CHAPTER

1 POLYNOMIALS

Study Design coverage

Nelson MindTap chapter resources
1.1 Polynomials
Terminology
Simplifying polynomials
Using CAS 1: Defining and evaluating polynomials
1.2 Equating coefficients
1.3 Dividing polynomials
Division of a polynomial by a linear factor
Using CAS 2: Division of polynomials
Division of a polynomial by a non-linear factor
1.4 The remainder and factor theorems
The remainder theorem
Using CAS 3: Finding the remainder of a polynomial
The factor theorem
Factorising polynomials
Using CAS 4: Finding factors of polynomials
Using CAS 5: Finding the real factors of polynomials
Sum and difference of two cubes
1.5 Solving polynomial equations
Solving cubic equations
Using CAS 6: Solving polynomial equations
Solving quartic equations
1.6 Graphing polynomial functions
The cubic function
The quartic function
Polynomials of higher degrees
VCE question analysis
Chapter summary
Cumulative examination 1
Cumulative examination 2
 Study Design coverage

STUDY DESIGN COVERAGE

AREA OF STUDY 1: FUNCTIONS, RELATIONS AND GRAPHS
• graphs of polynomial functions and their key features.
AREA OF STUDY 2: ALGEBRA, NUMBER AND STRUCTURE
• solution of polynomial equations with real coefficients of degree n having up to n real solutions, including
numerical solutions.
VCE Mathematics Study Design 2023–2027 pp. 98–99, © VCAA 2022

Video playlists (7): Worksheets (6):

1.1 Polynomials 1.4 The remainder theorem
1.2 Equating coefficients • Factorising polynomials
1.3 Dividing polynomials 1.6 Graphing cubics • Polynomials review
• Sketching curves • Polynomial graphs
1.4 The remainder and factor theorems
1.5 Solving polynomial equations
1.6 Graphing polynomial functions
VCE question analysis Polynomials

To access resources above, visit

cengage.com.au/nelsonmindtap

9780170448475 Chapter 1 | Polynomials 3

 1.1 Polynomials
Video playlist
Polynomials
Terminology
A polynomial is an expression involving a sum of terms that are powers of the same variable.
Polynomial comes from the Greek words ‘poly-’ (meaning ‘many’) and ‘-nomial’ (meaning ‘term’), so it
translates to ‘many terms’.
A polynomial in x is of the form:
P(x) = anxn + an-1xn-1 + an-2xn-2 + … + a1x1 + a0
where n is a positive integer or zero, a0, a1, a2 … an-1, an are real numbers and an ≠ 0.
• The highest power of x is called the degree of the polynomial. The degree of P(x) can be written as
deg(P), and the degree of P(x) above is n.
• The term that contains the highest power is called the leading term, anxn, and the coefficient of the
leading term, an, is called the leading coefficient.
• When the leading coefficient, an, is 1, the polynomial is called a monic polynomial.
• The term that does not contain x is a0, which is called the constant term.

WORKED EXAMPLE 1 Polynomial expressions and their features

Determine whether each expression is a polynomial, giving reasons if it is not. State the degree, leading
p. 1 term and coefficients of any polynomial found.
x5 x2 3
a 3x + 7x 3 − b x +
4
− +7 x
2 4 x
Steps Working

x5
a 1 Write the expression with descending powers. − + 7x 3 + 3x
2
All of the powers are positive integers, so the
expression is a polynomial. This is a polynomial.
2 Identify the degree, leading term and degree = 5
coefficients. 1
leading term = − x 5
2
1
coefficients = − , 7, 3
2
1
x2
b Write the expression with descending powers. x4 + + 7x 2 − 3x −1
4
Not all of the powers are positive integers, so the
expression is not a polynomial. This is not a polynomial as 3x-1 has a negative
1
power and 7x 2 has a fractional power.

4 Nelson VICmaths Mathematical Methods 12 9780170448475

Simplifying polynomials
WORKED EXAMPLE 2 Simplifying polynomials 1.1
If P(x) = 2x4 - 3x2 + 2x - 4 and Q(x) = x2 + 3, find
a Q(x) - P(x) and state its degree. b P(x)Q(x) and state its degree.

Steps Working
a 1 Substitute for P(x) and Q(x). Q(x) - P(x) = (x2 + 3) - (2x4 - 3x2 + 2x - 4)
2 Add or subtract like terms to simplify. = -2x4 + 4x2 - 2x + 7
This is a polynomial function of degree 4.
b 1 Substitute for P(x) and Q(x). P(x)Q(x) = (2x4 - 3x2 + 2x - 4)(x2 + 3)
2 Multiply using the index law am × an = am + n. = 2x6 + 3x4 + 2x3 - 13x2 + 6x - 12
Then add or subtract like terms to simplify. This is a polynomial function of degree 6.

WORKED EXAMPLE 3 Substituting values into polynomials p. 2

If P(x) = 5x3 + 4x2 - mx + 7 and P(-2) = 14, obtain a value for m.

Steps Working
1 Substitute (-2, 14) into P(x). 14 = 5(-2)3 + 4(-2)2 - m(-2) + 7
2 Solve for m. 14 = 5(-8) + 4(4) + 2m + 7 p. 3

14 = -17 + 2m
31 = 2m
31
m=
2

CAS can be used to find the value of a polynomial.

USING CAS 1 Defining and evaluating polynomials

Given P(x) = -2x4 + 5x3 + 3x2 + 11, find P(-2).

TI-Nspire

1 Start a new document and add a 5 Enter p(–2).

Calculator page. 6 Press enter.
2 Press menu > Actions > Define. 7 The solution will be displayed.
3 Enter the function as shown above.
4 Press enter.
P(-2) = -49

9780170448475 Chapter 1 | Polynomials 5

 ClassPad

1 Tap Main and clear all calculations. 7 The defined function will be displayed.
2 Enter and highlight the polynomial. 8 Enter p(–2).
3 Tap Interactive > Define. 9 Press EXE.
4 Change the Func name: to p (use the letter p, 10 The solution will be displayed.
not the variable p).
5 The polynomial will appear in the Expression:
field, as shown above.
6 Tap OK.
P(-2) = -49

WORKED EXAMPLE 4 Modelling polynomial functions

The height of an object thrown into the air is modelled by the equation h(t) = -4.9t2 + v0t + h0, where
p. 4 v0 is the initial velocity, h0 is the initial height above the ground and h(t) is the height, in metres, after
t seconds.
A cricket ball is thrown with an upward velocity of 14 m/s from a building 30 m high.
a Find its height above the ground t seconds later.
b How high off the ground will the cricket ball be after 2 seconds?
c When will the ball hit the ground? Give the answer to two decimal places.

Steps Working
a Substitute v0 = 14 and h0 = 30 into h(t). h(t) = -4.9t2 + 14t + 30
b Substitute t = 2 into h(t) and simplify by h(2) = -4.9(2)2 + 14(2) + 30
collecting like terms. = 38.4 m
c 1 This will happen when the height is 0. 0 = -4.9t2 + 14t + 30
= 49t2 - 140t - 300
= (7t + 10)(7t - 30)
10 30
t = − or t =
7 7
2 Check the feasibility of the solutions. As t > 0, t ≈ 4.29 seconds.

EXERCISE 1.1 Polynomials ANSWERS p. 570

Mastery

1 WORKED EXAMPLE 1 TECH-FREE Determine whether each expression is a polynomial.

1 x
a 5x4 - 3x2 + x + 2
b x +3 c x2 + 3x - 7
x
1
d 3x + 5 e 6x3 + 4 x - 8 f 3x2 - x +1
2
2 TECH-FREE For the polynomial P(x) = x5 - 3x4 - 5x + 4, find
a the degree of P(x) b the constant term c the coefficient of x4 d the coefficient of x

6 Nelson VICmaths Mathematical Methods 12 9780170448475

 3 TECH-FREE For the polynomial P(x) = (a + 1)x3 + (b - 7)x2 + c + 5, find values for a, b and c if P(x) has
degree 2, a leading coefficient of 3 and the constant term is -1.
1.1
4 WORKED EXAMPLE 2 TECH-FREE If f (x) = -3x3 - 4x2 + 5 and g (x) = x3 + 4x2, find
a f (x) + 2g(x) b f (x) - g(x) c f (x)g(x)

5 WORKED EXAMPLE 3 TECH-FREE

a Find the value of f (-2) if f (x) = x4 - x2 + 1.

⎛2⎞ 3
b Find f ⎜ ⎟ if f (x) = 2x - 5x + 4.
⎝3⎠
c Find g(x - 1) when g(x) = x2 + 2x + 3.
2
d Given f (t) = t + 2t + 1, find t when f (t) = 9.

6 Using CAS 1

a Given f (x) = x2 - 5x + 2, find

i f (0) ii f (-1)
3 2
b If h(x) = x - 2x - x + 6, find
i h(4) ii h(-2)

7 TECH-FREE If P(x) = 2x2 + kx - 3 and P(-2) = 0, find k.

8 TECH-FREE If f (x) = 4x3 + bx2 - 3x and P(-2) = 3P(1), find b.

9 WORKED EXAMPLE 4 The height, h metres, above ground level of a falling stone after t seconds, t ≥ 0,
2
is given by h(t) = -5t + 60.
a Find the initial height of the stone above ground level.
b How far above ground level is the stone after it has fallen 3 seconds?
c When will the stone hit the ground? Give the answer to one decimal place.

10 A natural stone bridge in Algeria displays an arched y

parabolic shape. Using the x-axis as the base and A
taking O as the origin, the equation of the curve
OAB is y = 2.5x - 0.75x2. All measurements are in metres.
a Calculate the length of OB, the span of the bridge. B
b How far above the ground is the point A, the highest O x

point on the curve?

Exam practice 80–100% 60–79% 0–59%

11 © VCAA 2020 1Q7a 85% TECH-FREE Consider the function f (x) = x2 + 3x + 5 and the point
(1 mark)
P(1, 0). Part of the graph of y = f (x) is shown below.
y

O x

Show that point P is not on the graph of y = f (x).

9780170448475 Chapter 1 | Polynomials 7

 12 © VCAA 2015 2AQ6 91% For the polynomial P(x) = x3 - ax2 - 4x + 4, P(3) = 10, the value of a is
A -3 B -1 C 1 D 3 E 10

13 © VCAA 2009 2AQ5 53% Let f : R → R, f (x) = x2.

