
Law contains the names of many illustrious men, but you will
search it in vain for the name of a woman. To-day, however,
a new roll is to be opened—a roll of illustrious women; and it
is matter for congratulation that this roll should begin with a
name so honoured as that of Miss Ormerod.
“The pre-eminent position which Miss Ormerod holds in
the world of science is the reward of patient study and
unwearying observation. Her investigations have been chiefly
directed towards the discovery of methods for the prevention
of the ravages of those insects which are injurious to
orchard, field, and forest. Her labours have been crowned
with such success, that she is entitled to be hailed as the
protectress of agriculture and the fruits of the earth—a
beneficent Demeter of the nineteenth century. It would take
long to enumerate her contributions to Entomological and
Phenological literature, but I may select for mention the
valuable series of reports extending over twenty years, the
preparation of which involved correspondence with all parts
of the world. Remarkable, too, is the list of the honours
which she has received. She was the first lady to be admitted
a Fellow of the Royal Meteorological Society, and she has
been awarded the Silver Medal of the ‘Société Nationale
d’Acclimatation’ of France. To these distinctions the University
of Edinburgh, sensible of her conspicuous services, and not
 unmindful of her generous benefactions, now adds its
Doctorate in Laws.”

The honour referred to, conferred by our cultured

neighbours across the channel, was publicly
announced in the press in the following words:—

“At the Annual Meeting on the 25th of June, 1891, of the

Société Nationale d’Acclimatation de France, M. Le Myre de
Vilers, president, in the chair, the large silver medal of the
Society, bearing the portrait of Geoffrey Saint-Hilaire, was
decreed to Miss Eleanor A. Ormerod, of St. Albans, England,
for her work in Economic or Applied Entomology.”

To a confidential correspondent she wrote, “You

will believe that this pleases me very much.”
Plate XXII. shows this medal with three other silver
and two gold medals that were presented to Miss
Ormerod between the years 1870 and 1900 by home
and foreign institutions.

Miss Ormerod preserved very few letters except

those necessary for scientific or business purposes,
and these she classified and fastened into books for
convenience of reference. Nothing else, and
especially nothing which if returned to the writer,
would hereafter lead to unpleasantness, escaped
ordeal of fire. After keeping letters on general
subjects for a few days, she would tear them up. The
result is that, of the mass of interesting contributions
on many subjects, which poured in to the oracle, first
of Isleworth and latterly of St. Albans, from all sorts
and conditions of men and women, the few sample
letters written by prominent public men and
reproduced in these pages, are almost all that
remain. To some of her relatives she wrote very
amusing letters, but—no doubt inspired by the desire
to avoid all possible danger of hurting the feelings of
people referred to—she exacted the promise that
they should not be preserved.
Key to Medals Presented to Miss Ormerod and Shown on
Plate xxii.
Royal Horticultural Society,
Victoria Medal of Honour,
1900.
(Gold Medal.)

Royal Horticultural Society.

For Collection of Economic
Entomology.
1870.
(Silver Medal.)

Société Nationale d’Acclimatation

de France.
Entomologie Appliquée.
1899.
(Silver Medal.)

University of Moscow, 1872

Emperor Peter I., 30th May,
1672.
Emperor Alexander II., 30th May,
1872.
(Gold Medal.)

International Health Exhibition,

London, 1884.
(Silver Medal.)

Moscow Polytechnic Exhibition

Moscow Polytechnic Exhibition,
1872.
(Silver Medal.)
 PLATE XXII.
Miss Ormerod’s Medals, received between 1870 and 1900,
as recognition by Scientific Bodies of her Scientific Work.
(pp. 96, 304.)
 CHAPTER XIII

LETTERS TO COLONEL COUSSMAKER AND MR. ROBERT SERVICE

Surface Caterpillars—Leopard and Puss Moths—“Hill-Grubs” of the

Antler Moth.

The letters in this the first chapter of

correspondence (dealing with a number of moths,
the caterpillars of which are destructive to
vegetation), were written while Miss Ormerod was
resident at Isleworth, and after she had issued seven
of her Annual Reports. Apart from the Entomology
discussed, the letters show how ready she was to
recognise and to commend the meritorious scientific
work of others.
To Colonel Coussmaker, Westwood, near Guildford.

Dunster Lodge, Spring Grove, Isleworth,

August 1, 1885.
Dear Sir,—Perhaps the best way I can reply to your inquiry
about the coloured sheets is to enclose the short description,
on the wrapper of one of my reports.[45]
I should mention, though, that they are the property of
the Royal Agricultural Society; I only drew them. The insects
are drawn greatly magnified, with a view to hanging the
sheets on walls of schools. The history, and the simplest
means of prevention are given in the very plainest words I
could find.
Have you my current report? It contains a good deal on
that great pest the Ox warble fly (fig. 5)—contributed by
practical men—cattle owners, veterinary observers and the
like. I would, with the greatest pleasure, ask your acceptance
of a copy if you would permit me to do so. If you have
studied its habits in India, I should greatly like to be in
communication with you on the subject. The Colonial
Company procured me a few estimates of damage to hides—
which were of much service as showing comparative amount
of injury in different parts of the globe, but I much want to
find whether in India the larva is found to penetrate below
the subcutaneous tissue into the flesh. I am aware from one
of my contributors connected with inspecting army supplies
in India, that at one time meat for the troops was apt to be
so damaged from what he considered to be this attack, that
it was to some extent useless. The locality was not far from
Kurrachee. If you, as a student of insect life, could give me
any information on this point, I should be thankful for the
addition to the notes I am still collecting.

