Module 5: Lesson 1: Understanding Data and Ways Systematically Collect Data

Importance of Data Collection

1. Integrity of the Research
A researcher must provide accurate and honest procedure in conducting research.
2. Reduce Errors
The use of proper tools will produce an accurate and desired result must be considered in
conducting a research.
3. Decision Making
Accurate data must be collected so that the researcher will arrive with a correct
interpretation of the research.
4. Save Cost and Time
Make sure to familiarize or knowledgeable to the topic selected in conducting research
and the procedures undertaken. This will result to the smooth flow of your research
thus saving much time and effort as well as the financial resources in reproducing the
research instrument and the like.
5. To support a need for a new idea, change and/or innovation
It is important to gather data as evidence to support the assumptions to show the need
for a shift in the standard or the implementation of new knowledge that will be generally
accepted.

Sources of Data Collection

Data in research can be collected from primary sources and secondary sources. Primary
sources provide raw information and first-hand evidence. Examples include interview
transcripts, statistical data, and works of art. A primary source gives you direct access to
the subject of your research. Secondary sources provide second-hand information and
commentary from other researchers. Examples include journal articles, reviews, and
academic books. A secondary source describes, interprets, or synthesizes primary sources.
Data Collection Methods
1. Interview
A face-to-face conversation between two individuals with the sole purpose of
collecting relevant information to satisfy a research purpose. It can be a Structured
which asks standard sets of questions and followed in the same order or straight forward
questions. Semi-Structured which asks open- ended questions allowing for a discussion
and Unstructured wherein no specific set of predetermined questions and flow like an
everyday conversation and tend to be more informal and open-ended.
Pros: In-depth information, freedom of flexibility, accurate data. Cons: Time-
consuming, expensive to collect.
2. Questionnaire
This is the method of gathering information through a tool that consists of a set of
questions and prompts to receive an answer from people to whom it is administered. It is
meant to collect a group's data.
A questionnaire is not a survey, but rather a part of it. A survey is a data collection
procedure involving several methods of data collection, including a questionnaire.
• Questionnaires often make use of checklist and rating scales.
• Checklist is a list of behaviors, characteristics or other entities that the researcher is
looking for while rating scale is more useful when behavior needs to be evaluated.
• Rating scales state the criteria and provide three or more responses to describe the
quality of frequency of behavior, skills, strategies, or variables of the study.
Pros:
• Administered in large numbers and is cost-effective
• Used to compare and contrast previous research to measure change
• Easy to visualize and analyze
• Questionnaires offer actionable data Cons:
• Answers may be dishonest or the participants lose interest halfway through
• Questionnaires can't produce qualitative data
• Questions might be left unanswered
• Respondents may have a hidden agenda
• Not all questions can be analyzed easily
3. Observation
This is a data collection method by which information on a phenomenon is
gathered through observation. The nature of the observation could be accomplished
either as a complete observer, an observer as a participant, a participant as an observer

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or as a complete participant. This method is a key base of formulating a hypothesis. It can
be collected through recording sheets and checklists. Observation guides list the
interactions, processes, and behaviors to be observed while field notes do not include
preset questions or responses.
Pros:
• Easy to administer
• There subsists a greater accuracy with results
• It is a universally accepted practice
• It diffuses the situation of an unwillingness of respondents to administer a report
• It is appropriate for certain situations
Cons:
• Some phenomena aren’t open to observation
• It cannot be relied upon; Bias may arise
• It is expensive to administer
• Its validity cannot be predicted accurately
4. Reporting
The process of collecting and sending data to be further analyzed is data reporting.
Reporting accurate data is the main component of data reporting since incorrect data
reporting contributes to uninformed decision- making. Examples are NGO reports,
newspapers, website articles and hospital care records.
Pros:
• Informed decision making
• Easily accessible
Cons:
• Self-reported answers may be exaggerated
• The results may be affected by bias
• Respondents may be too shy to give out all the details
• Inaccurate reports will lead to uninformed decisions
5. Tests
Tests provide a way to assess subjects knowledge and capacity to apply this
knowledge into new situations. It can provide information that is measured against a
variety of standards. Norm-reference tests provide information on how the target
performs against a reference group. Examples of norm-referenced tests include the SAT,
IQ tests, and tests that are graded on a curve. Anytime a test offers a percentile rank, it is
a norm-referenced test. If you score at the 80th percentile, that means that you scored
better than 80% of people in your group. A criterion- referenced test are constructed
to determine whether the respondents have attained the mastery of a skill or knowledge.
Examples are NAT, SHS Exit Assessment, quarterly or periodical exams.
Pros:
• Determine the effectiveness of an intervention;
• It has high validity and reliability or results;
Cons:
• Evaluates students’ performance without considering external factors; • It is limited
with the cognitive domain of the students

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Lesson 2: Data Analysis Using Statistics and Hypothesis Testing