Which one of the following is not true?
A f (xy) = f (x)f (y) B f (x) - f (-x) = 0 C f (2x) = 4f (x)
D f (x - y) = f (x) - f (y) E f (x + y) + f (x - y) = 2(f (x) + f (y))

14 © VCAA 2006 2BQ4ai 86% (1 mark)

A part of the track for Tim’s model train follows the curve y
C
passing through A, B, C, D, E and F. Tim has designed it by
putting axes on the drawing as shown. The track is made up B
of two curves, one to the left of the y-axis and the other to
the right. A
Supertrain
B is the point (0, 7).
F
The curve from B to F is part of the graph of −2 O D x
f (x) = px3 + qx2 + rx + s where p, q, r and s are
E
constants. Show that s = 7.

1.2 Equating coefficients

Video playlist
Equating
coefficients Equating coefficients
If two polynomial expressions are equal, then we can equate the coefficients of each corresponding
term on either side of the ‘=’ sign.
If P(x) = anxn + an-1xn-1 + an-2xn-2 + … + a1x1 + a0 and Q(x) = bnxn + bn-1xn-1 + bn-2xn-2 + … + b1x1 + b0
are equal for all values of x, then an = bn, an-1 = bn-1, an-2 = bn-2, and so on up to a0 = b0.

WORKED EXAMPLE 5 Equating coefficients

Let P(x) = 4x3 + 3x2 - 2x + m and Q(x) = 5x3 + mx2 - 2x + n.
3 2
p. 5 a Show that 3P(x) + 2Q(x) = 22x + (9 + 2m)x - 10x + 3m + 2n.
3 2
b If 3P(x) + 2Q(x) = 22x + 5x - 10x + 6, find the values of m and n for x ∈ R.

Steps Working
a 1 Evaluate 3P(x).  3(4x3 + 3x2 - 2x + m)
3P(x) =
= 12x3 + 9x2 - 6x + 3m
2 Evaluate 2Q(x).  2(5x3 + mx2 - 2x + n)
2Q(x) =
= 10x3 + 2mx2 - 4x + 2n
3 Evaluate 3P(x) + 2Q(x). 3P(x) + 2Q(x)
= 12x3 + 9x2 - 6x + 3m + 10x3 + 2mx2 - 4x + 2n
= 22x3 + (9 + 2m)x2 - 10x + 3m + 2n

8 Nelson VICmaths Mathematical Methods 12 9780170448475

 2
b 1 Equate the coefficients of the x term and 9 + 2m = 5
solve for m. 2m = -4
m = -2 1.2
2 Equate the constant terms. 3m + 2n = 6
3 Substitute m = -2 and solve for n. 3(-2) + 2n = 6
-6 + 2n = 6
2n = 12
n=6

EXERCISE 1.2 Equating coefficients ANSWERS p. 570

Recap

1 If f (x) = 2x3 + 3x2 - 3x - 2, f (1) is

A -2 B -1 C 0 D 1 E 2

2 TECH-FREE If P(x) = 2x3 + (k - 2)x2+ kx - 3 and P(-3) = 2, find k.

Mastery

3 TECH-FREE Find the values of a and b such that a(x + 2) + b(x + 3) = 18x + 8 for all values of x.

4 Find the values of A, B and C if 6x2 - 24x + 14 = A(x + B)2 + C for x ∈ R.

5 Find the values of m, n and p if 3x3 - 18x2 + 36x - 11 = m(x + n)3 + p for x ∈ R.

6 WORKED EXAMPLE 5 TECH-FREE Let V(x) = 6x3 + 2x2 - x + p and R(x) = 5x3 - px2 - 6x + 7k.
a Show that 2V(x) - 3R(x) = -3x3- (4 - 3p)x2 + 16x + 2p - 21k.
3 2
b If 2V(x) - 3R(x) = -3x - 10x + 16x - 25, find the values of p and k for x ∈ R.

Exam practice 80–100% 60–79% 0–59%

7 © VCAA 2020 2BQ1 (2 marks) y

2 2
Let f : R → R, f (x) = a(x + 2) (x - 2) , where a ∈ R. f
(0, 4)
Part of the graph of f is shown.

(−2, 0) O (2, 0) x

1
a 83% Show that a = . 1 mark
4
1 1
b 80% Express f (x) = (x + 2)2 (x − 2)2 in the form f (x) = x 4 + bx2 + c, 1 mark
4 4
where b and c are integers.

8 © VCAA 2014 2BQ5 (5 marks) Let f : R → R, f (x) = (x - 3)(x - 1)(x2 + 3) and

4
g : R → R, g(x) = x - 8x.
a 58% Express x4 - 8x in the form x(x - a)((x + b)2 + c). 2 marks

b 37% Describe the translation that maps the graph of y = f (x) onto the graph of y = g(x). 1 mark

c Find the values of d such that the graph of y = f (x + d) has

i 7% one positive x-axis intercept 1 mark

ii 19% two positive x-axis intercepts. 1 mark

9780170448475 Chapter 1 | Polynomials 9

 1.3 Dividing polynomials
Video playlist
Dividing There are several methods for performing the division of one polynomial by another of equal or lesser
polynomials
degree. Some methods are quicker or more efficient than others.

Division of a polynomial by a linear factor

Division statement
In general, if P(x) is divided by x - a, the quotient is denoted by Q(x) and the remainder is R, then
P(x) R
= Q(x) +
x −a x −a
It is usual to represent a polynomial division using this division statement:
P(x) = (x - a)Q(x) + R

Long division
WORKED EXAMPLE 6 Long division
Divide P(x) = 3x3 - 8x2 + 7x - 1 by d(x) = x - 2 and hence express P(x) in the form d(x) × Q(x) + R.
p. 6 Steps Working
1 Divide the highest power of x from (x - 2) into 3x2
3 2
the highest power of (3x - 8x + 7x - 1). )
x − 2 3x3 − 8x2 + 7x − 1
3 2
This is 3x ÷ x, which gives 3x . 3x3 − 6x2
Write this up the top in the x2 column. −2x2 + 7x
3 2
Work out how much of (3x - 8x ) has been
accounted for by doing (x - 2) × 3x2 = 3x3 - 6x2. Make sure each column has the same power of x.
3 2
Write this under the (3x - 8x ) and subtract to
work out the x2 remaining (-2x2).
Then bring down the + 7x.
2 x into -2x2 goes -2x times. 3x2 − 2x
Write the -2x in the x column, above the + 7x. )
x − 2 3x3 − 8x2 + 7x − 1
2
(x - 2) × (-2x) = -2x + 4x. Put this underneath 3x3 − 6x2
the -2x2 + 7x and subtract to get 3x. −2x2 + 7x
Bring down the - 1. −2x2 + 4x
3x − 1

10 Nelson VICmaths Mathematical Methods 12 9780170448475

 3 x goes into 3x three times. Put the 3 above 3x2 − 2x + 3
the - 1. )
x − 2 3x3 − 8x2 + 7x − 1
1.3
(x - 2) × 3 = 3x - 6. Put this underneath the 3x3 − 6x2
3x - 1 and subtract to get 5.
−2x2 + 7x
−2x2 + 4x
3x − 1
3x − 6
5
3 2
3x - 8x + 7x - 1 ÷ (x - 2)
= 3x2 - 2x + 3, remainder 5
4 Write the answer in the form 3x3 - 8x2 + 7x - 1
P(x) = d(x) × Q(x) + R. = (x - 2)(3x2 - 2x + 3) + 5

Exam hack
Make sure the polynomial is written in descending order. If any terms are missing, use a zero
to fill in the missing term (this will help with the spacing). For instance, if P(x) = 3x3 - 2x2 + 4
is divided by d(x) = x - 2, then the long division would be set up like this:

x – 2 3x 3 – 2x 2 + 0x + 4

Synthetic division
Synthetic division is an alternative and shorter method to long division for dividing by a linear factor
(x - a). It uses a grid of numbers in which the top row lists the coefficients of P(x).
Here is the above example performed using synthetic division.
Remember the question is to divide P(x) = 3x3 - 8x2 + 7x - 1 by d(x) = x - 2.

Steps Working
1 Set d(x) = 0 and solve for x. x-2=0
x=2
2 Place the solution to d(x) = 0 (2) in the top left-hand corner of the 2 3 −8 7 −1
first row, to the left of the separation line. Place the coefficients of
the terms in P(x) in the top row to the right of the separation line,
in order of their decreasing degree.
3 Bring the first coefficient, 3, down. 2 3 −8 7 −1
2 × 3 = 6 so place this underneath -8, and add to get -2. 6 −4 6
3 −2 3 5

4 The rest of the values in the second row are found by multiplying 2 3 −8 7 −1
each value in the bottom row by the 2 from (x - 2). The values in the 6 −4 6
bottom row are column totals, which make up the coefficients of the 3 −2 3 5
quotient, the last value being the remainder.
5 Write the answer in the form P(x) = d(x) × Q(x) + R. 3x3 - 8x2 + 7x - 1
= (x - 2)(3x2 - 2x + 3) + 5

9780170448475 Chapter 1 | Polynomials 11

 We can divide polynomials using CAS.

USING CAS 2 Division of polynomials

Given P(x) = 3x3 - 8x2 + 7x - 1 and d(x) = x - 2, express P(x) in the form d(x) × Q(x) + R.

TI-Nspire ClassPad

1 In a Calculator page, press menu > Algebra > 1 In Main, enter and highlight the polynomial
Fraction Tools > Proper Fraction. division.
2 Press ctrl + ÷ to insert the fraction template. 2 Tap Interactive > Transformation > Fraction
3 Enter the polynomial division as shown above. > propFrac.
4 Press enter. 3 In the dialogue box, tap OK.
5 The quotient will be displayed. 4 The quotient will be displayed.

5
The term means that after dividing the polynomial by x - 2, the remainder is 5.
x −2
Therefore, P(x) = (x - 2)(3x2 - 2x + 3) + 5.

Exam hack
The calculator presents the remainder (5) as a fraction over (x - 2) and in different positions.
So, when writing the answer, remember to change the order and write the remainder last.

Division by inspection
Division by inspection is useful to divide one polynomial by another polynomial of equal or lesser degree
by expressing the numerator in terms of the denominator.

