Four Basic Concepts: Set, Relation, Function and Equivalent- if the two sets have the same

Binary Operation number of elements but different elements.

Sets Subset- A set A is called a subset of a set B,

written A ⊆ B, if and only if every element of A
• A set is a well-defined collection of is also an element of B. If A ⊆ B and A ≠ B, then
distinct objects. The objects in sets can we say that A is a proper subset of B, and write
be anything: numbers, letters, movies, A ⊂ B.
people, animals, etc.
Remarks
• Each object belonging to a set is called
the element or member of the set. i. The null set is a proper subset of every set.

For example, the set C of counting numbers less ii. Any set is a subset of itself.
than 4 has numbers 1, 2 and 3 as the elements.
iii. Aset with n elements has a total of 2n
We use the notation “∈” to indicate that a
subsets.
specific element belongs to a set; otherwise, we
use “∉”. Thus, we write 1 ∈ C and 0 ∉ C to
mean that 1 is an element of C and 0 is not an
element of C, respectively. Operations on Sets:

Two Ways of Specifying a Set: Union- combination of the two sets. Written
A ∪ B.
Roster Method- The elements in the set are
listed or enumerated, separated by a comma (,), Intersection- set of all elements which are
and enclosed in a pair of braces ({ }). common to both sets. Written A ⋂ B.

Example: A= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} Compliment- set of all elements which are in

the universal set U but not in the given set.
Rule Method- a phrase is used to describe all
the elements in the set. Example:

Example: A= {x|x is a positive integer and x ≤ 5} Consider the sets

Definition of Terms: U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, A = 1, 5, and B = {2, 3, 5}.

Empty or Null Set- a set with no elements. Then,
Denoted by ∅ or { }. 1. A ∪ B = {1, 5} ∪ {2, 3, 5} = {1, 2, 3, 5}
Singleton Set- a set with only one element. 2. A ∩ B = {1, 5} ∩ {2, 3, 5} = {5}
3. B′ = {2, 3, 5}’ = {1, 4}
Universal Set- a set that contains all the 4. A ∪ B′ = {1, 5} ∪ {1, 4} = {1, 4, 5}
elements under consideration. Denoted by U.
Let A and B be two non-empty sets. The
Finite Set- a set with finite or countable number Cartesian product of sets A and B, denoted by A
of elements. × B, is the set of all ordered pairs (a, b) where a
Infinite Set- a set with infinite number of ∈ A and b ∈ B.
elements. Example: Consider again the sets in the previous
Equal- if the two sets have the exact same example,
elements. U = {1, 2, 3,4, 5}, A = {1, 5}, and B = {2, 3, 5}.
We have:

1.A × B = {(1,2), (1,3), (1,5), (5,2), (5,3), (5,5)}

2.A × A = {(1,1), (1,5), (5,1), (5,5)}

3.B × A = {(2,1), (2,5), (3,1), (3,5), (5,1), (5,5)}

Relations and Function All function is a relation but not every relation
is a function.
Relation- a relationship between sets of
information. The couple pairing and the pairing
of students’ names and the courses taken are
examples of a relation. In mathematics, a Binary Operations
relation R from set X to set Y is a subset of X × Y. Let S be a non-empty set. A binary operation ∗
If (x, y) ∈ R, then we say that x is related to y (or on S is a function from S × S into S such that for
y is in relation with x). x, y ∈ S, we have x ∗ y for ∗ (x, y). Note that the
image of ∗ is a subset of S. Thus, we say that S is
closed under ∗.

Example:

1. The usual addition (+), subtraction (−) and

multiplication (∙) are binary operations on the
set R of real numbers.

The domain of the relation R, denoted by D(R), 2. Subtraction (−) and division (÷) are not binary
is the set of all first coordinates in the ordered operations on the set N since 1 − 2 ∉ N and 2 ÷
pairs which belong to R. That is, 3 ∉ N.

