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Consumer Neuroscience
This page intentionally left blank
Consumer Neuroscience
Theory and Application

Cathrine V. Jansson-Boyd
School of Psychology and Sport Science, Anglia Ruskin University,
Cambridge, United Kingdom

Peter Bright
School of Psychology and Sport Science, Anglia Ruskin University,
Cambridge, United Kingdom
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Contents

Foreword xi
Preface xiii
Acknowledgments xvii

1. Introduction to consumer neuroscience

Advantages of consumer neuroscience 2
Should businesses be skeptical of using neuroscience? 3
Shortcomings 4
Training is required 4
Reverse inference 5
Ethics 6
Can you afford to use neuroscience equipment? 8
Context and individual differences 8
Brain plasticity 9
Expectations guide responses 9
Feeling rejected 10
Benefits to other research areas 10
Trust 11
Neurology and well-being 12
Chapter summary 14

2. An overview of the brain

The neuron 18
Neurotransmitter systems 19
Gross brain structure 20
The cerebrum 20
The cerebellum 22
The brainstem 22
The diencephalon 23
The basal ganglia 24
Subcortical structures 25
The 12 cranial nerves 25
Blood supply to the brain 27
Summary 27

v
vi Contents

3. Methods in consumer neuroscience

Mapping brain activity 33
Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) 34
Positron emission tomography (PET) 36
Electroencephalography (EEG) 38
Magnetoencephalography (MEG) 40
Tapping into the unconscious 40
Eye-tracking 40
Eye-tracking and consumer research 43
Implicit association tests (IAT) 44
Methods that modulate brain activity 46
tDCS and TMS 46
Measuring skin and facial responses 48
Electrodermal activity (EDA) 48
Reading facial emotions 48
Summary 49

4. Visual neuroscience
Vision 52
The eye 52
The visual cortex 54
Visual perception 56
Visual search 58
Object recognition 59
Principles of perceptual organization: Gestalt theory 61
Valence perception 63
Pricing 63
The ‘look’ of packaging 64
Visual imagery in advertising 66
The human face of advertising 66
Emotionally arousing imagery 67
Summary 68

5. The multisensory consumer

The tactile sense 72
‘Understanding’ touch 73
Interpersonal social consumer touch 75
Tactile congruency 76
The auditory sense 77
Understanding sound 77
Music 79
Food and sound 80
Auditory input and the other senses 82
The olfactory sense 82
The olfactory system 83
Interacting with other senses 85
 Contents vii

Individual differences 85
Taste 86
The influence of consumer culture on taste perception 87
Oral-somatosensory information and choice 89
Visual and auditory factors that play a role in taste 89
Summary 90

6. Memory and learning

Sensory and working memory 95
Sensory memory 96
Working memory 97
Memory formation 100
Consolidation 101
Associative network 103
Repetition and product placement 104
Experts 105
Long-term memory 106
Declarative memory 107
Nondeclarative memory 109
Memory and emotions 112
Decision making 114
Cued and context-dependent recall 114
Sensory input 116
Forgetting 117
Summary 117

7. Attention, awareness, and consciousness

Visual attention 121
Capacity limitations and selectivity 122
Overt and covert attention 124
Bottom-up and top-down processing 126
Measurement of attention 128
How to capture consumer attention 130
Attention and decision making 132
Awareness and consciousness 133
Implicit processing 134
Preference and decision making 135
Emotions and unconsciousness 136
Subliminal advertising 137
Summary 138

8. Understanding emotions
Measuring emotions 142
The nature of emotions 143
Brain regions involved in detecting emotions 144
Basic emotions 147
viii Contents

Constructed emotion 148

The role of cognition in experiencing emotions 149
Emotions, attention, and recall 149
Selective attention 150
Recall 150
Decision making and affect 151
Subliminal emotion exposure 152
Affective forecasting 152
The choices people make 154
Social aspects 156
Advertising 157
The influence of others 159
Music 161
Summary 163

9. Decision making
Cognition and emotion 166
Cognition 166
Emotions 169
Uncertainty 171
Motivation and reward 171
Sex and money 172
Intertemporal choice 172
Branding 174
Gambling 175
Does dopamine serve pleasure or motivation? 177
Consumer values 178
Social influence 179
Aesthetics 180
Neuroaesthetics 181
Product and packaging design 181
Online decision making 182
Purchase reviews 183
Payment methods 184
Summary 184