WORKED EXAMPLE 7 Division by inspection

P(x) R
Given P(x) = x2 - 6x + 11 and d(x) = x - 2, express in the form Q(x) + .
p. 7 d(x) d(x)

Steps Working

1 To cancel with the denominator (x - 2), P(x) x 2 − 6x + 11

=
write the numerator x2 - 6x + 11 in the form d(x) x−2
(x - 2)(x + b) + c. (x − 2)(x − 4) + 3 -2 - 4 = -6,
=
x−2 -2 × (-4) = 8
(x − 2)(x − 4) 3
2 Split the expression into two fractions. = +
x−2 x−2
3
3 Simplify. =x−4+
x−2

12 Nelson VICmaths Mathematical Methods 12 9780170448475

Division of a polynomial by a non-linear factor
WORKED EXAMPLE 8 Division of a polynomial by a non-linear divisor 1.3
Divide P(x) = 4x3 - 5x2 + 2x - 6 by d(x) = 2x2 - 1 to find the quotient and remainder.
Steps Working
2
1 Divide the highest power of x from (2x - 1) 2x
into the highest power of (4x3 - 5x2 + 2x - 6). 2
) 3 2
2x − 1 4x − 5x + 2x − 6
3 2
This is 4x ÷ 2x , which gives 2x. 4x3 − 2x
Put this up the top in the x column. 2
−5x + 4x
Work out how much of (4x3 - 5x2) has been
accounted for by doing (2x2 - 1) × 2x = 4x3 - 2x. Make sure each column has the same power of x.
3 2
Put this under the (4x - 5x ) and subtract to
work out how many x2 are left.
Then bring down the - 6.
p. 8
5 5 5
2 2x2 into -5x2 goes − times. Put the − in the 2x −
2 2 2
units column, above the -6. )
2x2 − 1 4x3 − 5x2 + 2x − 6
⎛ 5⎞ 5
(2x 2 − 1) ⎜ − ⎟ = −5x 2 + 4x3 − 2x
⎝ 2⎠ 2 2
−5x + 4x − 6
Put this underneath the -5x2 + 4x - 6 and
5
17 −5x2 +
subtract to get 4x − . 2
2
17
4x −
2

5 17
3 Write the answer. Q(x) = 2x - , remainder = 4x -
2 2

EXERCISE 1.3 Dividing polynomials ANSWERS p. 570

Recap

1 P(x) = x3 + ax2 + bx - 9 equals zero at x = 1 and x = -3. The values of a and b are
A a = 1, b = -3 B a = -1, b = 3 C a = 5, b = 3
D a = -5, b = -3 E a = 0, b = 0

2 P(x) = x4 + ax2 - 4 equals zero at x = 2 and x = − 2. The value of a is

A -3 B -2 C 0 D 2 E 4

Mastery

3 WORKED EXAMPLE 6 TECH-FREE For the following, divide P(x) by d(x) and hence express P(x)
in the form d(x) × Q(x) + R.
a P(x) = x2 + 2x - 15, d(x) = x + 5 3 2
b P(x) = x - 5x + 3x - 2, d(x) = x - 2
c P(x) = 5x3 + 3x2 + 8x - 8, d(x) = 5x - 2 3 2
d P(x) = 4x + 5x + 10, d(x) = 2x - 1
e P(x) = x3 - 8, d(x) = x - 2

9780170448475 Chapter 1 | Polynomials 13

 4 Using CAS 2 Using long division, divide P(x) by d(x) and express P(x) in the form d(x) × Q(x) + R.
a P(x) = 5x - 13x3 + 21x2 + x + 10, d(x) = 5x - 3
4

4 3 2
b P(x) = 6x + 11x - 7x - 15x - 50, d(x) = 3x + 7

P(x) R
5 WORKED EXAMPLE 7 TECH-FREE For each division, express in the form Q(x) + .
d(x) d(x)
x +1 2x + 3 x 2 − 2x + 3 4x 2 − 5x + 4
a b c d
x−2 5x − 2 x−2 2x − 3

6 WORKED EXAMPLE 8 For each pair, divide the first polynomial by the second, stating the
TECH-FREE

quotient Q(x) and the remainder R in each case.

a x2 + 3x - 34, x2 - 3 3 2
b 4x - 2x + 3x - 1, x - 2
2

c 2x3 - 6x2 - 3x + 9, 2x2 + 1 3 2

d 3x + 5x + 6x - 6, 6x - 2
2

7 For each pair, divide the first polynomial by the second, stating the quotient Q(x) and the remainder
R in each case.
a 2x5 - 5x4 + 7x3 + 4x2 - 10x, x3 + 2 5 3 2
b 10x + x + 5x - 2x - 2, 5x - 2
3

x 6 + 2x 4 + 6x + 9 R
8 TECH-FREE Simplify 3
expressing the answer in the form of Q(x) + .
x +3 d(x)

1.4 The remainder and factor theorems

Video playlist
The factor
and remainder
The remainder theorem
theorems
When dividing P(x) by the linear divisor (x - a), we can find the remainder without the lengthy process of
Worksheets long division by substituting x = a into P(x).
The remainder
theorem
Let P(x) = (x - a)Q(x) + R, where R is the remainder.
Factorising
polynomials P(a) = (a - a)Q(a) + R
=0+R
=R
This result is called the remainder theorem.

The remainder theorem

If a polynomial P(x) is divided by x - a, the remainder is P(a).
⎛ b⎞
If a polynomial P(x) is divided by ax + b, the remainder is P ⎜ − ⎟ .
⎝ a⎠

From Worked example 6 on pages 10–11, we know that when P(x) = 3x3 - 8x2 + 7x - 1 is divided by x - 2,
the remainder is 5. We can use the remainder theorem to give the same result.
P(x) = 3x3 - 8x2 + 7x - 1
P(2) = 3(2)3 - 8(2)2 + 7(2) - 1
=3×8-8×4+7×2-1
=5

14 Nelson VICmaths Mathematical Methods 12 9780170448475

 WORKED EXAMPLE 9 Finding the remainder
Find the remainder when 2x3 - 3x2 + 4x - 1 is divided by 2x - 3.
1.4
Steps Working p. 9

1 Write down P(x). P(x) = 2x3 - 3x2 + 4x - 1

⎛3⎞ ⎛ 3 ⎞3 ⎛ 3 ⎞2 ⎛3⎞
2 The remainder when P(x) is divided by 2x - 3 is P ⎜ ⎟ = 2 ⎜ ⎟ − 3 ⎜ ⎟ + 4 ⎜ ⎟ − 1
⎝2⎠ ⎝2⎠ ⎝2⎠ ⎝2⎠
⎛3⎞ ⎛3⎞
P ⎜ ⎟. Evaluate P ⎜ ⎟. ⎛ 27 ⎞ ⎛9⎞
⎝2⎠ ⎝2⎠ =2×⎜ ⎟-3×⎜ ⎟+6-1
⎝8⎠ ⎝4⎠
=5
3 Write the answer. The remainder is 5.

WORKED EXAMPLE 10 Using the remainder theorem to find a term coefficient

Evaluate m if the remainder is 4 when dividing 2x4 + mx + 5 by x + 3.
Steps Working p. 10
4
1 Write down P(x). P(x) = 2x + mx + 5
2 The remainder when P(x) is divided by P(-3) = 2(-3)4 + m(-3) + 5
x + 3 is P(-3). = 2 × 81 - 3m + 5
= 167 - 3m
3 The remainder is 4. So, P(-3) = 4. 167 - 3m = 4
4 Solve the equation for m. -3m = 4 - 167
= -163
1
m = 54
3

WORKED EXAMPLE 11  
Using the remainder theorem to find unknowns
f (x) = x3 + ax2 + bx + 3, where a, b are constants.
a Given that when f (x) is divided by (x + 2) the remainder is 7, show that 2a - b = 6. p. 11

b Given also that when f (x) is divided by (x - 1) the remainder is 4, find the values of a and b and hence
determine the polynomial f (x).
Steps Working
a 1 Write down f (x). f (x) = x3 + ax2 + bx + 3
2 The remainder when f (x) is divided f (-2) = (-2)3 + a(-2)2 + b(-2) + 3
by x + 2 is f (-2). = -8 + 4a - 2b + 3
= 4a - 2b - 5
3 The remainder is 7. 4a - 2b - 5 = 7
So, f (-2) = 7.
4 Simplify the equation. 4a - 2b = 12
2a - b = 6

9780170448475 Chapter 1 | Polynomials 15

 b 1 The remainder when f (x) is divided by f (1) = (1)3 + a(1)2 + b(1) + 3
x - 1 is f (1). =1+a+b+3
=a+b+4
2 The remainder is 4. a+b+4=4
So, f (1) = 4. a+b=0
3 Set up a pair of simultaneous equations. 2a - b = 6 … [1]
a+b=0 … [2]
4 Solve for a and b using simultaneous equations. [1] + [2]: 3a = 6
a = 2
Substitute a = 2 into [2] for b:
2+b=0
b = -2
5 Write the answer. f (x) = x3 + 2x2 - 2x + 3

USING CAS 3 Finding the remainder of a polynomial

Find the remainder when -2x3 + 8x2 + 9x - 15 is divided by x + 4.

TI-Nspire

1 In a Calculator page, press menu > Algebra > To confirm the answer:
Polynomial Tools > Remainder of Polynomial. 1 Define the function f(x).
2 Enter the polynomials separated by a comma 2 Enter f(-4), which is the value of x
as shown above. when x + 4 = 0.
3 Press enter. 3 Press enter.
4 The remainder will be displayed. 4 The remainder will be displayed.

ClassPad

1 In Main, enter and highlight the two To confirm the answer:

expressions as a polynomial division as 1 Define the function f(x).
shown above.
2 Enter f(-4), which is the value of x
2 Tap Interactive > Transformation > Fraction > when x + 4 = 0.
propFrac.
3 Press EXE.
3 In the dialogue box, tap OK.
4 The remainder will be displayed.
4 The remainder is the numerator of the
fractional term, which is 205.
The remainder is 205.

16 Nelson VICmaths Mathematical Methods 12 9780170448475

The factor theorem
The factor theorem is a direct result of the remainder theorem. If a polynomial is divided by one of its
1.4
factors, then there is no remainder.