D(R) = {x: x ∈ X, x, y ∈ R} 3. Let P be the set of all sets. The union ∪ and
intersection ∩ of sets are binary operations on
The image of the relation R, denoted by I(R), is P.
the set of all second coordinates in the ordered
pairs in R. That is, Properties of Binary Operations

I(R) = {y: y ∈ Y, x, y ∈ R} 1. Commutative property

A binary operation is commutative, if ∀ x, y ∈ S,

x ∗ y = y ∗ x.
Difference Between Function and Relation
2. Associative property

A binary operation * on S is associative, if ∀ x, y,

z ∈ S, x ∗ y ∗ z = x ∗ y ∗ z .
Mathematical Language and Symbols - congruent figures are the same shape and
size
Language - similar figures are the same shape, but not
- systematic means of communicating ideas necessarily the same size
or feelings by the use of conventionalized - two quantities are approximately equal
signs, sounds, gestures, or marks having when they are close enough in value so the
understood meanings difference is insignificant in practical terms
- according to Dr. Burns, “the language of
mathematics makes it easy to express the 4. Grouping Symbols
kinds of thoughts that mathematicians like to - include parentheses ( ), curly brackets or
express. braces { }, or square brackets [ ]

It is: 5. Variables
1.precise (able to make very fine - another form of mathematical symbol
distinctions); - used when quantities take different values
2.concise (able to say things brief); - usually include letters of the alphabet
3.powerful (able to express complex
thoughts with relative ease).” 6. Set theory symbols
- used in the study of sets
Some Classification of Symbols - include subset ( ⊆ ), union (∪),
intersection (∩), element (∈), not element
1. Numbers (∉), and empty set ( )
- a mathematical object used to count,
quantify, and label another object 7. Logic symbols
- include the elements of the set of real - include implies (⇒), equivalent (⟺ ), and
numbers (R), rational numbers (Q), (∧), or (∨), for all (∀), there
irrational numbers (Q’), integers (Z), and exists (∃), and therefore (∴)
natural numbers (N)
8. Statistical symbols
2. Operation Symbols - include sample mean (x̅), population mean
- include addition (+), subtraction (-), (μ), median (x ̃), population standard
multiplication (x or •), division (÷ or /), and deviation (σ), summation (∑ ) and factorial
exponentiation (xⁿ), where x is the base and (n!)
n is the exponent
Mathematical Expression and
3. Relation Symbols Mathematical Sentence
- include greater than or equal (≥) , less than
or equal (≤), equal (=), not equal (≠ ), Mathematical Expression
similar (~), approximately equal (≈), and -mathematical phrase that comprises a
congruent (≅). combination of symbols that can designate
operations, numbers (constants), variables,
symbols of grouping and other punctuation.
- does not state a complete thought

Mathematical Sentence
- statement about two expressions
- the two expressions either use numbers,
variables, or a combination of both
- uses symbols or words like equals, greater
than, or less than and it states a complete
thought

Types of Sentences

Open sentence
- sentence that uses variables
- it is not known whether or not the
mathematical sentence is true or false

Closed sentence
- sentence that is known to be either true or
false

Example:

The following are mathematical sentences.

Label each of the following as open or
closed. For those closed sentences, identify
if it is true or false. (hihi search nalang kayo other examples<3)

1. 10 is an odd number.
Answer: Closed - false
2. 4 + 5x = 9
Answer: Open
3. 10 - 1 = 7 + 2
Answer: Closed - true
4. 6 - x = 5
Answer: Open
5.The square root of 4x is 2.
Answer: Open
LOGIC is the study of reasoning and argument. In mathematics and philosophy, it involves
using formal principles to evaluate statements and their relationships to determine their
truthfulness.

PROPOSITIONS is a declarative statement that is either true or false, but not both. It is the
basic building block of logic.

Example of a true proposition:

"The Earth revolves around the Sun."
Example of a false proposition:
"The Moon is made of cheese."

Variables and Propositional Variables

VARIABLES represent unknown values or quantities in mathematical logic. In logic, we often
use propositional variables like p, q, and r to represent propositions. These variables can only
take on truth values—either true (T) or false (F).

Example:
Let p represent "It is raining." p can be true (if it is raining) or false (if it is not raining).

Truth Values
Each proposition has a truth value:
True (T) when the proposition is valid.
False (F) when the proposition is not valid.

For example, if p is "2 is an even number," the truth value of p is true.

Logical Operators
Logical operators are used to combine or modify propositions to form compound propositions.

Negation (¬) : Flips the truth value.

● ¬ p means "not p”.

Conjunction (∧) : True if both propositions are true.

● p ∧ q means "both p and q are true."

Disjunction (∨) : True if at least one of the propositions is true.

● p ∨ q means "either p or q is true."