August 4, 1885.
Many thanks to you for so kindly taking the trouble to
write about the injury to flesh possibly caused by the Warble
maggot; it would be of great service to know about it.
Doubtless your care of your cattle had a great deal to do
with their being free from injury—if we could but get even
the moderate amount of care applied which is needed to put
on a dressing when attack is seen it would make an
enormous difference.
The Dart or Turnip moth caterpillar is doing damage now—
and I do not believe there is a better remedy than scraping
out the grubs, but this is very troublesome till they are larger.
I see in a report on the “Cutworms,” as they call these
creatures in the U.S.A., that there is very much less injury
from them on ground which has been well salted. It is
thought that the salt drawn up into the plant makes it
distasteful to the caterpillars. I do not know how this may
be, but in a district of the Eastern Counties reported from
last year—where previously they had been quite set against
anything “artificial”—they were finding the turnips on salted
lands answered very much the best. I should much like to try
the effect of watering with salt and water, at a safe strength,
but from my own garden being so perpetually used for trial
ground it is getting free of regular pests. I have found
watering with soft soap and a little mineral oil (pp. 66-67,
eighth report, 1884), act well on these caterpillars. The
application appeared to paralyse the creature so that it could
not get away from the poisonous effects of the mixture,
which is a very important point.
I found this mixture act well on Cabbage green fly, and if
you should try it I shall be very much obliged for any
observation. The great point is to mix the ingredients at
boiling heat. I would try whether the strength noted was
safe for any special plant. I rather think it is for cabbage, but
certainly not for young leafage of roses. I shall be very glad
if I can be of any help in the matter.

(a) 1, Turnip moth; 2, caterpillar.

 (b) 1, Heart-and-dart moth; 2, caterpillar; 3, chrysalis
in earth-cell.

FIG. 1.—SURFACE CATERPILLARS: OF THE TURNIP OR

DART MOTH, AGROTIS SEGETUM, OCHSENHEIMER,
AND OF THE HEART-AND-DART MOTH,
AGROTIS EXCLAMATIONIS, LINN.

Torrington House, St. Albans,

January 26, 1888.
Many thanks for your note received this morning. I shall
hope to add some of it to my Turnip Caterpillars paper, which
is not yet gone to press. Thank you for the offer of the
specimens, but I do not quite see my way to showing live
ones yet. My lecture [at the London Farmers’ Club] is a
terribly anxious prospect to myself, but I can but do my best,
and I am endeavouring with the utmost care to form
something that may be acceptable, but I am sure you will
believe me that to address such a skilled audience is rather
anxious work. I should much like to lay before the members
of the Club some ideas for their consideration as to how
some reasonable amount of plain serviceable information
might be got abroad. I do not believe in all this lecturing,
examining and talking of classification. To my thinking it is
beginning at the wrong end, and that the learners need first
to make sure of their facts in the field and classify them
when they have got them, if they do it at all.
 Female, head of male, and caterpillar.

FIG. 2.—WOOD LEOPARD MOTH, ZEUZERA

ÆSCULI, LINN.

February 17, 1890.

I have examined your caterpillars carefully, and I find that
of the oak stem to correspond exactly with the larva of the
Wood leopard moth, the Zeuzera æsculi. This is commonly
found in (or at least it is usually sent me from) wood of fruit
trees, but it attacks oak as well as forest trees of various
kinds. Your specimen has also one of the characteristic habits
of ejecting brown fluid from its mouth on disturbance. I think
you have my “Manual,” and there you would find a figure of
the moth and larva. Your specimen is rather full coloured,
but they vary greatly in this respect.
Your other caterpillar is a Lepidopterous larva, but I cannot
name it with certainty. It is quite possible that it is the larva
of the “Hornet Clearwing,” the Trochilium (= Sesia)
bembeciforme, but I have never seen a specimen, although
the attack is said to be common, especially to Salix caprea.
The attack is stated to be mostly in the lower part of the
stem. I think that you very likely have Loudon’s “Arboretum”
in your library, and if so you would find some good notes and
fair figures of the hornet-like moth and its larva and pupa in
situ in the wood at pp. 1481 and 1482, vol. iii. The larva is
nearly dead now, so that the form is altered, but I do not see
any reason against it being this kind; still I cannot say it is.
I have a very curious report of much damage attributed to
Puss moth caterpillars at a locality in Lincolnshire, and am
waiting with much interest for specimens to see what the
cause can be. I rather expect it will be rabbits!
Yours very truly,
Eleanor A. Ormerod.
 Male and caterpillar (life size).

FIG. 3.—PUSS MOTH, DICRANURA VINULA, LINN.