Factor theorem
• For a polynomial P(x), if P(a) = 0, then (x - a) is a factor of the polynomial.
• a is called a zero or a root of the polynomial.
⎛ b⎞
• For a polynomial P(x), if P ⎜ − ⎟ = 0, then (ax + b) is a factor of the polynomial.
⎝ a⎠
The converse of this theorem is also true.
• For a polynomial P(x), if (x - a) is a factor of the polynomial, then P(a) = 0.
⎛ b⎞
• For a polynomial P(x), if (ax + b) is a factor of the polynomial, then P ⎜ − ⎟ = 0.
⎝ a⎠

Factorising polynomials
Long division
WORKED EXAMPLE 12 Factorising polynomials using long division
Factorise f (x) = x3 + 3x2 - 4x - 12.
Steps Working p. 12

1 Write the polynomial. f (x) = x3 + 3x2 - 4x - 12

2 Try factors of 12 (i.e. ±1, ±2, ±3, ±4, ±6, ±12) until f (1) = (1)3 + 3(1)2 - 4(1) - 12
the remainder of 0 is found. = -12
≠0
So (x - 1) is not a factor.
f (-1) = (-1)3 + 3(-1)2 - 4(-1) - 12
= -6
≠0
So x - (-1) = (x + 1) is not a factor.
f (2) = (2)3 + 3(2)2 - 4(2) - 12
=0
So (x - 2) is a factor.
3 Use the process of polynomial long division to divide x2 + 5x + 6
x - 2 into f (x). )
x − 2 x3 + 3x2 − 4x − 12
x3 − 2x2
5x2 − 4x
5x2− 10x
6x − 12
6x − 12
0

4 Factorise x2 + 5x + 6. x2 + 5x + 6 = (x + 2)(x + 3)
5 Write the answer. x3 + 3x2 - 4x - 12 = (x - 2)(x + 2)(x + 3)

9780170448475 Chapter 1 | Polynomials 17

 Synthetic division
Factorising a polynomial using long division can be time-consuming. Factorising by synthetic division
can be quicker.

WORKED EXAMPLE 13 Factorising polynomials using synthetic division

Factorise f (x) = x4 - x3 - 7x2 + x + 6.
p. 13 Steps Working
1 Write the polynomial. f (x) = x4 - x3 - 7x2 + x + 6
2 Try factors of 12 (i.e. ±1, ±2, ±3, ±4, ±6, ±12) until the f (1) = 14 - 13 - 7(1)2 + 1 + 6
remainder of 0 is found. =1-1-7+1+6
=0
So (x - 1) is a factor.
3 The values in the second row are found by multiplying 1 1 −1 −7 1 6
each value in the bottom row by the 1 from (x - 1). The 1 0 −7 −6
values in the bottom row are column totals, which make 1 0 −7 −6 0
up the coefficients of the quotient, the last value being
the remainder. Note: The remainder is 0 which verifies
that (x − 1) is a factor.

4 Write the answer in the form P(x) = d(x) × Q(x) + R. (x - 1)(x3 + 0x2 -7x - 6)
5 Write down the quotient. Q(x) = x3 + 0x2 -7x - 6
6 To factorise the quotient, repeat the process by first finding Q(-1) = (-1)3 - 0(-1)2 - 7(-1)- 6
a linear factor of Q(x). Try factors of 6 (i.e. ±1, ±2, ±3, ±6) =-1+7-6
until the remainder of 0 is found. =0
So (x + 1) is a factor.
−1 1 0 −7 −6
−1 1 6
1 −1 −6 0
7 Write down the factorised form of P(x). P(x) = (x - 1)(x + 1)(x2 - x - 6)
8 Continue factorising with the quadratic polynomial. P(x) = (x - 1)(x + 1)(x - 3)(x + 2)

Equating coefficients
Factorising a polynomial using the method of equating coefficients can also be quicker than factorising
by long division.

WORKED EXAMPLE 14 Factorising polynomials by equating coefficients

Factorise f (x) = 3x3 + 4x2 - 13x + 6.
p. 14 Steps Working
1 Write the polynomial. f (x) = 3x3 + 4x2 - 13x + 6
2 Try factors of 6 (i.e. ±1, ±2, ±3, ±6). f (1) = 3(1)3 + 4(1)2 - 13(1) + 6
=0
So (x - 1) is a factor.
3 Write f (x) in the form of (x - a)Q(x), where Q(x) is 3x3 + 4x2 - 13x + 6 = (x - 1)(ax2 + bx + c)
a quadratic written in general form, and a, b and c are
constant coefficients.
4 Find a by equating coefficients of x3. 3x3 + 4x2 - 13x + 6 = (x - 1)(ax2 + bx + c)

x × ax2 = 3x3, therefore a = 3.

18 Nelson VICmaths Mathematical Methods 12 9780170448475

 5 Find c by equating the constant terms. 3x3 + 4x2 - 13x + 6 = (x - 1)(3x2 + bx + c)
-1 × c = 6, therefore c = -6.
1.4
6 Find b by equating coefficients of x2. 3x3 + 4x2 - 13x + 6 = (x - 1)(3x2 + bx + c)
Note: b can also be found by equating coefficients of x.
-1 × 3x2 + x × bx = -3x2 + bx2 = 4x2,
therefore - 3 + b = 4, so b = 7.
7 State the answer in the form P(x) = (x - a)Q(x). 3x3 + 4x2 - 13x + 6 = (x - 1)(3x2 + 7x - 6)
8 Factorise completely. = (x - 1)(3x - 2)(x + 3)

There are several ways to factorise a polynomial: long division, synthetic division and the method
of equating coefficients. You will not be expected to factorise a polynomial using a specific technique.
You may choose to factorise a polynomial the way that suits you.

USING CAS 4 Finding factors of polynomials

Factorise P(x) = x3 - 8x2 + 19x - 12.

TI-Nspire ClassPad

1 In a Calculator page, press menu > Algebra > 1 In Main, enter and highlight the polynomial.
Factor. 2 Tap Interactive > Transformation > factor >
2 Enter the polynomial as shown above. factor.
3 Press enter. 3 In the dialogue box, tap OK.
4 The factors will be displayed. 4 The factors will be displayed.
The factors are (x - 4), (x - 3) and (x - 1).

USING CAS 5 Finding the real factors of polynomials

Factorise P(x) = x3 + 2x2 - 18x - 36.

TI-Nspire ClassPad

1 Press menu > Algebra > Factor. 1 Enter and highlight the polynomial.
2 Enter the polynomial followed by ,x as shown 2 Tap Interactive > Transformation > factor
above. > rFactor. Note that rfactor is used for
3 Press enter. RootFactor using surds.
4 The real factors will be displayed. 3 In the dialogue box, tap OK.
4 The real factors will be displayed.
The factors are (x + 2), (x − 3 2) and (x + 3 2).

9780170448475 Chapter 1 | Polynomials 19

 Sum and difference of two cubes
Recall that when factorising a quadratic binomial of the form of a difference of perfect squares, that
is a2 - b2, the result is (a - b)(a + b). The sum of two perfect squares, a2 + b2, does not factorise over the set
of real numbers. Now we will extend our factorising skills to factorising both the difference and the sum
of two perfect cubes. The ‘sum of two cubes’ and the ‘difference of two cubes’ are two special formulas we
can use to factorise some cubic polynomials.

Sum and differences of two cubes

Sum of two cubes
a3 + b3 = (a + b)(a2 - ab + b2)
Difference of two cubes
a3 - b3 = (a - b)(a2 + ab + b2)

Exam hack
When trying to remember these patterns, remember that the first binomial term in the
factorised form in each pattern keeps the same sign as the sign between the perfect cubes.
The sign separating the first and second terms of the trinomial is the opposite of the sign
between the perfect cubes, and the last sign in the trinomial is always positive.
a3 ± b3 = (a [same sign] b)(a2 [opposite sign] ab + b2)

WORKED EXAMPLE 15 Factorising using the sum and differences of two cubes
Factorise each expression.
3 3 3
p. 15 a x - 8y b 9(x + 2) + 9
Steps Working
a 1 Recognise the difference of two cubes. x3 - 8y3 = x3 - (2y)3
2 Use the formula a3 - b3 = (a - b)(a2 + ab + b2), (x - 2y)(x2 + 2xy + 4y2)
where a = x and b = 2y.
b 1 Take out the highest common factor of 9. 9(x + 2)3 + 9 = 9[(x + 2)3 + 1]
2 Recognise the sum of two cubes. = 9[(x + 2)3 + 13]
3 Use the formula a3 + b3 = (a + b)(a2 - ab + b2), = 9(x + 2 + 1)[(x + 2)2 - 1(x + 2) + 12]
where a = x + 2 and b = 1.
4 Simplify. = 9(x + 3)(x2 + 4x + 4 - x - 2 + 1)
= 9(x + 3)(x2 + 3x + 3)

Exam hack
When we factorise using the sum or difference of two cubes, the expression in the
second pair of brackets doesn’t factorise further. This can be shown by working out
the discriminant, Δ, and noting that it is always less than 0. In part b of the above
example, the 2nd bracket is x2 + 3x + 3.
Δ = b2 - 4ac
= (3)2 - 4(1)(3)
= -3
<0

20 Nelson VICmaths Mathematical Methods 12 9780170448475

 EXERCISE 1.4 The remainder and factor theorems ANSWERS p. 570

Recap
1.4
1 TECH-FREE Divide 2x3 - 3x2 + 5x + 3 by x + 1.

2 TECH-FREE Let P(x) = 2x4- 3x3 - 60x + 1 and d(x) = x - 4. Divide P(x) by d(x) as fully as possible.
Express the answer in the form P(x) = d(x) × Q(x) + R(x).

Mastery

3 WORKED EXAMPLE 9 TECH-FREE Find the remainder for each division.

3 2 2
a (x - 2x + x + 5) ÷ (x - 4) b (x + 5x + 3) ÷ (x + 2)
c (x3 + 7x + 1) ÷ (3x - 1) 3 2
d (5x + 3x + x - 9) ÷ (4x - 3)
e (x4 - 2x3 + 3x2 - x - 2) ÷ (5x + 2) f (4x7 + 5x3 - 3x - 6) ÷ (2x + 3)

4 Using CAS 3 Find the remainder for each division.

3 2 3 2
a (x - 2x + 3x + 11) ÷ (x - 1) b (x + 7x + 3) ÷ (x + 2)
c (2x3 - 4x - 1) ÷ (x + 3) 5 2
d (3x + 2x - x + 4) ÷ (5x + 1)
e (5x3 + 2x2 + 2x - 9) ÷ (2x - 1) f (x4 - x3 + 3x2 - x - 1) ÷ (7x + 2)

5 WORKED EXAMPLE 10 TECH-FREE Find the value of k given that

2
a the remainder is 3 when 5x - 10x + k is divided by x - 1.
3 2
b the remainder is -14 when x - (k - 1)x + 5kx + 4 is divided by x + 2.
c the remainder is -10 when (k - 2)x3 - 3kx2 + kx + 9 is divided by 4x + 3.

6 Given that the polynomials ax3 + 4x2 + 3x - 4 and x3 - 4x + a leave the same remainder when divided
by (x - 3), find the value of a.

7 WORKED EXAMPLE 11

a When f (x) = -2x3 + ax2 + bx - 20, where a, b are constants, is divided by (x + 3), the remainder is 8.
Show that 9a - 3b = -26.
b If f (x) is exactly divided by (x - 2), find the values of a and b and hence determine the polynomial f (x).