Implication (→) : True unless p is true and q is false.

● p → q means "if p, then q."
https://www.mathmindsacademy.com/truth-tables--logic-connectives.html

Truth Tables
Truth tables show all possible truth values of propositions and their combinations using logical
operators.

Example 1: Negation
p ¬q

T F

F T

Example 2: Conjunction
p q p∧q

T T T

T F F

F T F

F F F

Example 3: Disjunction
p q p∨q

T T T

T F T

F T T
 F F F

Example 4: Implication
p q p→q

T T T

T F F

F T T

F F T

7. Applications of Logic in Accountancy

In accountancy, logical structures can help in decision-making and evaluating financial
statements. Propositional logic can be used to:

- Assess the truth of financial propositions (e.g., "If revenues increase, then profit increases").
- Analyze relationships between financial conditions using conjunctions or disjunctions.
- Use implications for conditional statements (e.g., "If liabilities exceed assets, then the company
is insolvent").

Key Points for Review

- Logic is the framework for reasoning.
- Propositions are statements that are either true or false.
- Variables (propositional variables) represent these propositions.
- Truth tables map out the truth values of propositions under various logical operations.
Simple Proposition Types of Conditional Proposition
- contains one idea “If p, then q”
- either true or false If p→q, then:
q→p is its Converse
ex: “The sun is a star”
~p→~q is its Inverse
The statement is TRUE
~q→~p is its Contrapositive
“2 + 3 = 5”
The statement is TRUE
ex: P: x is greater than 0
“The earth is flat”
Q: x is positive
The statement is FALSE

1. p→q
Compound Proposition
If p, then q.
- contains two or more ideas
If x is greater than 0, then x is positive.
- uses logical connectives:

2. q→p (Converse)
Common Logical Connectives
If q, then p.
1. Conditionals - → (if…then)
If x is positive, then x is greater than 0.
2. Conjunctions - ^ (and)
3. Negations - ~ (not)
3. ~p→~q (Inverse)
4. Biconditionals - ↔ (if and only if)
If not p, then not q.
5. Disjunctions - ∨ (or)
If x is not greater than 0, then x is not
positive.
ex: P: The sun is shining
Q: It is raining
4. ~q→~p (Contrapositive)
R: The ground is wet
If not q, then not p.
If x is not positive, then x is not greater than
1. Q → P
0.
If it is raining, then the sun is shining.

2. Q^P
It is raining and the sun is shining.
Quantfiers
In Logic:
3. P ∨ Q
- words that refer to quantities
The sun is shining or it is raining
- tells for how many elements a given
predicate is true
4. ~ R
In English
The ground is not wet.
- used to express the quantities without
giving the exact number
5. ~R ↔ P
Examples
The ground is not wet if and only if the sun
- all, some, many, none, few, etc.
is shining.
- “Can I have some milk?”
- “Pau has many friends here.”
6. R ↔ Q^P
The ground is wet if and only if it is raining
and the sun is shining
Two Types of Quantifiers
1. Universal Quantifier 2. Existential Quantifier
- denoted as ∀ - denoted as ∃
- read as “for all / for every” - read as “there exists”
- a property is true for all elements of a - at least one element has a certain
set property

ex: Let P(x) be a statement x + 1 > x ex: Let Q(x) be a statement x < 2

If x=1, then: If x=1, then:

P (1) : 1 + 1 > 1 Q (1) : 1 < 2
2>1 TRUE
TRUE
If x=2, then:
If x=2, then: Q (2) : 2 < 2
P (2) : 2 + 1 > 2 FALSE
3>2
TRUE If x=3, then:
Q (3) : 3 < 2
If x=3, then: FALSE
P (3) : 3 + 1 > 3
4>3 We can say that:
TRUE
“There is an x for which Q(x) is true.”
We can say that:
or
“P(x) is true for all positive integers x.”
“∃ x Q(x)”
or
wherein:
“∀ x P(x)”
∃ - “There exists” (Quantifier)
wherein: x - some of
Q(x) - “true” (Predicate)
∀ - “for all” (Quantifier)
x - positive integers
P(x) - “is true” (Predicate)
Negation of Universal

Haha wait
huhu wait “There exists x in the positive integers, x is
less than or equal to 3"
Negation of Universal
wherein:
Negation = opposite
Universal = original statement ∃ x ∈ Z+, x ≤ 3

