University-Industry Joint Undertakings With High Societal Impact

Technological Forecasting & Social Change 174 (2022) 121223
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Technological Forecasting & Social Change

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/techfore
University-Industry joint undertakings with high societal impact: A

micro-processes approach
Jason Roncancio-Marin a, *, Nikolay Dentchev a, Maribel Guerrero b, c, Abel Díaz-González a,
Thomas Crispeels a
a
Department of Business, Management and Strategy, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels 1050, Belgium
b
Facultad de Economía y Negocios, Universidad del Desarrollo, Santiago, Chile
c
Northumbria Centre for Innovation Regional Transformation and Entrepreneurship (iNCITE), Newcastle Business School, Northumbria University, Newcastle, United
Kingdom
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: University-Industry collaboration (UIC) literature is largely documented with Western European or North-
Micro-processes American evidence, where universities are rich in resources and have well-developed R&D infrastructure.
Entrepreneurial universities Likewise, our knowledge remains limited about UIC in emerging countries, where research resources and R&D
University-industry collaboration
are scarce. In this article, we address the research question “What are the individual micro-processes involved in
Emerging economies
Social impact
UICs with social impact in emerging economies” and argue that uncovering the individual micro-processes
involved in university-industry joint undertakings contribute to understanding how entrepreneurial univer
sities promote social impact in emerging economies. The ideas presented in this paper are based on exploratory
qualitative research consisting of 33 semi-structured interviews, eight focus groups, and six participatory ob
servations in Bolivia and Colombia. Our findings suggest that UICs in emerging economies are driven by the need
to solve major social challenges and are often a consequence of the individual micro-processes of low subjective
norm, pro-social behavior, deontic justice, social identity, entrepreneurial culture, and championing of social
welfare.
1. Introduction limited resources, support, and capabilities of LATAM universities, UICs