Quantitative Analysis
Quantitative data analysis is a systematic approach where data are collected and
transforms the collected data or observed into numerical data. It often describes a situation
or event, answering the research questions or objectives of the study. It is often concerned
with finding evidence to either support or contradict an idea or hypothesis you might have.
Methods Used in Quantitative Analysis
Statistics are mathematical formulas used to organize and analyze the data gathered by
variables.
A. Descriptive Statistics
To explain the information collected, descriptive statistics are used, such as the range
of values, their average, and the most common category. It is also used to present
quantitative descriptions in a manageable form. In a research study we may have lots of
measures. As such, it helps us to simplify large amounts of data in a sensible way. Each
descriptive statistic reduces lots of data into a simpler summary.
Types of Descriptive Statistics
There are four major types of descriptive statistics:

1. Measures of Frequency:
• Count, Percent, Frequency
• Shows how often something occurs
• Use this when you want to show how often a response is given
2. Measures of Central Tendency
• Mean, Median, and Mode
• Locates the distribution by various points
• Use this when you want to show how an average or most indicated response
3. Measures of Dispersion or Variation
• Range, Variance, Standard Deviation
• Identifies the spread of scores by stating intervals
• Range = High/Low points
• Variance or Standard Deviation = difference between observed score and mean
• Use this when you want to show how "spread out" the data are. It is helpful to
know when your data are so spread out that it affects the mean
4. Measures of Position
• Percentile Ranks, Quartile Ranks
• Describes how scores fall in relation to one another. Relies on standardized scores
• Use this when you need to compare scores to a normalized score
(e.g., a national norm)

B. Inferential Statistics

Inferential statistics are used from the research data to make comparisons and draw
conclusions. Information obtained from inferential statistics enables researchers to draw
inferences and generalize to other classes outside their study sample. With inferential
statistics, you are trying to reach conclusions that extend beyond the immediate data alone.

Types of Inferential Statistics

In this area, there are several tests, some of the most significant of which are listed
below.

1. Linear Regression Analysis

In this test, a linear algorithm is used to understand the relationship between two variables
from the data set. One of those variables is the dependent variable, while there can be one or
more independent variables used.
2. Analysis of Variance

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 This is another statistical method which is extremely popular in data science. It is used
to test and analyze the differences between two or more means from the data set. The
significant differences between the means are obtained, using this test.

3. Analysis of Co-variance
A co-variate is an independent variable which is continuous and are used as regression
variables. This method is used extensively in statistical modelling, to study the differences,
present between the average values of dependent variables.
4. Statistical Significance (t-test)

A relatively simple test in inferential statistics, this is used to compare the means of two
groups and understand if they are different from each other. The order of difference, or how
significant the differences are can be obtained from this.

5. Correlation Analysis

Another extremely useful test, this is used to understand the extent to which two variables are
dependent on each other. The correlation can also be negative or positive, depending upon the
variables. A negative correlation means that the value of one variable decrease while the value
of the other increases and positive correlation means that the value both variables decrease or
increase simultaneously.

Tools for Data Analysis

The table below shows a sample statistical tool to be used in data analysis on the specific focus of
the research.

Focus of the Research Tools for Data Analysis

Profile of the Respondents Frequency counts, Percentages, Ranking, summation
Correlational Part of the Research Chi-Square Test, Pearson- Product of
Moment Correlation, Spearman Rank
Order of Correlation, Regression Analysis
Significant Difference t-test, One Way/Two Way Analysis of Variance
(Comparison Data) (ANOVA),
Experimental Research Dependent sample t -test Paired sample t-test

An understanding of the scoring system and the descriptive interpretation that comes with it will
also help the researcher in the statistical treatment. Examples are seen below.

The format of a typical five-level Likert Item could be:

Scale Range Qualitative Description

5 4.21- 5:00 Strongly Agree
4 3.41- 4.20 Moderately Agree
3 2.61- 3.40 Neither Agree nor Disagree
2 1.81- 2.60 Moderately Disagree
1 1.00 - 1.80 Strongly Disagree

The format of a typical four-level Likert Item could be:

Scale Range Qualitative Description

4 3.25-4.00 Always
3 2.50-3.24 Sometimes
2 1.75-2.49 Often

1 1.00-1.74 Never
Hypothesis Testing
A hypothesis is an educated guess about something in the world around you. It should be
testable, either by experiment or observation.
The null hypothesis is a general statement that states that there is no relationship
between two phenomena under consideration or that there is no association between two
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 groups. The symbol for the null hypothesis is H0, and it is read as H-null, H-zero, or H-
naught. The null hypothesis is usually associated with just ‘equals to’ sign as a null
hypothesis can either be accepted or rejected.
An alternative hypothesis is a statement that describes that there is a relationship
between two selected variables in a study. The symbol of the alternative hypothesis is
either H1 or Ha while using less than, greater than or not equal signs. Examples:

Research Questions Null Hypothesis (H0) Alternative (H1)

Is there significant difference There is no significant difference There is a significant difference
between the posttest between the posttest between the posttest
performance of the control and performance of the control and performance of the control and
experimental group after experimental group after experimental group after
exposing to the intervention. exposing to the intervention exposing to the intervention
Research Titles Null Hypothesis (H0) Alternative (H1)

Impact of the There is no impact of the There is an impact of the

Implementation of COVID implementation of COVID implementation of COVID– 19
– 19 Health Protocols in – 19 Health Protocols in Health
Supermarkets on Supermarkets on Protocols in
Consumer Behaviors Consumer Behaviors Supermarkets on
Consumer Behaviors