Negation of Universal “There exists x in the positive integers, x is

= less than or equal to 3"
Opposite of the Original Statement
This new statement is true.
Example:
That is because there are indeed positive
Original Universal Statement: integers (like 1, 2, and 3) that are less than or
equal to 3.
∀ x ∈ Z+, x > 3
To express the negation in general terms, we
“For all x in the positive integers, x is greater use this rule ↓ to find “there exists at least
than 3” one”

wherein: Rephrasing the Negation:

∀ x ∈ Z+, x > 3 ~ (∀ x ∈ D, P (x)) = ∃ x ∈ D, ~ P (x)

“For all x in the positive integers, x is greater "Not all x in the set D have the property P(x)" is
than 3” equivalent to "There exists at least one x in the
set D such that P(x) is not true."
This statement is false.
wherein:
This is saying that every positive integer (like
1, 2, 3, 4, ...) must be greater than 3, which is ~ (∀ x ∈ D, P(x)) = ∃ x ∈ D, ~ P(x)
clearly false because 1, 2, and 3 are not
greater than 3. “Not all x in the set D have the property P(x)” is
equivalent to “There exists at least one x in the
To find the negation (opposite) of a universal set D such that P(x) is not true”
statement (original statement), we switch from
saying "all" to "there exists" and:

Which becomes ↓ D = Z+ (or the set of positive integers)

P(x) = x > 3
Negation of the Universal Statement:

∃ x ∈ Z+, x ≤ 3
What is Mathematics? CHARACTERISTICS OF MATH
- The science of structure order and relations
- Study of pattern and structure 1. CLASSIFICATIONS
- Generates a series of mental
relations where objects are grouped
according to similarities and
- Mathema - “that which is learnt”
differences depending on specific
- Manthano and Mathaino - “To learn”
criteria.

2. LOGICAL SEQUENCE
PATTERNS AND REGULARITIES - Each step can be derived logically
from the preceding steps
a. SYMMETRY
- Harmonious proportion or balance of 3. STRUCTURE
an object is constant (invariant) to - Allows mathematicians to study the
any transformation set further and find its relationship w/
other objects.
a. bilateral
- Left & right along the 4. PRECISION AND ACCURACY
midline\ - Precision - how close to each other
b. radial - Accuracy - how close to the actual
- Around a fixed point value, correct and free from error
called center
- Can be dihedral or 5. ABSTRACTNESS
cyclic - Extracting the underlying essence of
a mathematical concept by taking
2. FRACTALS away any dependence on real-world
- A curve. Has the same statistical objects,
characteristic as a whole.
- A never-ending pattern 6. SYMBOLISM
- Replication is called “self-similarity” - Constructed in such a way that
mathematicians understand
symbolic notations and
3. SPIRALS mathematical formulas.
- A self-similar curve
- First described by Rene Descartes 7. APPLICABILITY
and was later investigated by Jacob - Can lie anywhere from trivial to
Bernoulli complex
- Focuses on a center point and a
series of circular shapes that revolve 8. GENERALIZATIONS
around it. - Finding and singling out in a whole
class of similar objects

NATURE OF MATH

1. A SCIENCE OF MEASURES
- Involves interaction w/ a concrete system
 2. INTELLECTUAL GAME
- Requires a strong dose of patience,
restraint, and concentration Golden Ratio
- Referred to as the “golden mean”
- Irrational number, approx. 1.618
3. THE ART OF DRAWING CONCLUSIONS - Denoted by greek letter phi
- Reasoning - a/b = (a+b)/a

4. A TOOL SUBJECT

5. A SYSTEM OF LOGICAL PROCEDURE

- Problem solving
- a/b = (a+b)/a
6. AN INVITE METHOD
- The ability to see what is reasonable
or not.
Can be seen in:
Flower petals
Seed heads
FIBONACCI SEQUENCE
Tree branches
- A sequence where each number is the sum
Shells
of the two preceding ones
Spiral galaxies h
- Denoted by Fn
Hurricanes
- Was noted by medieval italian
Dna molecules
mathematician, Leonardo Pisano a.k.a
fingers
Fibonacci

The Rule:

Xn = Xn-1 + Xn-2

FIBONACCI CAN BE FOUND IN:

- Sunflowers
- Honeycomb