exist and take place in an environment that abounds in societal needs,
University-industry collaborations (UIC) in developed countries are institutional voids, market failures, high unemployment, and poverty
supported by a sophisticated research infrastructure and vast resources rates (Aguinis et al., 2020; de-Oliveira and Rodil-Marzábal, 2019;
for R&D (De Silva et al., 2021b; Guerrero and Urbano, 2012). For Fischer et al., 2020). Consequently, such collaborations often seek to
example, in Europe and North America, the high volume of scientific benefit society through frugal innovations or social entrepreneurship
publications and intellectual property, the availability of financial re (Fischer et al., 2020; Rinaldi et al., 2018).
sources, institutional capacities for research, knowledge transfer pol Scholars have studied UICs from various perspectives, with different
icies, and government support facilitate UICs (Meissner and Shmatko, units of analysis and research methods (Ankrah and AL-Tabbaa, 2015;
2017). Link et al., 2015; Meng et al., 2019), and mainly in several developed
In emerging economies, particularly Latin American countries contexts (Fischer et al., 2018; Guerrero et al., 2019; Minguillo and
(LATAM), the UIC dynamic is in the early development stages (Fischer Thelwall, 2015). Although most research in UIC and entrepreneurial
et al., 2020, 2019a). LATAM academics cannot benefit from internal universities have a macro-level orientation, some micro-level in
solid institutional support, as technology transfer and UIC policies are vestigations analyze academics’ intentions to address relationships with
underdeveloped (Fischer et al., 2019a, 2019b; Guerrero et al., 2018). industry, technology transfer determinants, and spin-off creation pre
Additionally, LATAM universities lack modern research infrastructure, cursors, particularly in developed countries (Abreu and Grinevich, 2013;
and scientific publications often fall short of international quality stan Clarysse et al., 2011; D’Este and Perkmann, 2011; Perkmann et al.,
dards (Calderón-Hernández et al., 2020). Nevertheless, despite the 2013, 2015).
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (J. Roncancio-Marin).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2021.121223
Received 9 April 2021; Received in revised form 12 September 2021; Accepted 14 September 2021
Available online 28 September 2021
0040-1625/© 2021 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
J. Roncancio-Marin et al. Technological Forecasting & Social Change 174 (2022) 121223
However, there is a significant lack of scientific literature for policies, incentives, and socioeconomic conditions set the norm by
emerging economies to explain the micro-processes involved when which UICs are driven and performed (Fischer et al., 2019a; Meissner
universities participate in UICs, given the absence of resources for R&D and Shmatko, 2017; Suh et al., 2019).
and innovation. Therefore, and in line with Fischer et al. (2020), “[w]e In emerging countries, however, UICs occur in conditions often
still lack a clear understanding of how entrepreneurial universities are governed by different social norms (Fischer et al., 2019b; Vega-Jurado
managing their knowledge capabilities to effectively promote societal impacts et al., 2008; Zavale and Langa, 2018). Both universities and industries
in emerging economies" (p. 2). To address this gap and focus on “societal find themselves coexisting in an ecosystem where it is difficult for uni
impacts in emerging economies”, we explore how UICs promote social versities to generate technological developments that can be marketable
impact in such economies. Our aim is precisely to identify the individual due to low investment in R&D (Sánchez-Barrioluengo and Benneworth,
micro-processes involved. We argue that uncovering such individual 2019), lack of incentives for technology transfer, low production, and
micro-processes broadens our understanding of how entrepreneurial quality of patents, and other obstacles (Fischer et al., 2020, 2019b,
universities can bolster social impact in emerging economies. To 2018; Vega-Jurado et al., 2008). Vice versa, industries often cannot buy
develop our argument, we have conducted exploratory qualitative patents or collaborate with universities because the latter are frequently
research (with data from 33 semi-structured interviews, eight focus too slow to draw up collaboration contracts, or their technological de
groups, and six participatory observations) in Bolivia and Colombia. velopments are still in very early stages (Heredia Pérez et al., 2018;
The remainder of this paper is structured as follows. First, we elab Marotta et al., 2007). Consequently, UIC activity in emerging economies
orate on the differences of UICs between developed and emerging is relatively low (Fischer et al., 2019b; Teixeira, 2014; Teixeira and
economies. Second, we explain the relevance of certain micro-processes Mota, 2012), and this has also made its scientific study challenging
in understanding UICs with high societal impact. The third section de (Fischer et al., 2020). Consequently, the relevant scientific literature
scribes the methodology, the research setting, the case selection, and the reporting on UIC in emerging countries is still a work in progress.
data analysis. In the fourth section, we present the findings of the However, minimal empirical evidence and some scientific studies do
qualitative data and methodological triangulation. The fifth section reveal frugal innovations, open innovation, joint innovation labs,
discusses the results and proposes implications and a future research co-creation, and other outcomes through which universities in emerging
agenda, while the sixth and final section concludes our study. economies actively collaborate with industry (Bjerregaard, 2009; De
Silva et al., 2021a; Fischer et al., 2020; Perkmann and Walsh, 2007a;
2. Theoretical background Zavale and Langa, 2018). In contrast to the advanced economies, UICs
that occur in emerging countries seem to be driven by non-commercial
2.1. UIC in emerging countries purposes that often have positive consequences for society (Arza and
Carattoli, 2016; D’Este and Perkmann, 2011; Guerrero et al., 2018;
University-industry collaboration (UIC) refers to the interaction be Perkmann et al., 2021; Rinaldi et al., 2018). However, the scientific
tween higher education and industry. By exchanging knowledge/tech study of such UICs with social impact in emerging and developed
nologies or practices, UICs generally pursue commercial purposes that economies is still embryonic (see Table 1).
benefit all parties involved (Ankrah and AL-Tabbaa, 2015; Link et al., Yet, knowledge and technology transfer between two such hetero
2015). However, both types of activity are characterized by different geneous actors is not always easy to carry out, and this difficulty has
organizational missions, cultures, and administrative structures resulted in research focused on different angles. For instance, the liter
(Munari et al., 2016). Therefore, it is understandable that individuals ature on UIC is generous regarding the structural determinants of UIC
involved in either often pursue different objectives. success at both institutional and individual levels (Carayannis et al.,
Some authors suggest that academics participate in the transfer of 2017). For example, at institutional level it is already established that
knowledge in order to gain recognition from their peers or to see the the private or public nature of collaborative innovation projects de
actual application of a research result (Centobelli et al., 2019; Llopis termines their success or failure (Bozeman et al., 2013; Zhao et al.,
et al., 2018). On the industry side, some studies mention that economic 2018), that licenses and inventions in universities and their degree of
return is generally sought through the private appropriation of knowl maturity determine the difficulty of their transfer to other stakeholders
edge in the form of patents and licenses, the establishment of joint (Gulbrandsen and Thune, 2017). Likewise, counterfactual mechanisms,
laboratories, or the purchase of university spin-off companies (Fischer administrative practices, political, social, contextual, and individual
et al., 2019b, 2018; Soetanto and van Geenhuizen, 2019). matters are factors that facilitate or impede UIC (Bruneel et al., 2010;
For developed economies, UIC literature is extensive and describes Jones-Evans, 1998). It is said that such factors can impede or facilitate
the collaboration from different perspectives, such as UIC determinants, UIC activities since they depend to a large extent on the individuals
consequences, mechanisms, and the actors involved (Baier-Fuentes involved in such activities (Cunningham and Menter, 2020).
et al., 2021; D’Este and Perkmann, 2011; De Silva et al., 2021a; Fili Zooming in on the individual level, research into UIC in developed
ppetti and Savona, 2017; Perkmann and Walsh, 2007a). Most scientific countries suggests that the difference in individuals’ motivations to
studies on UIC suggest that the high injection of capital to strengthen engage in UIC activities depends on whether such individuals belong to
and mature technological developments facilitates their transfer to so academia or industry (Perkmann et al., 2021). Motivations common to
ciety through collaboration with industry (Ankrah and AL-Tabbaa, both include the need to respond to institutional policies, financial gain,
2015; Bruneel et al., 2010; Fuster et al., 2019). Other triggers for human capital development, the search for efficiency, the stability
engaging in a UIC can be that academics and industry receive incentives provided by R&D contracts, the improvement of institutional image,
(Yigitcanlar et al., 2019), have personal connections in the industry, intentions to buy or sell a research result, personal contacts, and pre
wish to create a joint venture with the industry, do exchanges or in vious experience (Cunningham and Menter, 2020; Perkmann et al.,
ternships in the industry, and may have joint R&D projects (Jones and 2021; Rubens et al., 2017). On the other hand, within the divergent
Coates, 2020; Kafouros et al., 2020; Mahdad et al., 2020; Mahdad et al., motivations for both parties, the need for legitimacy that universities
2018). In such developed contexts, the industry often seeks to acquire have in society, social pressure, the battle of academics to achieve
patents, purchase a licensing permit, develop or improve a product to recognition and good reputation, and the contribution to the regional or
increase revenues through UICs. In general, the literature reports that in national economy stand out (Breznitz et al., 2008). In general, UIC ac
developed countries, UICs are driven by commercial reasons that benefit tivities have been governed by outcomes that generate economic ben
the researcher in reputation and the industry in economic return efits for the parties involved.
(Perkmann et al., 2021; Wit-de Vries et al., 2019; Wright, 2018). Thus, With regards to the UIC activities in emerging economies at the in
both academics and industry members coexist in an environment where dividual level, scholars make mention of UIC activities that are not
2
Table 1
Selected articles on UIC, and UIC with social impact
Author(s) Unit of study Aspects of UIC analyzed Disciplinary Key results
orientation
Bruneel et al. Research projects of universities Obstacles to collaborations between Business economics Prior experience and trust can reduce the barriers
(2010) with businesses universities and industry to collaboration between university and industry
D’Este and Academics involved in UIC Motivations of academics to engage Business economics Academics engage with industry to further their
Perkmann with industry research results. Motivations of academics depend