8 The remainder is 5 when P(x) = ax3 - 4bx2 + x - 4 is divided by x - 3, and the remainder is 2 when
P(x) is divided by x + 1. Find the values of a and b.

9 WORKED EXAMPLE 12 TECH-FREE Factorise each polynomial using any method.

3 2 3 2
a f (x) = x + 4x - 7x - 10 b f (x) = x + 2x - 41x - 42
c f (x) = 6x3 - 5x2 - 12x - 4 3
d f (x) = -9x - 9x + 25x + 25
2

10 WORKED EXAMPLE 13 TECH-FREE Factorise each polynomial.

3 2 3 2
a f (x) = x + 7x + 15x + 9 b f (x) = −2x + 15x − 22x − 15
c f (x) = 6x3 - 5x2 - 12x - 4 4 3
d f (x) = 2x - 3x - 12x + 7x + 6
2

9780170448475 Chapter 1 | Polynomials 21

 11 WORKED EXAMPLE 14 TECH-FREE Factorise each polynomial.
3 2 3 2
a f (x) = 2x + x - 22x + 24 b f (x) = -5x + 26x - 35x + 6 c f (x) = -30 + x - x3 + 6x2

12 Using CAS 4 Factorise each polynomial.

a f (x) = 6x + 11x2 - 46x + 24
3 3 2
b f (x) = 2x - 11x - x + 30
c f (x) = x3 - 5x2 - x + 5 3 2
d f (x) = x - 9x + 26x - 24

13 Using CAS 5 Factorise each polynomial.

a f (x) = 2x + x2 - 13x + 6
3 3 2
b f (x) = x + 2x - x - 2

14 WORKED EXAMPLE 15 TECH-FREE Factorise each polynomial.

a x3 + 27 b 1-x
3
c 1000 + x3
x3
d − 27 e y3 + (3 + x)3 f x6 - y6
8

Exam practice 80–100% 60–79% 0–59%

15 © VCAA 2015 2AQ6 91% For the polynomial P(x) = x3 - ax2 - 4x + 4, P(3) = 10, the value of a is
A -3 B -1 C 1 D 3 E 10

16 © VCAA 2011 2AQ3 64% If x + a is a factor of 4x3 - 13x2 - ax, where a ∈ R\{0}, then the value of a is
A -4 B -3 C -1 D 1 E 2

17 © VCAA 2015 2AQ17 60%A graph with rule f (x) = x3 - 3x2 + c, where c is a real number, has three
distinct x-intercepts. The set of all possible values of c is
+
A R B R C {0, 4} D (0, 4) E (-∞, 4)

18 © VCAA 2013 2AQ3 59% If x + a is a factor of 7x3 + 9x2 - 5ax, where a ∈ R\{0}, then the value of a is
A -4 B -2 C -1 D 1 E 2

19 © VCAA 2019N 2AQ3 If x + a is a factor of 8x3 - 14x2 - a2x, where a ∈ R\{0}, then the value of a is
A 7 B 4 C 1 D -2 E -1

20 © VCAA 2020 2AQ2 Let p(x) = x3 - 2ax2 + x - 1, where a ∈ R. When p is divided by x + 2, the
56%

remainder is 5. The value of a is

7 1 3
A 2 B − C D − E -2
4 2 2

22 Nelson VICmaths Mathematical Methods 12 9780170448475

 1.5 Solving polynomial equations
1.5
An equation such as x3 + 3x + 5 = 0 is not easily solved. In fact, only a small proportion of cubic and higher
equations can be solved easily by using the factor theorem.
We use the null factor law to solve cubic and quartic equations, as we do with quadratic equations.

Null factor law for cubic equations

If abc = 0, then at least one of a = 0, b = 0, c = 0 is true.
If P(x) = (x - a)(x - b)(x - c) = 0, then the solutions are x = a, x = b, x = c.
This can be extended to any product of factors.

Solving cubic equations

A cubic equation has the standard form ax3 + bx2 + cx + d = 0.
Exam hack Video playlist
6 Solving
The equation x2 + 4x - 1 = is a cubic, although it is not written polynomial
x Always look for a common equations

in the standard form. We need to multiply through by x and then factor, a perfect cube, the sum or
subtract 6 from both sides, giving us x3 + 4x2 - x - 6 = 0. difference of cubes before trying
other factorisation methods for
cubic equations.

WORKED EXAMPLE 16 Solving equations involving perfect cubes

Solve 2(x - 1)3 - 250 = 0.
p. 16
Steps Working
1 Add 250 to both sides. 2(x - 1)3 = 250
2 Divide both sides by 2. (x - 1)3 = 125
3 Take the cube root of both sides. x-1=5
4 Add 1 to both sides. x=6

USING CAS 6 Solving polynomial equations

Solve 2x3 - 3x2 - 39x + 20 = 0.

TI-Nspire ClassPad

1 In a Calculator page, press menu > Algebra > 1 In Main, set the mode to Standard.
Solve. 2 Enter and highlight the equation.
2 Enter the equation followed by ,x as shown 3 Tap Interactive > Equation/Inequality > solve.
above.
4 In the dialogue box, tap OK.
3 Press enter.
5 The solutions will be displayed.
4 The solutions will be displayed.
1
The solutions are x = -4 or x = or x = 5.
2
9780170448475 Chapter 1 | Polynomials 23
 Solving quartic equations
WORKED EXAMPLE 17 Solving quartic equations
Solve 6x4 + 15x3 - 12x2 - 9x = 0.
p. 17 Steps Working
1 Take 3x out as a common factor. 3x(2x3 + 5x2 - 4x - 3) = 0
2 Use the cubic polynomial and try factors of 3 P(x) = 2x3 + 5x2 - 4x - 3
(i.e. ±1, ±2, ±3). P(1) = 2(1)3 + 5(1)2 - 4(1) - 3
=0
x - 1 is a factor of P(x).
3 Method 1: Using long division 2x2 + 7x + 3
Divide P(x) by x - 1 using long division. )
x − 1 2x3 + 5x2 − 4x − 3
2x3 − 2x2
7x2 − 4x
7x2 − 7x
3x − 3
3x − 3
0

Method 2: Using synthetic division 1 2 5 −4 −3

Divide P(x) by x - 1 using synthetic division. 2 7 3
2 7 3 0

Note: The remainder is 0, which verifies that

(x − 1) is a factor.

Method 3: By equating coefficients 2x3 + 5x2 - 4x - 3 = (x - 1)(ax2 + bx + c)

Divide P(x) by x - 1 by equating coefficients. a=2 b-a=5 -c = -3
Write P(x) in the form of (x - a)Q(x), where Q(x) b-2=5 c=3
is a quadratic written in general form ax2 + bx + c, b=7
and a, b and c are constant coefficients. a = 2, b = 7, c = 3
4 State the polynomial as a product of the factors 3x(2x3 + 5x2 - 4x - 3) = 0
found so far. 3x(x - 1)(2x2 + 7x + 3) = 0
5 Factorise the quadratic. 3x(x - 1)(2x + 1)(x + 3) = 0
6 Use the null factor law. 3x = 0 or x - 1 = 0 or 2x + 1 = 0 or x + 3 = 0
1
7 Solve the equation. x = 0 or x = 1 or x = − or x = -3
2

24 Nelson VICmaths Mathematical Methods 12 9780170448475

 EXERCISE 1.5 Solving polynomial equations ANSWERS p. 571

Recap
1.5
1 If ax3 + 2x2 + 5 is exactly divisible by x + 1, the value of a is
A -7 B -1 C 1 D 3 E 7

2 The factors of x3 - 13x + 12 are

A (x + 3)(x - 1)(x + 4) B (x - 3)(x + 1)(x - 4) C (x + 3)(x - 1)(x - 4)
D (x - 3)(x + 1)(x + 4) E (x - 3)(x - 1)(x + 4)

Mastery

3 WORKED EXAMPLE 16 TECH-FREE Solve each equation for x.

a 3(x - 4)3 - 24 = 0 3
b 3(x + 5) + 81 = 0
c -2(x - 2)3 - 2 = 0 d (3x - 2) - 8 = 0
3

4 Using CAS 6 Solve each equation for x.

3 2 3 2
a 8x - 12x + 6x - 1 = 0 b 2x + x - 15x = 0
c -3x3 + 39x - 36 = 0 3 2
d -x + 2x + 9x - 18 = 0

5 WORKED EXAMPLE 17 TECH-FREE Solve each equation for x.

4 3 2
a x(x + 2)(x - 3)(x - 9) = 0 b -x + 2x + 3x = 0
c x4 - 3x3 - 4x2 + 12x = 0 4 3
d x + 3x + 2x = 0
2

Exam practice 80–100% 60–79% 0–59%

6 © VCAA 2005 non-CAS 1Q6 TECH-FREE (3 marks) y

Part of the graph of the curve with equation

6
y = x3 - 2x2 - 5x + 6 is shown.

O x

a 73% Write the equation in the form y = (x + 2)(x2 + bx + c). 1 mark

b 72% Hence, by factorising, find the exact values of the x-intercepts. 2 marks

7 © VCAA 2013 1Q9a 50% TECH-FREE (1 mark) y

9
The graph of f (x) = (x - 1)2 - 2, x ∈ [-2, 2], is shown. 8
The graph intersects the x-axis where x = a. 7
6
Find the value of a.
5
4
3
2
1
a
−2 −1 O 1 2 3 x
−1
−2

9780170448475 Chapter 1 | Polynomials 25

 8 © VCAA 2003 1Q20 61% Let p(x) = (x2 + a)(x + b)(x - c), where a, b and c are three distinct positive
real numbers.
The number of real solutions to the equation p(x) = 0 is exactly
A 0 B 1 C 2 D 3 E 4

9 © VCAA 2011 2AQ18 52% The equation x3 - 9x2 + 15x + w = 0 has only one solution
for x when
A -7 < w < 25 B w ≤ -7 C w ≥ 25
D w < -7 or w > 25 E w>1

10 © VCAA 2018N 2AQ5 A set of three numbers that could be the solutions of x3 + ax2 + 16x + 84 = 0 is
A {3, 4, 7} B {-4, -3, 7} C {-2, -1, 21} D {-2, 6, 7} E {2, 6, 7}

11 © VCAA 2006 2BQ4c 64% (2 marks) A part of the y

C
track for Tim’s model train follows the curve passing
through A, B, C, D, E and F as shown. B
The curve from B to F is part of the graph of
f (x) = 0.25x3 - 2.5x2 + 4.25x + 7. A
Supertrain
Find the exact coordinates of D and F.
F
−2 O D x