10. Neuroscience: A lifespan perspective

Early development 189
Cerebral cortex development during childhood 191
Adolescence 191
Adolescence and addiction 192
Social influences 194
Sensory systems in older consumers 195
Vision 196
Hearing 197
The sense of smell 198
 Contents ix

Taste 200
Haptics 202
Food and the older consumer 203
Food textures 204
Memory and food 205
Memory 206
Decision making 207
Online decision making 208
Chapter summary 209

11. An overview of published articles in consumer

neuroscience

References 227
Index 281
This page intentionally left blank
Foreword

As a prelude to this foreword, let me first place my cards on the table. I am

an academic neuroscientist who, in the mid-1990s, stepped out of academia to
take up a post in Unilever R&D (Port Sunlight Lab, Wirral, UK), returning to
academia in 2008. During my time working in the fast-moving consumer goods
(FMCG) sector, I established and led what may well have been one of the first
consumer neuroscience research groups in this sector, supported by Blue Sky
funding. The types of projects funded included topics such as nanotechnology,
proteomics, systems biology, high-throughput screening, and new molecules,
and neuroscience was one of these specially funded new research areas. And the
reason why such a group was built was not by design but by necessity, as the
more traditional consumer research and market research approaches, reliant on
focus groups and questionnaires, failed to predict the success of a new product
launch, with one senior executive confessing that ~70% of the products the
company launched had failed. Clearly, existing methods of predicting consumer
choice and reaction were not working! What was needed was a more evidence-
based approach to understanding what people liked and why they liked it—
without necessarily asking them.
Enter Consumer Neuroscience: Theory and Application. This book is a tour
de force as it lays down the essential background reading for anyone interested
in predicting the mysteries of choice and, by default, the mysteries of liking. As
succinctly stated by the authors:
Understanding consumers is not easy, and as many market researchers know all
too well, consumers do not always say what they mean.

Enter “NEUROSCIENCE.” In response to reports written by the National

Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, the National Institute of Mental
Health, and at the urging of Congress, President George Bush signed a presiden-
tial declaration designating the 1990s to be the “Decade of the Brain,” unleash-
ing much-needed research funding to probe this organ’s function. Apart from
the priority of research funding to better understand the causes and treatments
of mental health conditions, this period also saw the emergence of neuromarket-
ing, fueled by developments in functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI),
as well as other neuroimaging techniques such as EEG, MEG, fNIRS, and
PET—all of which are explained in this book. The ambition here was to uncover
how the brain is responding to a stimulus, be it the taste of a Hershey bar or an

xi
xii Foreword

image of a Tesla car, and thereby understand what are likely to be subconscious
processes that may ultimately manifest as a decision to buy or not buy the bar
or the car. And here we have to dig even deeper into a myriad of contributing
factors that underpin what, on the surface, looks like a simple decision to say
yes or no. What this book will disabuse anyone of is that this simple response
is anything but simple, as the 11 chapters explain in a readily digestible writ-
ing style. A driving theme of this book is to measure the implicit processes that
govern low-level decision-making and to further recognize that these behaviors
are primarily rewarding, i.e., they are not solely functional.
A major impact and potential of the products FMCG companies manufac-
ture and market lies in the implicit emotional interaction consumers have with
these products, leading to subjective states of pleasure and liking. These inter-
actions are complex, as they are largely inaccessible to verbal reporting owing
to their essentially covert and subconscious nature. In order to understand and
thereby optimize pleasure and liking, it is important to uncover robust and pre-
dictive measures for them, and here this book lays down the ground rules. New
tools are required to enable us to measure and assess these subtle interactions
and effects and to understand the factors governing human interactions with the
vast array of stimuli impacting, for example, grooming and feeding behaviors in
sensory, perceptual, and emotional terms. This book builds on recent advances
in cognitive neuroscience to provide the knowledge needed to develop an inte-
grated covert analysis approach to “measure” affective (emotional) as well as
discriminative (feeling) processes. It is the gold standard.