(2011) on the UIC channel
D’Este et al. Collaborative research grants Types of proximity between university Business economics, Geographical distance makes University-Industry
(2013) between universities and business and industry Management collaboration more likely to happen and prior joint
firms experience in UI partnerships.
Maietta (2015) University-Firm collaboration in University -Firm R&D collaboration Business economics University-firm R&D collaboration impacts
low-tech industry with partners at different universities innovation processes, and it is influenced by the
geographical proximity between universities and
firms
Ankrah and Existing literature on U-I Motivations, outcomes, forms, and Management A conceptual framework for UIC from an
AL-Tabbaa partnerships 1990-2014 formation process on UIC integrative perspective
(2015)
Wit-de Vries Existing literature on U-I Identifies practices between U-I that can Engineering and Knowledge differences and differences in goals
et al. (2019) partnerships 2002-2016 facilitate knowledge transfer for business resulting from different institutional cultures are
research partnerships important barriers to KT. Trust, communication,
the use of intermediaries, and experience are found
as facilitators for knowledge transfer that help to
resolve the identified barriers
De Silva et al. Societal Impact via Co-creation Simultaneous generation of social and Management and Science-based co-creation is discussed from a
(2021a) business value across several actors business economics policy perspective.
Guerrero et al. University-Industry Partnerships Collaborative/opportunistic behaviors Management Universities with entrepreneurial behavior exhibit
(2019) within UI partnerships collaborative-opportunistic behavior, and it
increases the management costs of collaboration
Fischer et al. Universities and their linkages to Universities embeddedness in Economics, The evolution of university-industry collaboration
(2019b) industry innovation system in an emerging management, in Brazil has co-evolved along with the national
economy, patenting activity, and business economics policies on innovation. Academia plays an
linkages to industry important role in contributing to value chains and
technology upgrading
Fischer et al. Leading university in an emerging Frugal innovation arising from Business economics, Internal capabilities of universities can foster
(2020) economy University-Industry relationships Management frugal innovations and connect them to markets
and stakeholders
Schartinger Knowledge interactions between The intensity of knowledge interactions Technology, Other areas are different that direct cooperation
et al. (2002) universities and industry in Austria: does not follow a clear pattern. Low economics, between universities and industries should be
Sectoral patterns and determinants interactions in humanities and social environmental studied. As it seems, there are more UIC channels
sciences were found. sciences and, therefore, more different outcomes.
Roud and Strategies of industry-science The paper discusses the relevance of Economics of Public support can be tailored to promote
Vlasova cooperation in the Russian traditional hypotheses on the innovation networking with R&D organizations and
(2020) manufacturing sector relationship between industry and universities and for non-R&D cooperative activities
science to developing countries
Rinaldi et al. Universities and smart specialization Analyses the emerging role of social Business, economics, Universities can play different and broader roles
(2018) strategy: From third mission to sciences and humanities universities in and law which could support regions in designing and
sustainable development co-creation contemporary society via fourth- implementing smart specialization strategy
mission activities
Perkmann and University-industry relationships Explores the diffusion and Management The paper presents a research agenda on the role of
Walsh and open innovation: Towards a characteristics of collaborative open innovation for University-Industry
(2007a) research agenda relationships between universities and relationships
industry
Mahdad et al. Joint university-industry The paper studies proximity dimensions Business management Cognitive proximity at the interface level could
(2020) laboratories through the lens of as a result of geographically proximate systematically influence collaborative innovation
proximity dimensions: moving university and industry joint within university-industry laboratories.
beyond geographical proximity laboratories
driven by economic interests but rather by social challenges (De Silva for UIC (Villani et al., 2017). For instance, the unusual characteristics of
et al., 2021a; Fischer et al., 2020; Rinaldi et al., 2018). However, the the researchers’ intention to patent, commercialize, and address re
scientific literature has not yet progressed to explaining the existence of lationships with industry are well documented (Markman et al., 2008;
such social-related outcomes from UIC activities (Ankrah and AL-Tab Perkmann et al., 2021; Wright, 2014). However, there is a distinct lack
baa, 2015; De Silva et al., 2021b; Perkmann et al., 2021; Zavale and of theoretical development to understand how such socially impactful
Langa, 2018). Ankran (2015) suggests that institutional needs explain UIC activities emerge at the individual level (Cunningham and Menter,
social benefits from UICs, i.e., universities seek to serve the community 2020; De Silva et al., 2021a; Fischer et al., 2020). Therefore, we argue
and enhance their prestige, while the industry looks to improve its that some micro-processes may be the critical drivers determining UIC’s
reputation through socially responsible business. Other scholars have emergence with social impact in emerging economies.
centered research at the micro-level in order to explain the different
forms of UIC.
Individual micro-processes – understood as the variables that mea 2.2. UIC with social impact
sure phenomena related to the first unit of observation for a particular
scenario (Balven et al., 2018; Cunningham and Menter, 2020; Snijders Some scholars note that UIC can also pursue purposes of social value
and Bosker, 2012) – have been used to undertake micro-level research creation (Carl, 2020; De Silva et al., 2021a; Fischer et al., 2020; Guer
rero et al., 2017; Guerrero and Urbano, 2017; Rinaldi et al., 2018). For
3
example, at the micro-level, Carl (2019) links the field of technological definition of micro-process variables, as used by Balven and Siegel
innovation with that of social innovation and argues that researchers (2018), which comprise those micro-processes that measure phenomena
can be transformative agents capable of promoting a paradigm shift related to the first unit of observation for a particular scenario (Snijders
from the technological to the social (Carl, 2020). Etzkowitz (2017) ar and Bosker, 2012) – in our case, that of UIC with social impact. Within
gues that academic leadership can transform the faculty’s culture into the types of micro-processes contained in UIC, three types stand out: (i)
more socially inclusive. Indeed, the universities’ missions can evolve at the individual level, i.e., contained within the individual (intra-
beyond teaching and research to being oriented on societal individual) defined as the cognitive or affective phenomena that can
problem-solving (Etzkowitz and Zhou, 2017). influence the behavior towards UIC; (ii) at the relational level, viz.
The relevant literature on UIC also reports that universities are coming from other subjects involved in UIC that influence the behavior
finding other mechanisms to fulfill their mission towards society of others or vice versa; and (iii) at the organizational level, which have
(Fischer et al., 2020; Song et al., 2020). To do so, universities connect to do with the practices, channels, policies that influence the behavior
with other actors in their ecosystem to complement their knowledge and towards UIC. Figure 1 summarizes the rationale behind our literature
resources in order to achieve a common goal that need not involve the review.
transfer of technology or the creation of economic value (Klofsten et al., As discussed earlier in this paper, the characteristics of the emerging
2019; Rinaldi et al., 2018; Rubens et al., 2017). Through co-creation economic context affect the traditional forms, mechanisms, and conse
mechanisms and without intellectual property in the form of patents, quences of UIC reported in the literature compared to those in developed
universities can connect with industry to generate sustainable devel economies. For this reason, in the next section, we make two proposi
opment and social impact (De Silva et al., 2021a; De Silva and Wright, tions that answer our research question and fill the knowledge gap.
2019; Rinaldi et al., 2018). Carayannis et al. (2019), on the other hand,
suggest that universities adapt and connect intelligently with industry 2.2.1. Lack of a supportive environment in emerging economies (LATAM
depending on the domain and intellectual capital they possess (Calza universities)
et al., 2019). Certainly, some macro-level conditions influence the type
of collaboration and the type of UIC outcomes. However, UIC’s approach Antecedents. Expectations from family, friends, coworkers, and signifi
that seeks social impact seems to be driven mainly by individual-level cant others influence and drive human behavior (Ajzen, 2005; Basu and
decisions and, therefore, cannot be fully understood without exam Virick, 2008; Guzman-Alfonso and Guzman-Cuevas, 2012; Iakovleva
ining the associated micro-processes. and Kolvereid, 2009; Roncancio et al., 2020). Consequently, social ex
The individual motivations to promote UIC have been debated pectations and the influence of the environmental elements, political
throughout the literature. Some authors suggest that the main motives and institutional support are closely related to the subjective norm
for engaging in UIC activities are those related to monetary gain (Liñán et al., 2011). In the case of LATAM universities, such organ
(Mahdad et al., 2020, 2018), while others see collaborations driven by izatiotions are predominantly teaching-oriented, and policies to support
non-financial interests. For example, Göktepe-Hulten (2009) found that UIC are at a relatively early stage of development (Calderón-Hernández
academics are more interested in increasing their reputation than in et al., 2020; Naranjo-Valencia and Calderón-Hernández, 2015) . In
receiving some financial return from collaboration with industry general, academics and industry in this region are not expected to
(Göktepe-Hulten and Mahagaonkar, 2010). Bercovitz (2008) discusses engage in joint UIC activities due to the lack of incentives, policies, and
different types of academic legitimacy at the end of the process of resources. Thus, the social norm that might positively influence UIC
collaboration with industry (Bercovitz and Feldman, 2008), while engagement is not promoted in the institutional setting and therefore
Perkmann et al. (2019) argue that some academics undertake collabo requires other more subjective motivations. Given that UIC in emerging
rations with third parties just because it can make a difference to society economies occurs (Chaves et al., 2012; Teixeira and Mota, 2012; Zavale
(Perkmann et al., 2021). Still, the individual micro-processes involved in and Langa, 2018) and is not always expected to have a formal frame
UIC with social impact in emerging economies are yet to be uncovered. work (Perkmann and Walsh, 2007b; Zavale and Langa, 2018), informal
While a macro-processes approach allows the study of institutional or ad-hoc interactions are expected. Therefore, we formulate the
characteristics, in this paper, we follow Snijders and Bosker’s (2012) following proposition:
