Linear Algebra 1: Introduction

Monday, 31 October 2005

Lectures for Part A of Oxford FHS in Mathematics and Joint Schools

• Introduction

• Fields and vector spaces

• Subspaces and quotient spaces

• Revision of some Mods linear algebra

• Linear transformations

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 Welcome to Further Linear Algebra
A reminder of my view:

• You = learner = thinker

• tutorial = primary learning and teaching opportunity

• book = main source of ideas and information

• lectures = oral supplement to books and tutorials

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 Axioms for Fields

Definition: A field is a set F with distinguished elements 0, 1

and with two binary operations + and × satisfying axioms below
(the ‘axioms of arithmetic’).

Conventionally:

for the image of (a, b) under the function + : F × F → F we

write a + b;

for the image of (a, b) under the function × : F × F → F we

write ab;

and x + yz means x + (yz).

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 The axioms of arithmetic
(1) a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c [+ is associative]
(2) a+b=b+a [+ is commutative]
(3) a+0=a
(4) (∀ a ∈ F )(∃ b ∈ F )(a + b = 0)

(5) a(bc) = (ab)c [× is associative]

(6) ab = ba [× is commutative]
(7) a1 = a
(8) (∀ a 6= 0)(∃ b ∈ F )(ab = 1)

(9) a(b + c) = ab + ac [× distributes over +]

(10) 0 6= 1

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 Vector spaces
Definition: Let F be a field. For example, F could be Q, R,
C, or Fp (same as Zp). A vector space over F is a set V with
distinguished element 0, with a binary operation +, and with a
function × : F × V → V satisfying axioms below.

Conventionally:

for the image of (a, b) under the function + : V × V → V we

write a + b;

for the image of (α, v) under the function × : F × V → V we

write αv.

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 Vector space axioms

(1) u + (v + w) = (u + v) + w [+ is associative]
(2) u+v =v+u [+ is commutative]
(3) u+0=u
(4) (∀ u ∈ V )(∃ v ∈ V )(u + v = 0)
(5) α(βv) = (αβ)v

(6) α(u + v) = αu + αv

(7) (α + β)v = αv + βv

(8) 1v = v
Note: unquantified axioms are understood to have appropriate
quantifiers ∀ u ∈ V , . . . and/or ∀ α ∈ F , . . . in front.
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 Examples
Example 1: F n is a vector space over F

Example 2: F [x] is a vector space over F

Example 3: Mm×n(F ) is a vector space over F

Example 4: if K is a field and F a subfield then K is a vector

space over F .

etc., etc., etc.

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 Basic theorems

Exactly as for rings, or for vector spaces over R [recall Mods],

one can prove important “trivialities”. For example:

• ∀ v ∈ V : 0v = 0; ∀ α ∈ F : α0 = 0;

• (∀ α ∈ F )(∀ v ∈ V ) : αv = 0 ⇒ α = 0 or v = 0;

• (∀ α ∈ F )(∀ v ∈ V ) : α(−v) = −(αv) = (−α)v;

• etc., etc., etc.

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 Subspaces
Let F be a field, V a vector space over F .

Definition: A subspace of V is a subset U such that

(1) 0 ∈ U,
(2) u, v ∈ U ⇒ u + v ∈ U ,
(3) u ∈ U, α ∈ F ⇒ αu ∈ U .

Note: it follows from (3) that −u ∈ U and so U is an additive

subgroup of V .

Note: U is a subspace if and only if U 6= ∅ and (2) and (3) hold.

Note: We write U 6 V .
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 Examples
Example 1: Let L1, . . . , Lm be homogeneous linear equations
cij xj = 0 in “variables” x1, . . . , xn with coefficients cij ∈ F ,
P

and let
U := {(x1, . . . , xn) ∈ F n | L1, . . . , Lm} .
Then U 6 F

Example 2: Let F [n][x] := {f ∈ F [x] | f = 0 or degf 6 n}.

Then F [n][x] 6 F [x] .

Example 3: Upper triangular matrices form a subspace of Mn×n(F ) .

etc., etc., etc.

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 Quotient spaces
Suppose that U 6 V where V is a vector space over a field F .
Define the quotient space V /U as follows:
• set := {x + U | x ∈ V } [additive cosets]
• 0 := U
• addition: (x + U ) + (y + U ) := (x + y) + U
• multiplication by scalars: α(x + U ) := αx + U

Check: that addition is well defined, multiplication by scalars is

well defined, the vector space axioms hold in V /U .

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 Revision: dimension

• spanning set; linear independence; bases;

• dimension;

• ∼ F d;
dimV = d ⇒ V =

• basis of a subspace may be extended (usually in many

ways) to a basis of V ;

• intersection U ∩ W of subspaces; sum U + W ;

• dim(U + W ) + dim(U ∩ W ) = dimU + dimW ;

• dimV = dimU + dim(V /U ) .

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 Revision: linear transformations
Let F be a field, V1, V2 vector spaces over F . A map T : V1 → V2
is said to be linear if
T 0 = 0, T (x + y) = T x + T y, and T (λx) = λ(T x)
for all x, y ∈ V and all λ ∈ F .

Note: T : V1 → V2 is linear if and only if T (αx+β y) = αT x+β T y

for all x, y ∈ V and all α, β ∈ F .

Note: the identity V → V is linear; if T : V1 → V2 and S : V2 → V3

are linear then S ◦ T : V1 → V3 is linear.

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 Revision: rank and nullity

For a linear transformation T : V → W define the kernel or

null-space by Ker T := {x ∈ V | T x = 0}. Then define
nullityT := dimKer T, rankT := dimIm T .

Rank-nullity Theorem. nullityT + rankT = dimV

Note: the rank-nullity Theorem is a version of the First

Isomorphism Theorem, Im T = ∼ V /Ker T .

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