1.6 Graphing polynomial functions

Video playlist
Graphing
polynomial
The cubic function
functions
A cubic function has the general form y = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d, where the sign of the
Worksheets leading coefficient, a, shows the direction of the graph, and the constant term, d,
Graphing
cubics shows its y-intercept.
Polynomials
review • If the leading coefficient is positive, the graph of the cubic function starts at the
Sketching bottom and finishes at the top; that is, if a > 0, y → −∞ as x → −∞, and y → +∞
curves
as x → +∞.
Polynomial
a>0
graphs

• If the leading coefficient is negative, the graph of the cubic function starts at the
top and finishes at the bottom; that is, if a < 0, y → +∞ as x → −∞, and y → −∞
as x → +∞.
a<0

26 Nelson VICmaths Mathematical Methods 12 9780170448475

Some cubic functions can also be written in the form y = a(x - h)3 + k, whose graph is the graph of the
simple cubic function y = ax3 translated h units to the right and k units up, so that its centre (the point
of inflection) is shifted to point (h, k). 1.6

WORKED EXAMPLE 18 Sketching a cubic function of the form y = a(x - h)3 + k

Sketch the graph of y = (x + 2)3 - 1.
Steps Working
3 3
1 Compare y = (x + 2) - 1 with y = x . y = (x + 2)3 - 1 is y = x3 translated 2 units left and
1 unit down. Its new centre (stationary point of
inflection) is (-2, -1).
2 Find the x-intercept(s). Substitute y = 0:
0 = (x + 2)3 - 1
1 = (x + 2)3
3
1 =x+2
x+2=1
x = -1 p. 18

3 Find the y-intercept. Substitute x = 0:

y = (0 + 2)3 - 1 = 7
4 Sketch the graph. It will have the same shape y
3 7
as y = x .

y = (x + 2)3 − 1

(−1, 0)
x
(−2, −1)

A repeated factor in a polynomial is a factor raised to a power. For example, in the polynomial
P(x) = x(x − 1)2(x + 2)(x − 4)3, the factors (x − 1) and (x − 4) are repeated.
If a cubic function can be factorised into the form y = a(x − b)(x − c)(x − d), then b, c and d are its
x-intercepts. We can use our knowledge of repeated factors to decide if the graph crosses the axis, has
a turning point on the axis, or has a stationary point of inflection on the axis, at each of the x-intercepts.

9780170448475 Chapter 1 | Polynomials 27

 Example Behaviour of x-intercept at (1, 0) Graph
y = (x − 1)(x − 3)(x − 5) crosses the axis y
4
(x - 1) is a single/linear factor.
2

(1, 0) (3, 0) (5, 0)

0 2 4 6 x

−2

−4

−6

y = (x − 1)2(x − 3) turning point y

(x - 1)2 is a double factor.

(1, 0) (3, 0)
0 5 x

(0, −3)

−5

y = (x − 1)3 stationary point of inflection y

(x - 1)3 is a triple factor. 5

−5 0 (1, 0) 5 x

−5

WORKED EXAMPLE 19 Sketching a cubic function of the form y = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d

Sketch the graph of y = -x3 + x2 + 2x, showing the coordinates of all intercepts.
p. 19 Steps Working
3 2
1 Factorise y = -x + x + 2x.  -x3 + x2 + 2x
y=
= -x(x2 - x - 2)
= -x(x - 2)(x + 1)
2 Find the x-intercepts. Substitute y = 0:
0 = -x(x - 2)(x + 1)
x = 0, 2, -1
3 Find the y-intercept. Substitute x = 0:
y = -0(0 - 2)(0 + 1) = 0

28 Nelson VICmaths Mathematical Methods 12 9780170448475

 4 Determine the direction of the graph. For y = -x3 + x2 + 2x, the leading coefficient a = -1 < 0,
so the graph points down at the right.
5 Sketch the graph. y 1.6

2
−1 0 x

y = −x3 + x2 + 2x

The quartic function

A quartic function has the general form y = ax4 + bx3 + cx2 + dx + e,
where the sign of the leading coefficient, a, shows the direction of
the graph, and the constant term, e, shows its y-intercept.

a>0 a<0

Some quartic functions can also be written in the form

y = a(x - h)4 + k. Their graph is the graph of the simple
quartic function y = ax4 translated h units to the right
and k units up, so that its vertex is shifted to point (h, k).

(h, k)

If a quartic function can be factorised into the form y

y = a(x - b)(x - c)(x - d)(x - e), then b, c, d and e are its
x-intercepts. If one of the factors is a double factor, then the
x-intercept ‘touches’ the x-axis and is a vertex. If one of the x
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3
factors is a triple factor, then the x-intercept is a stationary
point of inflection. For example, y = -(x + 2)3(x - 3) is flat
at the x-axis at x = -2.

Polynomials of higher degrees

A polynomial function in general form can be written as:
y = anxn + an-1xn−1 + an-2xn−2 + … + a1x1 + a0
Where the function begins and ends depends on whether the degree, n, is odd or even, and whether the
coefficient of the leading term, an, is positive or negative.

Sign of leading coefficient, an Odd degree Even degree

an > 0 (positive) y → −∞ as x → −∞, and y → +∞ as x → −∞, and
y → +∞ as x → +∞ y → +∞ as x → +∞
(starts at bottom, ends at top) (starts at top, ends at top, points up)
an < 0 (negative) y → +∞ as x → −∞, and y → −∞ as x → −∞, and
y → −∞ as x → +∞ y → −∞ as x → +∞
(starts at top, ends at bottom) (starts at bottom, ends at bottom,
points down)

9780170448475 Chapter 1 | Polynomials 29

 Due to the properties above, we can deduce some behaviours of polynomials of odd or even degree.
Polynomials of odd degree (n)
• have at least one x-intercept (up to n)
• have from 0 to (n − 1) stationary points
• have domain R, range R.
Polynomials of even degree (n)
• can have no x-intercepts (up to n)
• have from 1 to (n − 1) stationary points
• have domain R, range [min, ∞) if an is positive or (−∞, max] if an is negative.

Example Behaviour of x-intercept at (1, 0) Graph

y = (x − 1)(x − 2)(x +3)(x + 1) crosses the axis y

5
(−1, 0) (1, 0)

(−3, 0) 0 (2, 0) 10 x

−5

−10

y = x(x − 1)6(6x + 3)(x - 2) turning point y

6
(x - 1) is a repeated factor 4
of even power.
2
(0, 0)
(−0.5, 0) (2, 0)
−2 0 (1, 0) 2 4 x

−2

y = -2(x − 1)5(x - 3)(x + 1) stationary point of inflection y

5
(x - 1) is a repeated factor
5
of odd power.
(−1, 0) (3, 0)
0 x
−5 5
Note: This graph is very steep, (1, 0)
−5
with a maximum point at
(2.7, 31.5) and a minimum
point at (-0.7, -31.5). −10

30 Nelson VICmaths Mathematical Methods 12 9780170448475

 WORKED EXAMPLE 20 Sketching a quartic function
Sketch the graph of y = x4 - 9x2, showing all intercepts.
1.6
Steps Working
1 Factorise y = x4 - 9x2. y = x4 - 9x2
= x2(x2 - 9)
= x2(x - 3)(x + 3)
2 Find the x-intercepts. Substitute y = 0:
0 = x2(x - 3)(x + 3)
x = 0, 3, -3
3 Find the y-intercept. Substitute x = 0:
y=0
4 Determine the direction of the graph. For y = x4 - 9x2, the leading coefficient a = 1 > 0,
so the graph points up as x approaches infinity.
x2 is a double factor, so the graph will touch the
p. 20
x-axis at x = 0.
5 Sketch the graph. y

y = x4 − 9x2

−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 x

WORKED EXAMPLE 21 Sketching a polynomial of a higher power

For f (x) = x3(x + 2)4(x - 1)5 state the leading term, the zeros and hence sketch the graph.
Steps Working p. 21

1 State the leading term. x3 × x4 × x5 = x12

2 State the zeros (x-intercepts). zeros: (0, 0), (-2, 0), (1, 0)
3 Find the y-intercept. Substitute x = 0:
y = 03(0 + 2)4(0 - 1)5
y=0
4 Determine the direction of the graph. For f (x) = x3(x + 2)4(x - 1)5, the leading coefficient
a = 1 > 0, so the graph points up.
(x + 2)4 is an even factor, so the graph will touch the
x-axis at x = -2.
x3 and (x - 1)5 are odd factors, so the graph has
points of inflection on the x-axis at x = 0 and x = 1.
5 Sketch the graph. y

−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 x

9780170448475 Chapter 1 | Polynomials 31

 WORKED EXAMPLE 22 Determining the rule of a polynomial function from a graph
The rule for the function with the graph shown y

p. 22 is of the form y = a(x - b)4 + c.

Find the values of a, b and c.
9
Hence, state the equation of the function.
(1, 7)
0 x

Steps Working
1 Using the turning point, find the value of b and c. Turning point = (1, 7)
Therefore b = 1 and c = 7.
2 Substitute (0, 9) into the general equation. y = a(x - 1)4 + 7
9 = a(0 - 1)4 + 7
Therefore a = 2.
3 Write the equation of the function. y = 2(x - 1)4 + 7

WORKED EXAMPLE 23 Modelling problem

Jeannie wishes to construct a cylinder closed at
V
p. 23 both ends. The figure shows the graph of a cubic 800
polynomial function V(r) used to approximate the
volume of the cylinder as a function of the radius,
when the cylinder is constructed using 150p cm2 400
of material.
a What is the maximum volume that Jeannie’s
cylinder can enclose and what radius gives the −10 −5 0 5 10 r
maximum volume?
b What are the zeros of the function V(r)?
−400
c Find an equation to represent this function.
d State the domain for this model.
−800

Steps Working
a Look for the maximum on the graph. Maximum is (5, 800), so
maximum volume = 800 cm3 and radius = 5 cm.
b State the zeros (x-intercepts). Zeros: x = -9, 0, 9
c 1 Write a factorised general model for this V(r) = ar(r + 9)(r - 9)
cubic function in terms of r.
2 Find the constant ‘a’ using another point, 800 = a(5)(5 + 9)(5 - 9)
say (5, 800). = a(5)(14)(- 4)
= -280a
800
=a
−280
20
a=−
7
20
Therefore, V(r) = − r(r + 9)(r − 9).
7
d Restrict the domain so that the radius and r ∈ (0, 9)
volume are positive.

32 Nelson VICmaths Mathematical Methods 12 9780170448475

 VCE QUESTION ANALYSIS

© VCAA 2014 2BQ5a-e 2014 Examination 2 Section B Question 5 (9 marks) 1.6

Let f : R → R, f (x) = (x − 3)(x − 1)(x2 + 3) and g : R → R, g(x) = x4 − 8x.