Fig. 1. Research model . Source: Author
4
Proposition 1. Despite a general lack of a favorable ecosystem (public Bolivia and Colombia provide fertile empirical scenarios to study
policies, university support, or industry incentives), UIC does occur in individuals involved in university-industry joint activities. In both
emerging economies (e.g., LATAM countries), which indicates a low level of contexts, resources to support research and knowledge transfer are
the subjective norm for such activities. limited, and socio-economic conditions are governed by market failures,
social challenges, and a lack of infrastructure for world-class R&D
2.2.2. The outcomes of UIC in emerging economies development. To be specific, in Bolivia and Colombia, the allocation of
As argued above, the relevant scientific literature on UIC is well goods and services is not Pareto efficient, which often results in wealth
documented, particularly in developed economic contexts (Perkmann accumulating in the hands of a few individuals, leaving a large number
et al., 2021). In such scenarios, where innovation systems are mature, in poverty or with unsatisfactory primary living conditions (Marotta
R&D investment is relatively high, and universities motivate researchers et al., 2007; Vega-Jurado et al., 2008). Since governments in such
to transfer technology and connect with industry, thereby accelerating countries must put the welfare of society at the top of their agendas,
patent production (Guerrero and Urbano, 2017; Jones-Evans, 1998). investment in R&D lags behind, which slows down the innovative
That, in turn, attracts the attention of industry, which may either buy the impact of universities (Calderón-Hernández et al., 2020). Despite the
patents, collaborate in joint projects to create economic value, or con above, joint university-industry activities do occur in both countries and
tract the university for a particular development (Mahdad et al., 2020). are publicly recognized as resulting in the solution of a societal chal
Generally, such collaborations are guided by the notion of creating lenge (Chen, 2014; Fischer et al., 2020).
exclusively economic value for the parties involved (Guimón, 2013; In Bolivia’s particular case, 15 universities are grouped into what is
Perkmann et al., 2021). known as the executive committee of Bolivian universities, which brings
In the LATAM context, however, innovation systems are immature, together the majority of their students. Private universities in Bolivia are
and university interactions with industry mainly comprise consulting self-financed based on student fees, but both private and public uni
and training, but there is less joint R&D, IP, or spin-off generation versities lack resources and capacities for research and knowledge
(Arocena and Sutz, 2001; Dalmarco et al., 2018; Fischer et al., 2020, transfer (Vega-Jurado et al., 2008) and, therefore, for UICs. Moreover,
2019a). It is common in emerging countries to find that market failures universities are immersed in a politically unstable ecosystem, where
drive government priorities towards solving social problems (Crespi and social inequalities result from the institutional gaps endemic to
Dutrénit, 2014). In LATAM countries, governments prioritize solving emerging economies. Given such circumstances, joint
persistent social issues in their political agendas, thereby generating a university-industry activities in Bolivia are predominantly oriented to
national dynamic that incentivizes the search for solutions (Rubens wards solving social problems and addressing primary needs for the
et al., 2017). This call influences the direction of the academic and in survival of individuals and communities (Gaiger et al., 2019; Vega-
dustrial agenda. Therefore, we propose the following: Jurado et al., 2008).
In Colombia, by contrast, there are 292 higher education organiza
Proposition 2. Outcomes of university-industry collaborations in
tions, of which 37.6% are public. Only 85 universities in this country
emerging economies (e.g., LATAM countries) will be predominantly driven by
offer post-graduate programs. Private universities are mostly teaching
industry and academics’ social orientations toward solving problems.
universities. Public universities have been conducting scientific research
for over 70 years, so although the dynamics of invention patents and
3. Methodology
scientific publications are increasing every year, it is still incipient. In
Colombia, the commercialization of research results began to be pro
The need to fill the knowledge gap and the arguments made in the
moted from the Spin-off law introduced between 2016 and 2017, but its
previous sections of this paper demands a qualitative type of research
proper regulation is still under discussion in the Colombian Senate, so
(Yin, 2018). We have conducted an exploratory study among individuals
the number of spin-offs is still low (Calderón-Hernández et al., 2020). A
working at universities, start-ups, incubators, banks, industry, social
higher rate of necessity-driven entrepreneurial activity with a lower
enterprises, and government, whereby we made sure that each respon
innovative orientation characterizes Colombia (Sutz, 2000; Bosma et al.,
dent has taken part in UIC activities whose outcomes have an existing
2021).
social impact on Bolivia and Colombia. In order to reduce possible bias,
Therefore, the Colombian context is complementary to that of
we have examined the same types of organizations in either empirical
Bolivia, and both constitute fertile ground for studying joint university-
context (Eisenhardt, 1989). In each case, our level of analysis was the
industry activities. Based on the above, both universities and industry
type of organization, and the unit of analysis was the people already
operate in complex contexts characterized by organizational di
involved or interested in collaborating with industry or university to
vergences highly influenced by the environment in which they operate
generate social impact.
and where social problems appear to be the bridge that connects the
logic of academia with the logic of industry, the latter being traditionally
3.1. Research setting focused on the market (Calderón-Hernández et al., 2020; Guerrero et al.,
2018; Olavarrieta and Villena, 2014). The most important activities of
The phenomenon of UIC has been studied from different perspectives UIC in such contexts are commonly collaborative projects of not very
and theoretical streams, mostly in developed countries where it is not sophisticated research, consulting activities, joint university-industry
common for universities and industries to establish joint initiatives to laboratories funded by industry that seek the generation of social in
solve a social challenge. This is partly because the critical mass of pat novations based on technology, university hackathons funded by in
ents pushes such activities in said contexts towards economic value dustry, agreements where industry finances community service learning
creation. Additionally, the low number of market failures and limited activities, co-creation scenarios promoted by the university and financed
social problems create an environment in which organizations can by the industry for the solution of social problems, and intersectoral
invest in joint university-industry science, technology, and innovation working groups promoted by the government to connect the university
development. However, in emerging economies, market failures have with industry for social purposes and open innovation for sustainability.
created an environment in which there are fundamental social chal
lenges (Fischer et al., 2019b). Besides, universities do not have the re 3.2. Case selection
sources necessary for economic value creation or sophisticated R&D
development, and therefore university-industry collaborations obey Given that this research focuses on the micro-processes perspective,
other norms not only impacted by the context but by the individuals we have chosen individuals who are formally and informally involved in
involved. the joint university-industry operations as mentioned above. Moreover,
5
the sample selection for the qualitative study was prepared with the knowledgeable about our research topic, i.e., subjects directly involved
support of colleagues from local universities in both countries as a in joint university-industry activities (Corley and Gioia, 2004; Gioia
measure of internal validity (Yin, 2018). The subjects of interest et al., 2013).
included junior and senior professors, university staff, entrepreneurs Next, we used the semi-structured interview technique to facilitate
and industry members, representatives of public organizations, in the exploration of the uninvestigated social phenomenon and other
cubators, financial organizations, technical and professional education related structural issues (Alvesson and Kärreman, 2011). The data
organizations, and voluntary associations in both countries. Subjects collection process was based on 33 semi-structured interviews, 8 focus
were picked after carefully considering their role and responsibilities group discussions, and 6 participant observations conducted in Bolivia
related to entrepreneurship and UIC programs and activities. Other ac between December 2017 and April 2019 and in Colombia in September
tors in the local ecosystem were selected based on their contacts and 2019. The interviews focused on exploring the role of universities in
cooperation and their support for local innovation development. their local ecosystems, industry support for social entrepreneurship and
This variety of subjects is useful for understanding the micro- alleviating social challenges, joint university-industry interactions and
processes associated with joint university-industry activities in Bolivia activities, challenges and catalysts of such joint UI operations, and
and Colombia. Likewise, the selection of subjects in these regional motivations for addressing UI relationships with social goals. The
contexts and relatively similar organizations reduce the potential interview protocols for both academics and non-academics were dis
problems of contextual biases given that UIC varies across regions and cussed with nine senior local experts from both countries to ensure the
depends on the quality of the universities (Minguillo and Thelwall, study’s construct validity (Yin, 2018) (see Appendix 1).
2015; Munari et al., 2017; Villani et al., 2017). Table 2 summarizes the Before each interview, participants were informed about the purpose
key characteristics of the selected organizations and the subjects in our of the study and assured that their responses would be anonymous. They
sample. were allowed to ask questions before and during the interviews (Brink,
1993). This tactic ensured the quality of their responses by enhancing
3.3. Data collection trust between researchers and respondents. The duration of the in
terviews averaged 51 minutes, ranging from 19 to 56 minutes. The focus
In this study, we have followed Lincoln and Guba (1986) in terms of groups involved between 3 and 12 people and had an average duration
purposive sampling guidelines in order to elicit different views and ex of 106 minutes, varying between 60 and 240 minutes.
periences from a diverse group of participants and thus generate di Interviews and focus group discussions were recorded and tran
versity in the empirical evidence (Guba, 1981; Lincoln and Guba, 1986). scribed to increase the study’s reliability as well as overcome any
Among them, we first focused on individuals that were more researcher bias in the interpretation of the data and, additionally, as an
Table 2
Interviews and Profile´s Respondents Overview
BOLIVIA COLOMBIA
Data Domain Participants Data Domain Participants
collection collection
Interviews University Junior Professor Interviews University Coordination of university