Francis McGlone
Preface

The popularity of consumer neuroscience has become increasingly evident in

the last decade. Academics and business alike are making use of it to try and
deepen the understanding of consumer behaviors. While the area is growing,
there are not many books on the topic of consumer neuroscience, and this is
why we decided to write this book. This book is different from other books on
the market in that it is set out more like a traditional textbook, which makes it
suitable as a core text for courses covering this field. As there is currently no
“typical” textbook for consumer neuroscience, we hope that this book will serve
as a prototype for future books to provide some consistency for what readers
can expect. The “textbook” format used here also means that it is easier for a
reader who is new to the subject to understand the topic. Furthermore, the book
is written by two authors (rather than different authors writing different chap-
ters) who are specialists in consumer psychology and neuroscience. Based on
our backgrounds, we have developed a synthesis of the theoretical interests of
each of our fields to provide a richer understanding of consumer neuroscience.
When we decided on the content of this book, we made sure to include popu-
lar areas of consumer neuroscience that we know many readers will have an
interest in. However, we have also explored areas of consumer psychology and
neuroscience that have not been extensively explored from a consumer neuro-
science perspective but are nevertheless important to fully understand consumer
behaviors.
In this book, we set out to provide readers with aspects of consumer neuro-
science that we think are essential to understand the topic. The book consists of
11 chapters that are broadly structured in the same way and for each one there
is a summary at the end of the chapter. Each chapter focuses on a different area
of consumer neuroscience.
Chapter 1 introduces the reader to reasons why neuroscience is important
to consumer sciences. It explores the limitations of consumer neuroscience and
delineates which types of questions can and which ones cannot be answered us-
ing the methods currently available to us. The chapter also outlines why training
in neuroscience is essential for anybody who wishes to undertake research in
this field. Furthermore, it addresses potential doubts about applying neurosci-
ence techniques to answer business and marketing questions.
Chapter 2 provides an overview of human brain structure. This chapter also
includes a “brain index” that is additional to the traditional index at the back of

xiii
xiv Preface

the book. The brain indexes are images of brain structures that are labeled with
the page numbers throughout the book that provide information about these
regions. At the very end of this chapter, there is also a glossary of key terms that
will help the reader quickly look up the basic functions of different brain areas.
In Chapter 3 different neuroscience methodologies are outlined. Here we
provide information on tools such as functional magnetic resonance imaging,
electroencephalography, and eye-tracking.
Chapter 4 delves into visual neuroscience. It covers the fundamentals of
visual neuroscience from basic processing in the primary visual cortex to fine-
grained visual object processing and conceptual levels of representation. The
chapter explores a range of consumer science-related matters that are important,
such as the visual features of packaging and visual imagery in advertising.
Multisensory perception is explored in Chapter 5. In addition to vision, the
influence of touch, hearing, smell, and taste is outlined, as they are all important
in guiding consumer perception. The senses are discussed separately, to provide
a clearer understanding, and how they come together to form multisensory per-
ception of products and services.
Chapter 6 is concerned with memory and learning. With the vast amount of
information that consumers are exposed to, it is vital to understand what they
remember and how they learn. Key brain structures associated with encoding
and laying down of new memories and the retrieval of existing memories are
outlined. Evidence for the separability of different forms of memory such as
semantic and episodic memory is described. The role of emotions in memory is
also considered in this chapter.
Attention, awareness, and consciousness are the topics of Chapter 7. The
chapter describes how visual attention works and why consumers may attend
to certain stimuli over others. Here we outline key differences between bottom-
up and top-down attention, which are essential for marketers to know, as well
as the role of attention in decision making. The chapter also explores to what
extent consumer neuroscience can explain whether consumers can be affected
by marketing without conscious awareness.
Chapter 8 introduces the reader to how consumers are influenced by their emo-
tions. How emotions can be measured and the brain regions involved in detecting
emotions are included. So also is the role of emotions in attention and recall.
Furthermore, the chapter looks at the relationship between emotions and decision
making and different socially based factors that can mold how people feel and act.
In Chapter 9, the focus is on decision making. As you will see, it is evident
that neuroscience can provide consumer scientists with a deeper understanding
of the underlying process determining why people make the decisions that they
do. The connection between cognition and emotion in the decision-making pro-
cess is highlighted. How consumers are motivated by rewards is another topic
covered here. Furthermore, the chapter looks at how esthetic components can
influence decision making and how consumers make decisions when they are
online.
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