4 2
a Express x - 8x in the form x(x − a)((x + b) + c). 2 marks

b Describe the translation that maps the graph of y = f (x) onto the graph of y = g(x). 1 mark

c Find the values of d such that the graph of y = f (x + d) has

i one positive x-axis intercept 1 mark

ii two positive x-axis intercepts. 1 mark

d Find the value of n for which the equation g(x) = n has one solution. 1 mark

e At the point (u, g(u)), the gradient of y = g(x) is m and at the point (v, g(v)),
the gradient is -m, where m is a positive real number.
3 3
i Find the value of u + v . 2 marks

ii Find u and v if u + v = 1. 1 mark

Video
VCE question
Reading the question analysis:
Polynomials
• This question relies on understanding graphs of polynomials and their transformations.
• The domain of f (x) and g(x) is all real values.
• Take note of the formulas required, which questions will require working to be shown, and the
specified accuracy of answers.
• Appreciate, in the context of the question, the significance of key phrases such as values,
positive, translation, equation, real number and gradient.

Thinking about the question

• The algebraic manipulations become more complex as you progress through the question.
• Many of the questions are 1-mark questions. These questions require no working out, so try
to use technology to answer them.
• Even if you cannot answer some parts of the question, there are often other sections of the
question that are not directly linked and you may be able to do these.
• Define any given function on your CAS at the start of the question. You can use this defined
function to calculate values, solve equations, and graph the functions as well as their
transformations.

Worked solution (✓ = 1 mark)

4 3
a x − 8x = x(x − 8)
= x(x − 2)(x2 + 2x + 4) ✓
= x(x − 2)(x2 + 2x + 1 + 3)
= x(x − 2)((x + 1)2 + 3) ✓

TI-Nspire ClassPad

9780170448475 Chapter 1 | Polynomials 33

 2 2
b x(x − 2)((x + 1) + 3) = (x + 1 − 1)(x + 1 − 3)((x + 1) + 3)
The translation is x → x + 1, which is a translation of 1 to the left. ✓
c f (x + d) is a translation of f (x) d units left. y
f (x) = (x - 3)(x - 1)(x2 + 3) has x-intercepts
at 1 and 3, both positive.
i For f (x + d) to have one positive x-intercept, O 1 3 x
the translation of f (x) must be 1 unit left
(0 and 2), more than 1 unit left, but not
3 units left (-2 and 0).
d ≥ 1 and d < 3.

1≤d<3 ✓

ii For f (x + d) to have two positive x-intercepts,
the translation of f (x) must be less than 1 unit left
(0 and 2), or any units right.
So d < 1. ✓
or
f (x + d) = (x + d - 3)(x + d - 1)((x + d)2 + 3) has x-intercepts at 3 - d and 1 - d.
3 - d > 0 (is positive) when d < 3.
1 - d > 0 (is positive) when d < 1.
Both are positive when d < 1.
Only one (3 - d) is positive when 1 ≤ d < 3.
(Otherwise, neither are positive.)
i For f (x + d) to have one positive x-intercept, 1 ≤ d < 3. ✓
ii For f (x + d) to have two positive x-intercepts, d < 1. ✓

d g(x) is a polynomial of degree 4 with two x-intercepts and concave up.

It has one minimum point (vertex).
So g(x) and y = n (a horizontal line) have 2, 1 or 0 intersections depending on the value of n.
They have one intersection only at the minimum, when g(x) = n.
y
100

50

−2 −1 O 1 2 3 x

Find the minimum value:

g(x) = x4 - 8x
g ʹ(x) = 4x3 - 8 = 0

x= 32
g( 3 2 ) = 2 3 2 − 8 3 2 = −6 3 2
Thus g(x) = n has one solution when n = −6 3 2 . ✓

34 Nelson VICmaths Mathematical Methods 12 9780170448475

 TI-Nspire ClassPad
1.6

3
e gʹ(x) = 4x − 8
4u3 − 8 = m, 4v3 − 8 = −m
3 3
i u = 2 + 0.25m, v = 2 − 0.25m ✓
so u + v = 4. ✓
3 3

ii u + v = 1 so v = 1 − u
u3 + (1 − u)3 = 4
u3 + 1 − 3u + 3u2 − u3 = 4
3u2 − 3u – 3 = 0
u2 − u − 1 = 0
1± 1+ 4 1+ 5
Thus u = = (positive because m > 0 implies the graph is increasing at x = u).
2 2
1+ 5
v = 1 −
2
1− 5
= ✓
2
1+ 5 1− 5
u=
and v =
2 2

9780170448475 Chapter 1 | Polynomials 35

 Student performance 80–100% 60–79% 0–59%

a Some students tried to factorise by hand and obtained two correct linear factors; but some
58%

obtained an incorrect quadratic factor such as x(x - 2)(x2 - 2x + 4). Some students used their
technology to factorise appropriately.
b 37%Some students did not make the connection between parts a and b. Other students described
the translation as one unit in the positive direction of the x-axis.
c i 7% Not answered well. Common incorrect errors were (1, 3) and 1 < d < 3.
ii 19% Incorrect notation such as (1, -∞) was used by some students.
d 17% An exact answer was required. Some students gave only the x value, and omitted the value of n.
e i 28% Many students were unable to set up the two equations. Those who could set up the
equations were able to answer the question correctly.
ii 10% Some students did not give exact answers as required. Many students gave two solutions
when only one was needed since m > 0.

EXERCISE 1.6 Graphing polynomial functions ANSWERS p. 571

Recap

1 If (x + 1)(2x + 1)(x - 3) = 0 then

1 1 1
A x= or 1 or 3 B x= or -1 or -3 C x=− or 1 or -3
2 2 2
1 1
D x= or -1 or 3 E x=− or -1 or 3
2 2

2 The complete set of linear factors of x4 - 4x2 is

2 2
A x , x - 2, x + 2 B x, x, x -2, x + 2 C x , x - 4, x + 4
2 2
D x, x, x - 4, x + 4 E x ,x -4

Mastery

3 WORKED EXAMPLE 18 TECH-FREE Sketch the graph of each function.

3 3
a y = (x - 1) + 3 b y = 4 - (x + 2) c y = 3(x - 2)3 + 1
3
d y = (2x - 1) + 3 e y = (3x + 5)3 - 2 f y = 4 - 2(3x - 6)3

4 WORKED EXAMPLE 19 TECH-FREE Sketch the graph of each function.

a y = (x + 1)(x - 2)(x - 3) b y = -x(x - 1)(x - 3) c y = 2x(x - 5)(x - 2)
3 2
d y = -3x(3 - x)(x - 2) e y = -x - 4x + 5x f y = 2x3 + x2 - 15x

5 WORKED EXAMPLE 20 TECH-FREE Sketch the graph of each function.

a y = (x + 1)(x - 2)(x - 3)(x + 2) b y = -(x - 1)(x - 2)(x + 1)(x + 2)
2 2
c y = (x + 1) (x - 4)(x - 3) d y = (x - 1) (x - 5)(x + 2)
e y = -(2x - 1)3(3x + 5) f y = -x4 + 81x2

6 TECH-FREE Determine whether each function is odd, even or neither.

a f (x) = 3x4 - 5x2 + 17 b f (x) = 3x - 4x
3
c f (x) = 12x7 + 6x3 - 2x

7 WORKED EXAMPLE 21 TECH-FREE Sketch the graph of each function.

3 2 2 3
a y = (x + 1) (x - 4) (x - 3) b y = (2x + 1) (x - 4) (5 - x)
c y = (x - 1)2(5x - 4)4(x - 3)2 2
d y = -2(x + 3) (2x - 3) (x + 2)
2 2

36 Nelson VICmaths Mathematical Methods 12 9780170448475

 8 WORKED EXAMPLE 22 y

Find the rule for the polynomial function 12

10
with this graph. 1.6
8
6
4
2

−2 −1−2 1 2 3 4 x

−4
−6
−8
−10
−12

9 Find the rule for the polynomial function y

with this graph.

1 x

10 WORKED EXAMPLE 23 Lucas is an engineer working to build a new ski run y

at Mount Baw Baw. The shape of the ski run is shown on the graph and T
x 3 7x 2
follows a path from A to B with equation y = − + 75.
480 48
Point A is the location of the ski resort. T is the highest point of the A B
mountain and ski run. All distances are measured in metres. x

a Find the coordinates of A and B.

b Find the height of T above the x-axis.
Lucas is also designing a chairlift to take the skiers from the resort to y
the top of the mountain. The resort, R, will be built 40 metres from A. T
P
The path of the chairlift is shown on the diagram from R to T.
c Find the equation of the line RT.
d The chairlift makes its way to a platform on the side of the mountain R A B
at point P. Find the coordinates of P correct to two decimal places. x

e Lucas decides to build a tunnel PT from the platform to the top

of the mountain. Calculate the length of the tunnel correct to two
decimal places.

9780170448475 Chapter 1 | Polynomials 37

 11 A specimen of bacteria is smeared on a round agar plate of diameter 12 cm and left for testing.
The area (in cm2) of the bacterial colony is given by the function
A = -t3 + 6t2 + 16t + 0.5
where t is the number of weeks after the culture is started.
a What is the initial size of the colony?
b Sketch the graph for the first 10 weeks.
c When does the model of growth become inadequate?
d What percentage of the plate is covered after 4 weeks?
e What is the maximum percentage of the plate that is covered?

Exam practice 80–100% 60–79% 0–59%

12 © VCAA 2005 1IQ16 95% Part of the graph of the function f is shown.