(17) (Management) (P1) (16) incubator (P18)
Junior Professor Director Entrepreneurship Center
(Management) (P2) (P19)
Junior Professor Director of Social Engagement
(Management) (P3) (P20)
Senior Professor International Projects Coordinator
(Business School) (P4) (P21)
Technical Academic Director (P5) International Students Coordinator
institutions Vocational Trainer (P6) (P22)
Startup Entrepreneur (P7 Internationalization advisor (P23)
Entrepreneur (P8) Senior Professor (Architecture)
Entrepreneur (P9) (P24)
Entrepreneur (P10) Senior Professor (Architecture)
Entrepreneur (P11) (P25)
Students Entrepreneur (P26)
Coordinator of mentorship
program (P27)
Retail Entrepreneur (P12) Social Enterprise Director (P28)
Director (P29)
Non-Profit Director (P13) Non-Profit Organizations Coordinator of community projects
Organizations Manager (P14) (P30)
Manager (P31)
Incubator Director (P15) Government (Major Office) Coordinator of Entrepreneurship
Director (P16) (P32)
Bank Director (P17) Chamber of Commerce Director of innovation (P33)
Focus Groups Entrepreneurs 4 Participants (FG1) Focus Groups University 3 Participants (FG5)
(4) Students and (4) Outreach and entrepreneurship
graduates
Government officials 4 Participants (FG2) University 7 Participants (FG6)
Student’s entrepreneurs and junior
professors
Incubator 10 Participants (FG3) University 3 Participants (FG7)
Coordinators and Voluntary program team
trainers
NGO 3 Participants (FG4) University 12 Participants (FG8)
Management team Student’s entrepreneurs in topics related to
peacekeeping
6
audit measure (Brink, 1993). To gain an in-depth understanding of the arrive at the theoretical codes representing the global dimensions used
context and reduce researcher bias, we used methodological triangula to propose a general framework or model (Charmaz, 2006; Villani et al.,
tion (Golfashani, 2003) by using as sources our primary data (i.e., data 2017; Willig et al., 2017). Table 4 presents our data structure, which
collected in situ) with our participant observations and secondary data includes first/second-order codes and a sample of illustrative data for
(Corbin and Strauss, 1998). We kept the same unit of analysis for the the most representative. The above procedure was repeated until data
methodological triangulation as was done for the semi-structured in saturation was reached and when it was observed that code refinement
terviews in order to maintain controlled results, the holistic focus, and was no longer productive.
the stable dynamic reality (Duffy, 1987). Table 3 presents a summary of During first-order coding, the information obtained within the
the participant observations. different university-industry joint activities was classified in a general
way, following Strauss and Corbin (1998). Second-order coding identi
3.4. Data analysis fied patterns, sequences, and meanings where the logic consisted of
assigning the same code to those that shared similar characteristics.
The analysis of the data obtained was qualitative, and we followed Finally, when first-order codes could no longer be assigned to the data,
the approach of Strauss and Corbin (1998) and also referred to others more general themes leading to second-order codes continued to
already located within the relevant scientific literature in management, emerge, and codes were grouped into these general themes. At the end of
in particular in the domain of UIC (Corbin and Strauss, 1998; Corley and the on-site data collection, we repeated the steps described above for all
Gioia, 2004; Eisenhardt, 1989; Gioia et al., 2013; Villani et al., 2017). our research subjects (Corbin and Strauss, 1998).
We classified the interviews and documents inductively, using open,
axial, and selective coding. With Atlas IT 9.0 as a tool, we proceeded first 4. Findings
with open coding, i.e., first-order codes that represented the first ideas
for classifying the data obtained in the field. Then we moved towards the 4.1. Lack of a supportive environment
interconnection of the codes through second-order coding to finally
Antecedents
Table 3 Following our methodological triangulation, policies and incentives
Observations, Domain, and Participants that promote technology transfer and UICs were found to be still un
derdeveloped in Bolivia and Colombia. In emerging economies, uni
BOLIVIA (4 Observations) COLOMBIA (4 Observations)
Domain Participants Domain Participants
versities receive political and financial support to promote UIC (Llopis
et al., 2018). Moreover, establishing joint university-industry labora
Entrepreneurship Social Lecture and Meetings with
tories is common, while the value created is expected to be distributed
Fair Entrepreneurs meetings with university officials
"Yo Emprendo" UCB team Local university officials (12) Presentation among all parties (Guerrero et al., 2019). In our empirical setting, our
incubator team to students (+200 data collected in situ findings are in line with our methodological
VUB October 23, students) March triangulation information.
2018 15 and 16, 2018
Despite the lack of government support for industry members, as
VUB Student VUB Master Entrepreneurship 70 +
Mobility Brussels, Theses students and Voluntarism Entrepreneurs and
demonstrated above, entrepreneurial activity does exist. It means that
Belgium to Tarija, (9) VUB Ph.D. University Fair student entrepreneurship emerges although the absence of favorable social
Bolivia Students (2) UCB organizations norms. A professor in entrepreneurship mentions that social businesses
Professors (4) participating in have been developed by social entrepreneurs, despite the lack of gov
Team Incubator the Fair Nov 11,
ernment support. However, in the Bolivian and Colombian contexts, this
Tarija (7) Team 2018
CAP program (4) economic branch could be further stimulated, as demonstrated by the
Local following quote from a student entrepreneur:
Entrepreneurs
Tarija (36) Local “Government does not support entrepreneurs just like in Chile. They give
students Tarija like an amount of money to do programs or to distribute to entrepreneurs.
(60) Dec 3 to 10, Bolivia is the opposite. Instead of money, the government increase the
2018
Round table Academics (4) Meetings with a Meeting with
taxes or something like that” (interviewee FG1, Bolivia)
discussion Team incubator university official university officials
In the particular case of Bolivia, the lack of technological progress
University- Tarija (6) and coaching to (2) Coaching
Industry Entrepreneurs (4) local students’ that the country has experienced in recent years is also evidenced in
cooperation in Team CAP (2) entrepreneurs entrepreneurs and other indicators, such as persistently low levels of labor productivity
support of April 16, 2019 other project (Muriel, 2016) and low spending on R&D in the country (World Bank,
Entrepreneurship leaders (20+) Sept 2020), compared to other regions. The results presented above show
8, 2019
Institutional visit to 17 local academics Social The panel of
that Bolivian and Colombian universities find a not very encouraging
Bolivia - (5 cities) to discuss Entrepreneurship Rectors: context for UIC. Nevertheless, Bolivian and Colombian universities have
Development topics on Summit Universidad del engaged in joint activities with industry, even without financial or po
cooperation Entrepreneurship Norte litical support.
project with CEUB (Cluster 3) VUB Universidad
(Inter-University professors VUB Católica Boliviana
association) Delegation of - Sede Tarija
Authorities April 7 Universidad del
4.2. The outcomes of UIC in emerging economies
to 12, 2019 Magdalena
Social 4.2.1. The nature of university-industry collaborations in Bolivia and
Entrepreneurship Colombia
Fair:
In LATAM universities, UIC that occurs is usually motivated by
20 +
Entrepreneurs consulting and teaching activities, as discussed in this paper’s previous
Sept 12 and 13, sections. In the particular case of Colombia, our methodological trian
2019 gulation shows that innovation dynamics are relatively new and,
therefore, those that involve the presence of industry for the generation
of new joint developments are equally recent development
7
Table 4 Table 4 (continued )

Coding structure (UIC: First-order code) and illustrative data Antecedents (Low subjective norm)
Antecedents (Low subjective norm) Group Second-order code Third- Illustrative data
Group Second-order code Third- Illustrative data order
order code
code
which I can present my
Lack of Governmental LSE- “We see that, at the level of project to the bank and other
supportive Gov the universities, the possible allies, and in this
environment government of the day way, I am ready to start.”
implements its own priorities Entrepreneurship Mec- “What I have learned in the
and sometimes stops the Units and Incubators EnU incubator is an excellent
progress and programs that thing. Every day we work to
have been working in favor create more awareness
of entrepreneurship. Every about the importance of
four years we have to change entrepreneurship for our
our agenda, and that country, Bolivia, and we
hinders, does not support the need to promote it even more
development of a university with the universities and
that can have a sustainable other networks that exist.”
policy to support Individual Entrepreneurship Micro- “Families are very
entrepreneurship.” Micro- culture EnC supportive of
Social Recognition LSE- “Craftsmen and their work, processes entrepreneurship because
SoR it is very undervalued. In many of these are inherited
other countries and cultures, (food, crafts, etc.) and this
this is more valued and encourages the
promoted at the country entrepreneurial spirit to be
level. It attracts tourism, developed from within the
generates local jobs, and home.”
strengthens itself as an Social Identity Micro- “Since I come from a family
economic activity. Here, it is SI in which my father
the opposite.” developed his own business, I
Consequences (outcomes driven by individuals’ orientation to solve social think I also have that
problems) entrepreneurial blood. It
Illustrative Community service Ch-CSL “Our university proposes allows me to continue
Channels of learning inclusion connected to the thriving in my enterprise as
UIC with social environment to get out of well as fighting for solving
impact dependence on oil income. societal problems, I am a
Therefore, we can influence social entrepreneur.”
the development of the Championing Social Micro- “I have one colleague from
industry with academic Welfare CSW marketing, who is always
programs, with institutional telling us that we have to
management, that we can engage with other actors in
generate better development order to improve our societal
conditions and impact the impact, he is a defender of
region.” societal causes, and that
Open Innovation Ch-OpI “Now universities are motivates me.”
making alliances with the Deontic Justice Micro- “There is nothing more
private sector to seek for DJ rewarding than seeing my
market research and the research translated into the
outcomes are publicly solution of a real problem in
available.” my country, well at least we
Social Innovation Ch-SIL “As a university [name of are working hard towards
Labs the university], we have a achieving that goal.”
marked social vocation, Pro-social Behaviour Micro- “I have to solve my people’s
where we understand that PB problems, what do I mean by
knowledge and that? To provide solutions to
technological development the problem that the
must always walk towards producers have. I think I can
innovation ultimately for the do that. That is the biggest
benefit of all stakeholders of goal I have.”
society, in that sense, we
have two laboratories, one is
where we develop a business (González-Gélvez and Jaime, 2013). Universities are subject to an
and the other is a social ecosystem that is in its infancy in terms of state policies that promote
innovation center where we
innovation and joint UIC (Betancur Monsalve and Garay Herazo, 2015).
dedicate ourselves to general
social innovation processes. For example, only in 2017 was a law processed in the Colombian
Industrial partners fund both Congress that allows academics to create companies with their research
laboratories.” results. Before that, the volume of joint invention patents between
Mechanisms Entrepreneurship Mec- “Through the incubator universities and industry, although growing since 2005, had not
facilitating UIC courses EntC program, I have been able to
with social train in different aspects that
significantly increased since it went from 6 patents applications in 2005
Impact I was unaware of to 64 in 2013 (Calderón-Hernández et al., 2020; Salazar and Valder
(marketing, legal, financial, rama, 2013). So, even without a legal platform, universities were
administrative, etc.). This already looking to industry. A case in point is a public university that
has allowed me to write a
was contacted by a ceramics business to develop a coating, from which
complete business plan with
the first spin-off officially emerged, but for lack of regulation, it did not
perform in the market as expected (Betancur Monsalve and Garay
8
Herazo, 2015). To date, Colombia has no more than 50 officially regis and entrepreneurial culture.
tered spin-offs, yet collaborations with industry often occur in other Universities influence individuals’ career choices through estab
ways (Betancur Monsalve and Garay Herazo, 2015; Calderón-Hernández lished business courses (Muofhe and Du Toit, 2011). Our findings reveal
et al., 2020; Salazar et al., 2013). that just as in developed contexts, universities additionally have other
In line with the above, universities have a long history of collabo mechanisms to support entrepreneurship, as shown by one of the stu
rating with industry to achieve other joint goals, such as those related to dents who attended a research seedbed and now has his own company,
social impact through entrepreneurship: and by another who attended university entrepreneurship courses as
well as the training provided by the incubator:
“In almost 50 years of history, many agreements have been developed
with private and public companies in favor of the development of social “Through the incubator program, I have been able to train in different
initiatives that later have ended up being created as businesses related to aspects that I was unaware of (marketing, legal, financial, administrative,
that type of thing, such as PISOTON or the subject of scholarships, but etc.). This has allowed me to write a complete business plan with which I
also has ended up supporting social entrepreneurs in some way” (inter can present my project to the bank and other possible allies, and in this
viewee P1, Colombia). way, I am ready to start” (interviewee P7, Bolivia)
In this regard, Machicado (2019) analyzes the evolution of the “So, this, if there are many universities doing talks almost all year-round
innovation index, using information from the Global Competitiveness regarding volunteering, regarding social marketing and regarding how to
Index (GCI), and finds that, in Bolivia, the index improved during 2010- be effective through digital tools, how to collect funds, I think that these
2014 but fell from 2015, ranking 135th out of 137 countries in 2017, are like the issues posed by the university, the academy and well and well
with a worse position than it had in 2008. According to the author, in the it has been constant” (interviewee P30, Colombia)
period of rebound, the availability of scientists and engineers and the
Universities in Bolivia and Colombia are also promoting entrepre
collaboration between industry and universities in R&D stand out.
neurship by creating entrepreneurship units that offer business training
Additionally, due to the lack of capabilities and resources for uni
to university staff and create events to promote entrepreneurial
versities located in emerging countries like LATAM, academics moti
thinking, workshops, and fairs. Likewise, Montoya Martínez(2009)
vated by an environment rich in social problems connect with their
found that students can also create new ventures in the university
contacts in the industry to carry out their entrepreneurial goals (Randy
context and be promoted by third parties. According to our methodo
Burd, 2013), as well as the respective dissemination of knowledge in
logical triangulations, such a model does not exist in developed coun
society, the third mission of universities (Cinar, 2019). To show evi
tries, where universities often deal directly with incubators and
dence of the above, the rector of one of the universities in Bolivia
accelerators (Good et al., 2019), while in the case of Bolivia and
mentions the importance of connecting with industry to promote
Colombia, incubators are separate entities that work hand in hand with
entrepreneurship and social impact:
seedbeds, and the afore mentioned entrepreneurship units.
“Our university proposes inclusion connected to the environment to get Culture (Wennberg et al., 2013) and family influence (Urban, 2013)
out of dependence on oil income. Therefore, we can influence the devel are some of the elements that foster entrepreneurial behaviors. Our
opment of the industry with academic programs, with institutional man findings coincide with those described in our methodological triangu
agement, that we can generate better development conditions and impact lation, especially those related to family influence in terms of support
the region. For that, one of the mechanisms with which we are convinced (Criaco et al., 2017), as can be seen in the following quote:
that we can do it is through the transversal axis of entrepreneurship”
“To talk about an entrepreneurial culture is to talk about behavior or
(Panel of Rectors from Bolivia and Colombia).
customs that make people entrepreneurial. Families are very supportive of
Our methodological triangulation found that although it is common entrepreneurship because many of these are inherited (food, crafts, etc.)
in LATAM universities to find UICs (De Fuentes and Dutrénit, 2012), and this encourages the entrepreneurial spirit to be developed from within
they often do not lead to the results obtained in a developed context (e. the home” (interviewee P3, Bolivia)
g., patents, creation of spin-off companies) and therefore do not involve
The above suggests that some members of academia and industry can
complex formal collaboration contracts (Calderón-Hernández et al.,
self-identify as socially responsible entrepreneurs (Meek et al., 2010),
2020). Consequently, in Bolivia and Colombia, most UICs are triggered
from which follows an important micro-process already used in the
not only by business opportunities but also informally by societal issues
literature of UIC and technology transfer, viz. social identity (Balven
(Calderón-Hernández et al., 2020; Naranjo-Valencia and Calderón-