−3 −2 −1 O 1 2 3 x

The rule for f is most likely to be

2 2 2
A f (x) = (x + 2)(x - 1) (x - 3) B f (x) = (x - 2)(x + 1) (x + 3) C f (x) = (2 - x)(x + 1) (x + 3)
2 2
D f (x) = (x - 2)(x - 1) (x - 3) E f (x) = (x + 2)(x - 1) (3 - x)

13 © VCAA 2004 1IQ14 Let f be a polynomial function of degree 3. The graph of the curve with rule
67%

y = f (x) either intersects or touches the x-axis at exactly two points (a, 0) and (b, 0).
A possible rule for f could be
2 2
A f (x) = (x − a)(x − b) B f (x) = (x − a)(x + b) C f (x) = (x − a)(x − b)
2 2
D f (x) = (x + a) (x − b) E f (x) = (x + a) (x + b)

14 © VCAA The diagram shows part of the graph

2018N 2AQ2 y
of a polynomial function.
A possible rule for this function is
A y = (x + 2)(x - 1)(x - 3)
2 −4 −3 −2 −1O 1 2 3 4 x
B y = (x + 2) (x - 1)(x - 3)
2
C y = (x + 2) (x - 1)(3 - x)
2
D y = -(x - 2) (x - 1)(3 - x)
E y = -(x + 2)(x - 1)(x - 3)

15 © VCAA 2020 2BQ1 Let f : R → R,

(2 marks) y f
2 2 (0, 4)
f (x) = a(x + 2) (x - 2) , where a ∈ R.
Part of the graph of f is shown.
(−2, 0) O (2, 0) x

1
a 83% Show that a = . 1 mark
4
1 1
b 80% Express f (x) = (x + 2)2(x − 2)2 in the form f (x) = x 4 + bx2 + c,
4 4
where b and c are integers. 1 mark

38 Nelson VICmaths Mathematical Methods 12 9780170448475

 1 Chapter summary 1

A polynomial is an expression involving a sum of terms of the form:

CHAPTER SUMMARY
P(x) = anxn + an-1xn-1 + an-2xn-2 + … + a1x1 + a0
where n is a positive integer or zero, a0, a1, a2 … an-1, an are real numbers and an ≠ 0.
• The degree of a polynomial is the highest power of x.
• The leading term is the term that contains the highest power of x.
• A monic polynomial is a polynomial whose leading coefficient is 1.
• The constant term is a0.

Equating coefficients
• If P(x) = anxn + an-1xn-1 + an-2xn-2 + … + a1x1 + a0 and Q(x) = bnxn + bn-1xn-1 + bn-2xn-2 + … + b1x1 + b0
are equal for all values of x, then an = bn, an-1 = bn-1, an-2 = bn-2 and so on up to a0 = b0.

Division of polynomials
2x + 3 Quotient −2 2 7 7
) 2
x + 2 2x + 7x + 7 −4 −6
2x2 + 4x 2 3 1
3x + 7
3x + 6
1 Remainder

Division statement of polynomials

If P(x) is divided by x - a, the quotient is denoted by Q(x) and the remainder is R.
It is usual to represent a polynomial division using the following division statements:
• P(x) = (x - a)Q(x) + R
P(x) R
• = Q(x) +
x −a x −a

The remainder theorem

If a polynomial P(x) is divided by x - a, the remainder is P(a).

The factor theorem

For a polynomial P(x), if P(a) = 0, then x - a is a factor of the polynomial.

Sum and difference of two cubes

• a3 + b3 = (a + b)(a2 - ab + b2)
• a3 - b3 = (a - b)(a2 + ab + b2)

Solving polynomial equations

If P(x) = (x - a)(x - b)(x - c) = 0, then the solutions are x = a, x = b, x = c.
This can be extended to any number of products.

9780170448475 Chapter 1 | Polynomials 39

 Graphing polynomial functions
The cubic function
A cubic function has the general form y = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d.

a>0 a<0

Some cubic functions can be written in the form y = a(x - h)3 + k, with the centre (point of inflection)
at point (h, k).
If a cubic function can be factorised to the form y = a(x − b)(x − c)(x − d), then b, c and d are its x-intercepts.
We can use our knowledge of repeated factors to decide if the graph crosses the axis, has a turning point on
the axis, or has a stationary point of inflection on the axis, at each of the x-intercepts.
The quartic function
A quartic function has the general form y = ax4 + bx3 + cx2 + dx + e.

a>0 a<0

Some quartic functions can be written in the form y = a(x - h)4 + k, with the vertex at point (h, k).

(h, k)

If a quartic function can be factorised into the form y = a(x - b)(x - c)(x - d)(x - e), then b, c, d and e are
its x-intercepts.

40 Nelson VICmaths Mathematical Methods 12 9780170448475

Polynomials of higher degrees
Sign of leading coefficient, an Odd degree Even degree 1
an > 0 (positive) y → −∞ as x → −∞, and y → +∞ as x → −∞, and
y → +∞ as x → +∞ y → +∞ as x → +∞

CHAPTER SUMMARY
(starts at bottom, ends at top) (starts at top, ends at top, points up)
an < 0 (negative) y → +∞ as x → −∞, and y → −∞ as x → −∞, and
y → −∞ as x → +∞ y → −∞ as x → +∞
(starts at top, ends at bottom) (starts at bottom, ends at bottom,
points down)

Example Behaviour for x-intercept at (a, 0) Graph

y = (x − a)(x − b)(x − c)(x - d) crosses the axis y
(x - a) is a single/linear factor.
5
(c, 0) (a, 0)

(b, 0) 0 (d, 0) 10 x

−5

−10

y = x(x − a)6(x - b)(x - c) turning point y

(x - a)6 is a repeated factor
4
of even power.
2

(b, 0) (c, 0)
−2 0 (a, 0) 2 4 x

−2

y = -(x − a)5(x - b)(x - c) stationary point of inflection y

(x - a)5 is a repeated factor
of odd power. 5

(b, 0) (c, 0)
−5 0 5 x
(a, 0)
−5

−10

9780170448475 Chapter 1 | Polynomials 41

 Cumulative examination 1
Total number of marks: 10   Reading time: 4 minutes   Writing time: 15 minutes

TECH-FREE Technology is NOT permitted.

1 © VCAA 2017 1Q3 (4 marks) Let f : [-3, 0] → R, f (x) = (x + 2)2(x - 1).

a Show that (x + 2)2(x - 1) = x3 + 3x2 - 4. 1 mark

b Copy the axes below and sketch the graph of f. Label the axis intercepts and any
stationary points with their coordinates. 3 marks

y
6
4
2

−4 −3 −2 −1 O 1 2 x
−2
−4
−6

2 (6 marks) A viewing platform is being built for spectators to watch an athletics competition.
It will consist of a rectangular outer frame containing three crossbars inside, as shown in
the diagram. The width of the frame will be x metres and the length of the frame will be
p metres. The whole frame and crossbars will be made using 100 metres of steel as shown.
x

a The platform will be completely covered by wooden decking boards.

5x 2
Show that the area of the platform, A square metres, is A = 50x − . 2 marks
2
5x 2
b Copy the axes below and sketch the graph of A = 50x − over an appropriate
2
domain, labelling intercepts, endpoints and the turning point with their coordinates. 2 marks

A
300

200

100

O 5 10 15 20 25 x

c The frame is to be made so that the platform has the largest area possible.
Find the values of x and p that would give the platform its maximum area and state
the maximum area. 2 marks

42 Nelson VICmaths Mathematical Methods 12 9780170448475

 Cumulative examination 2

Cumulative examination 2
Total number of marks: 20   Reading time: 4 minutes   Writing time: 30 minutes

Approved technology is permitted.

Section A 6 multiple-choice questions 6 marks

1 © VCAA 2013 2AQ2 The midpoint of the line segment that joins (1, -5) to (d, 2) is
⎛d + 1 3⎞ ⎛1 − d 7⎞ ⎛d − 4 ⎞ ⎛ 1−d ⎞ ⎛5 + d ⎞
A ⎜ ,− ⎟ B ⎜ ,− ⎟ C ⎜ ,0 ⎟ D ⎜ 0, ⎟ E ⎜ , 2⎟
⎝ 2 2⎠ ⎝ 2 2⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠

2 © VCAA 2011 2AQ2 The gradient of the line perpendicular to the line which passes through (-2, 0) and
(0, -4) is
1 1
A B -2 C − D 4 E 2
2 2

3 © VCAA The graph with equation y = x2 is translated 3 units down and 2 units to the right.
2006 2AQ1

The resulting graph has equation

2 2 2
A y = (x − 3) + 2 B y = (x − 2) + 3 C y = (x − 2) − 3
2 2
D y = (x + 2) − 3 E y = (x + 2) + 3

4 © VCAA 2015 2AQ20 If f (x - 1) = x2- 2x + 3, then f (x) is equal to

2 2 2 2 2
A x -2 B x +2 C x - 2x + 2 D x - 2x + 4 E x - 4x + 6

5 © VCAA 2015 2AQ3

y

b d
O c x

The rule for a function with the graph above could be

2 2
A y = -2(x + b)(x - c) (x - d) B y = 2(x + b)(x - c) (x - d)
2
C y = -2(x - b)(x - c) (x - d) D y = 2(x - b)(x - c)(x - d)
2
E y = -2(x - b)(x + c) (x + d)

6 © VCAA A polynomial function p has degree three. A portion of its graph near the point on
2003 1MQ1

the graph with coordinates (2, 0) is shown.

1.8 1.9 2 2.1 2.2 x

Which one of the following could be the rule for the third-degree polynomial p?
2 3 2
A p(x) = x(x + 2) B p(x) = (x - 2) C p(x) = x (x - 2)
2 2
D p(x) = (x - 1)(x - 2) E p(x) = -x(x - 2)

9780170448475 Chapter 1 | Cumulative examination 2 43

 Section B 2 questions 14 marks

1 © VCAA 2019N 2BQ1 (7 marks)Parts of the graphs of f (x) = (x - 1)3(x + 2)3 and
g(x) = (x - 1)2(x + 2)3 are shown on the axes below.

y = f (x) y

−2 −1 O 2 x

−8
y = g(x)

The two graphs intersect at three points, (-2, 0), (1, 0) and (c, d). The point (c, d) is not
shown in the diagram above.
a Find the values of c and d. 2 marks

b Find the values of x such that f (x) > g(x). 1 mark

c Show that f (1 + m) = f (-2 - m) for all m. 1 mark

d Find the values of h such that g(x + h) = 0 has exactly one negative solution. 2 marks

e Find the values of k such that f (x) + k = 0 has no solutions. 1 mark

2 © VCAA 2018N 2BQ1 (7 marks) Let f : R → R, f (x) = x4 - 4x - 8.

a Given f (x) = (x - 2)(x3 + ax2 + bx + c), find a, b and c. 1 mark

b Find two consecutive integers m and n such that a solution to f (x) = 0 is in the
interval (m, n), where m < n < 0. 2 marks

The diagram below shows part of the graph of f and a straight line drawn through the
points (0, -8) and (2, 0). A second straight line is drawn parallel to the horizontal axis
and it touches the graph of f at the point Q. The two straight lines intersect at the point P.

y = f (x)
y

O 2 x

−8

P Q

c i Find the equation of the line through (0, -8) and (2, 0). 1 mark

ii State the equation of the line through the points P and Q. 1 mark

iii State the coordinates of the points P and Q. 2 marks

44 Nelson VICmaths Mathematical Methods 12 9780170448475