et al., 2018), which occurs when an individual identifies as belonging to
Hernández, 2015; Salazar and Valderrama, 2013; Vega-Jurado et al.,
a group (Zou et al., 2019), as can be seen in the following quote:
2008). Therefore, it is common to find the university engaged in civic
matters (Gonzalez-Perez, 2010): “Since I come from a family in which my father developed his own
business, I think I also have that entrepreneurial blood. It allows me to
“As a university [name of the university], we have a marked social
continue thriving in my enterprise as well as fighting for solving societal
vocation, where we understand that knowledge and technological devel
problems, I am a social entrepreneur” (interviewee P3, Bolivia)
opment must always walk towards innovation ultimately for the benefit of
all stakeholders of society, in that sense, we have two laboratories, one is Similarly, one critical element that impacts individuals’ behavior
where we develop a business, and the other is a social innovation center towards executing an entrepreneurial process that facilitates UIC is
where we dedicate ourselves to general social innovation processes. In championing social welfare (Balven et al., 2018; Neves and Brito, 2020).
dustrial partners fund both laboratories.” (Interviewee P4, Colombia). This means that when someone supports or defends a cause in a work
group, they motivate others to action (Rasmussen et al., 2011). Since
such a process occurs relationally, we consider it a micro-process
4.2.2. Drivers of LATAM university-industry collaboration
(Balven et al., 2018). Thus, as can be seen from the following quote,
In terms of motivation, we found that university staff and industry
an interviewee from the industry mentions that a member of the mar
representatives possess a similar set of motives that drive them to
keting team motivates him to approach university-industry relationships
participate in joint university-industry social laboratories. We have
to create social and welfare impact:
classified these into seven dimensions: the importance of entrepre
neurship support mechanisms, family influence and culture, pro-social “I have one colleague from marketing, who is always telling us that we
behaviors, deontic justice, social identity, championing social welfare, have to engage with other actors in order to improve our societal impact,
9
he is a defender of societal causes, and that motivates me” (interviewee these characteristics and on the channel used by universities and in
P12, Bolivia) dustry to carry out joint activities, different micro-processes can facili
tate social impact, as we propose in Fig. 2.
In the same vein, a process at the individual level could be identified
and recognized as deontic justice, understood as an academic’s desire to
5. Discussion and concluding remarks
see their knowledge or research used in a way that provides benefits to
society (Balven et al., 2018). Evidence of the above can be noted in the
The purpose of this exploratory research was to understand how
following quote from an academic involved in a joint university-industry
entrepreneurial universities effectively enhance social impact in
social innovation lab:
emerging economies (Fischer et al., 2020), answering other calls from
“There is nothing more rewarding than seeing my research translated into the scientific literature (Fischer et al., 2020; Wright, 2018). To do so, we
the solution of a real problem in my country, well at least we are working have uncovered and explained the individual micro-processes involved
hard towards achieving that goal” (interviewee P29, Colombia) in joint UIC activities. We can put forward two relevant conclusions
based on the data collected in Bolivia and Colombia.
From our methodological triangulation, it was clear that some of the Our first conclusion is related to our finding that university-industry
respondents attach relevant importance to providing welfare to others joint undertakings that generate social impact in emerging economies
and have, in this way, a pro-social behavior (Douglas and Prentice, occur in a context of low subjective norms. Previous studies report that
2019; Douglas et al., 2020). Given that in Bolivia and Colombia, the institutional and cultural support and social acceptance influence the
socioeconomic context includes vulnerable communities in conditions subjective norm towards a particular behavior (Maresch et al., 2016;
of extreme poverty, there is evidence that some university entrepreneurs Miranda et al., 2017). Consequently, individuals feel motivated to
act in favor of helping others (Bacq and Alt, 2018), as the following engage in spin-off creation, technology transfer, or collaboration activ
university entrepreneurs made clear: ities at universities and industries (Fischer et al., 2020; Liñán et al.,
“From the foundation, we have the domain of social entrepreneurship as a 2011; Nabi and Liñán, 2011). Our study also shows different results
seed that will help us build sustainable communities. Within the founda since, in the LATAM context, the absence of stimuli for a subjective norm
tion’s strategic framework, entrepreneurship is transversal to all our that favors UICs with social impact did not preclude such joint collab
programs” (interviewee P30, Colombia) oration. Some studies mention prior experience and intellectual prop
erty as precursors of UICs (Ankrah and AL-Tabbaa, 2015; Llopis et al.,
“I have to solve my people’s problems, what do I mean by that? To provide 2018; Perkmann et al., 2021). Our results differ since individuals who
solutions to the problem that the producers have. I think I can do that. engage in UICs in LATAM seek to complement their innovative capa
That is the biggest goal I have” (interviewee P8, Bolivia) bilities and positively impact society. Such findings align with Johnston
(2016), who argues that UICs occur motivated by complementing rather
One industry representative stands out regarding the industry’s pro-
than overlapping capabilities and knowledge (Johnston and Huggins,
social orientation and participation in collaborations with universities.
2016). In this way, our results are aligned with recent empirical studies
He is interested in learning about social innovation to increase the social
that argue that multiple actors seek to complement their capabilities to
impact of the company:
solve a societal problem (Ibáñez et al., 2021; Siegel and Guerrero, 2021).
“I am very interested in social innovation and new methodologies to in A possible explanation for why such individuals engage in UICs for social
crease the impact my company, for me it’s very important this thing; and impact in contexts of a low subjective norm can be found in the
at my company, we believe a lot in the mentoring given at universities micro-processes involved. Therefore, our study contributes to the aca
within partnerships. We are a result of such mentoring” (interviewee P9, demic debate on UICs by extending the literature by providing evidence
Bolivia) from emerging contexts. We also argue that it is not always intellectual
property or prior experience that determines UICs’ existence. Instead,
Another industry representative has also identified the lack of their existence and impact on society in emerging economies are driven
adequate regulation in universities as an opportunity to establish links in by the individuals’ characteristics.
favor of entrepreneurship with positive impact: Our second conclusion is related to our LATAM research settings
“Depending on the universities, of course, but on average is really hard. (Bolivia and Colombia). Our study shows that there are five micro-
And they have a lot of problems in terms of intellectual property, regu processes (pro-social behavior, entrepreneurship culture, social iden
lations, and in terms of research. So that is why we want to create pro tity, championing social welfare, and deontic justice) in both academics
grams for sensibilization. We design programs for entrepreneurs that and industry members, which explain not only their involvement in joint
innovate, incubate, and at the end will create a product that makes an UICs activities but also the nature of their impact on society despite the
impact, this kind of makes a summary.” (Interviewee P10, Bolivia) low subjective norm. Our results report that such micro-processes may
act as drivers for UICs in emerging economies. The above runs counter to
Entrepreneurial culture is also considered a key element influencing the studies of Galid (2015) and Soendergaard (2015). They argue that
entrepreneurial activity (Ao and Liu, 2014). An institution’s entrepre economic incentives, recognition, networking, access to resources, in
neurial culture can foster entrepreneurial activity in its staff members dustry problem-solving, research application (Ahamed Galib et al.,
(Bienkowska et al., 2016) as well as in its students, as expressed by the 2015), organizational incentives, attitude towards collaboration, and
following respondent: intentions for participation (Soendergaard et al., 2015) are the main
drivers promoting joint UIC activities (Mahdad et al., 2020; Perkmann
“The university is doing this because it is not creating a culture of students
et al., 2021; Mahdad et al., 2018). Regarding the consequences of UIC
graduating and going to organizations to be one more employee; but the
joint activities, our study found that such joint undertakings in emerging
university is inspiring and forming us to set up our own company or realize
contexts occur mostly informally and aim to solve a social problem. In
the craziest dreams we have, without having a fear of failure” (inter
this regard, our results are aligned with previous studies that found that
viewee P11, Bolivia)
partnerships without pre-conceived commercial agendas deliver the
Joint activities between university and industry that are not based on most sustainable outputs (Ehrismann and Patel, 2015). Indeed, our
technology transfer nor driven by the creation of economic value but are study found that UIC joint ventures seeking social impact in emerging
rather oriented to solving a social problem rely heavily on the motiva economies use open innovation, co-creation, and community
tions and individual characteristics of the actors involved. Depending on service-learning channels that often converge in frugal innovations and
social entrepreneurship. This is in line with other studies that report that
10
Fig. 2. General framework. Source: Author
joint university-private sector knowledge generation and dissemination would help to understand how stimulating a particular individual micro-
activities are useful for frugal innovations in emerging economies process in a university, or an industry determines the type of outcome
(Fischer et al., 2020). generated, particularly in fragile innovation systems, typical of
This study also has several limitations that provide opportunities for emerging economies.
future research. First, although our study was conducted in only two
emerging economies, the rich data obtained from in-depth interviews Funding
with different UIC actors prompted us to make two propositions that we
have generalized to refer to all emerging or developing economies. No funding was received to conduct this research
Nevertheless, further research is required to confirm our findings in
other emerging economies, not only on the Latin-American continent CRediT authorship contribution statement
but also on other continents where countries have fragile innovation
systems and supportive contexts where UIC joint activities emerge. Jason Roncancio-Marin: Writing – original draft, Formal analysis,
Second, although we could conduct interviews with industry Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing – review & editing, Software,
personnel involved in UICs, our study was also limited by the lack of Investigation, Data curation, Validation. Nikolay Dentchev: Supervi
availability for interviews. Consequently, our results draw conclusions sion, Conceptualization, Writing – review & editing. Maribel Guerrero:
based on data that mostly, but not exclusively, come from members of Conceptualization, Writing – review & editing, Validation. Abel Díaz-
the universities participating in UIC. Therefore, further semi-structured González: Data curation, Validation. Thomas Crispeels: Data curation,
interviews are required with industry members collaborating with UIC Validation.
in developing economies to refine our findings.
Third, in terms of the individual micro-processes involved in UIC Acknowledgments
with social impact, we proposed a general framework in Figure 2.
However, such a model is based only on the results of our qualitative Great thanks to the respondents that contributed with their time and
study, and therefore causality, moderation, or association between the inputs in this research.. The authors also express gratitude to the Editors
variables explaining the existence of social impact via UIC joint un and peer-reviewers for their support during the review process.
dertakings in emerging economies cannot be deduced. A more advanced
quantitative approach to this investigation could be considered. Inter Appendix 1
estingly, support for UICs, innovation, and social impact in developed
economies is different from that in developing economies (Cinar, 2019; Interview protocol A –Enterprises and Industry
Guerrero et al., 2019). Therefore, another avenue of research would be
to measure and then compare the levels of the subjective norm across Organization profile
developed and developing economies to investigate the role that indi
vidual micro-processes play in creating social impact via UIC joint un 1 Can you describe the mission of your organization? (Association,
dertakings. Indeed, given that most of the micro-processes are similar NGO, Government, Training, Financing, Education, Other?)
between the university and industry members involved in UICs, future 2 Describe your organization: legal status, years of operation, foun
studies may work on theory development to shed light on the extent to ders, capital, top management, board of directors (if applicable), and
which similar individual micro-processes contribute to organizational other relevant information about the organization’s management.
proximity, which consequently facilitates UIC joint undertakings
(Johnston and Huggins, 2016). Relationship with Entrepreneurship and Entrepreneurial Ecosystem
Finally, this study could also be extended to measure the efficiency of
UIC outcomes in creating social impact. For example, by introducing a 1 Is there a culture for Entrepreneurship in (city)? What is the most
moderating effect of individual micro-processes on innovation, com relevant activity for entrepreneurs in (city)?
munity service learning, and co-creation, as mentioned in Figure 2. This
11
2 What is your relationship with Entrepreneurship / Entrepreneurs 7 How does your university engage a broader network of external
in your city? stakeholders to support social entrepreneurs?
3 The policy environment for (Socially vulnerable) entrepreneurs: 8 How can the local ecosystem of stakeholders expand in order to
• What is the role of the government in supporting entrepre improve the support of social entrepreneurs?
neurship: programs, needs, or constraints? 9 What are the limitations for universities to mobilize resources
• What is your perception of the policy environment: ease to needed by social entrepreneurs?
create new businesses, taxes, incentives, regulations, grants,
other programs? References
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14
Zavale, N.C., Langa, P.V., 2018. University-industry linkages’ literature on Sub-Saharan Belarusian Economic Research and Outreach Center (Belarus). Prof. Guerrero holds a Ph.
Africa: systematic literature review and bibliometric account. Scientometrics 116, D. and M.Phil. in Business Economics at the Department of Business of the Autonomous
1–49. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11192-018-2760-4. University of Barcelona (Spain). Her main research interests are focused on the de
Zhao, Z., Anders, B., Cai, J., 2018. Promoting academic engagement: university context terminants and impacts of entrepreneurial and intrapreneurial activities developed by
and individual characteristics. J. Technol. Transf. 45, 1–34. https://doi.org/ individuals, public and private organizations; the configuration/evolution of entrepre
10.1007/s10961-018-9680-6. neurship and innovation ecosystems; and the role of diversity and minority entrepre
Zou, B., Guo, J., Guo, F., Shi, Y., Li, Y., 2019. Who am I? The influence of social neurship on the configuration of entrepreneurship ecosystems and the socio-economic
identification on academic entrepreneurs’ role conflict. Int. Entrep. Manag. J. 15, development of emerging economies. She serves to editorial board of the Journal of
363–384. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11365-017-0492-1. Technology Transfer (Associate Editor), Journal of Small Business Management (Associate
Editor), Technology Forecasting and Social Change (Advisor Board), Entrepreneurship
Theory and Practice (Reviewer Board), and Small Business Economics (Reviewer Board).
Jason Jahir Roncancio-Marin is a PhD Researcher at the department of business, man
Currently, she is an Executive member of the AOM Entrepreneurship Division Committee
agement and strategy (BUSI) of the Vrije Universiteit Brussels. In his research, he seeks to
(AOM Entre- Treasurer), Executive Member of the Global Entrepreneurship Research As
position the entrepreneurial university as an agent of social change, considering its various
sociation (GERA-GEM consortium), and active member of the Strategic Management So
theoretical and practical aspects (i.e., entrepreneurial orientation, non-IP based academic
ciety (SMS), Technology Transfer Society (T2S), and others.
entrepreneurship, and technology transfer). His work has been presented as a main author
in several international conferences like the Academy of Management (2020, 2021), RnD
2018, and T2S 2017. Jason has participated as a reviewer for different journals including Abel Díaz-Gonzalez Holds a Ph.D. from the Vrije Universiteit Brussels (VUB), Belgium. In
the Journal of Technology Transfer, Business and Society Review, Journal of Accountancy August 2020, Abel joins the Vesalius College in Brussels as Adjunct Professor of Social
and Business, and Systemic Practice and Action Research. Jason has collaborated with the Entrepreneurship. His research focuses on the supportive function of social entrepre
digital communications team of AOM’s entrepreneurship division and is currently neurial ecosystems. For his doctoral dissertation, Abel has conducted field research in
involved as a mentor in innovation and entrepreneurship with the Organization of Bolivia, Ecuador, Colombia, and Belgium. His research has been presented at different
American States (OAS). international conferences (among which are the Academy of Management, IABS, EMES
and New Business Models). Abel has acted as a reviewer at various conferences and for
journals, including the Journal of Cleaner Production and the Journal of Accountancy and
Nikolay Dentchev is a Professor of Entrepreneurship and Corporate Social Responsibility
Business.
at the Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB), Belgium. He is the chair holder of the Solvay
Business School (VUB) Chair for Social Entrepreneurship (founded in 2015 by Wolters
Kluwer, Close The Gap and Euroclear) at the VUB and coordinator of NV Actief (KBC, Thomas Crispeels is associate professor at the department of business technology and
Trividend, and Unizo) at KU Leuven. These two initiatives focus on encouraging social and operations at VUB. His research is situated in the field of Technology & Innovation, with a
student entrepreneurship. special focus on international technology transfer, academic entrepreneurship, and
collaborative R&D in high technology industries. Thomas teaches several courses on
technology entrepreneurship and the business economics of high-technology industries to
Maribel Guerrero is a Professor of Entrepreneurship at the School of Business and Eco
business and engineering students. His work has been published in Technological Fore
nomics (Universidad del Desarrollo, Chile) and Newcastle Business School (Northumbria
casting & Social Change, Public Management Review and the Journal of Technology
University, UK). Prof. Guerrero is also an affiliated member of the CIRCLE – Centre for
Transfer.
Innovation Research (Lund University, Sweden) and visiting professor of the BEROC –
15

University-Industry Joint Undertakings With High Societal Impact

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Technological Forecasting & Social Change 174 (2022) 121223

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Technological Forecasting & Social Change

University-Industry joint undertakings with high societal impact: A

1. Introduction limited resources, support, and capabilities of LATAM universities, UICs

Fig. 1. Research model . Source: Author

Interviews University Junior Professor Interviews University Coordination of university

Table 4 Table 4 (continued )

Fig. 2. General framework. Source: Author

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