249

B
34. A streetlight situated 7.4 m above the street casts a shadow
on a pedestrian, taking a late-night walk. If the pedestrian
is 1.8 m tall, how long is his shadow when he is 7 m away
from the streetlight? 7.4 m

1.8 m

7m x
B
35. A man is standing 12 m away from a lamp post that is 10 m
tall. If his shadow is 2.2 m long, how tall is he?

10 m
h

12 m 2.2 m
B
36. Two ladders of lengths 4 m and 9 m are leaning at the same
angle against a wall. If the 4 m ladder reaches 3.2 m up the y
wall, how much further up the wall does the 9 m ladder
reach? 9m
3.2 m 4m

B
37. Calculate the height of “y” in the diagram below. 38. Calculate the length of “x” in the diagram below.
B
9m

15 m 12 m
x
6m
y
3m
21 m

5.6 | Pythagorean Theorem

The Pythagorean Theorem is a famous theorem in mathematics, named after a Greek philosopher
and mathematician, Pythagoras. It describes a special relationship between the lengths of the three
sides of a right-triangle. The theorem states that the sum of the squares of the lengths of the two
shorter sides that meet at the right-angle (called the legs of the right triangle) is equal to the square
of the longest side opposite the right-angle (called the hypotenuse of the right triangle).

A For example, in a right-triangle ABC with the right angle

at C, the Pythagorean Theorem is written as an equation
c relating the lengths of the sides a, b, and c, where a and
b Hypotenuse
b represent the legs, and c represents the hypotenuse, as
90° follows:
C a B a2 + b2 = c2
legs

Using this equation, if the lengths of both legs (a and b) are known, then the hypotenuse (c) can be
calculated as follows:
c = a2 + b 2

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Similarly, if the lengths of the hypotenuse (c) and one leg

12
11 a=3 (a or b) are known, then the length of the other leg can be
10 b=4 calculated as follows:
9 c=5
8 2 2 2
a = c 2 – b2 or b = c 2 – a 2
c =a +b
7
A set of positive integers that satisfies the Pythagorean
6 b2 Theorem is known as a Pythagorean triple. For example, the
5
set of integers 3, 4, and 5 is a Pythagorean triple.
4
3 32 + 42 = 52
2
a2
(i.e., 9 + 16 = 25)
1

0
Some of the other Pythagorean triples are: (5, 12, 13),
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
(7, 24, 25), (8, 15, 17), (9, 40, 41), (12, 35, 37), (20, 21, 29)
Exhibit 5.6-a Pythagorean Theorem

Proofs of the Pythagorean Theorem

The Pythagorean Theorem has numerous proofs. In this section, we will explore two proofs of
the theorem, one being an application of similar triangles, and the other being an application of
geometry.

Proof Using Similar Triangles

For this proof of the Pythagorean Theorem, start with a
The symbol A right-triangle, ABC, with legs a and b, and hypotenuse c.
" = " represents y
"perpendicular to".
D c Draw a line CD such that CD = AB.
θ
Let ∠A = θ and ∠B = ϕ (where θ + ϕ = 90°).
b x
Let BD = x and AD = y (where x + y = c). Then,
90° ϕ
C a B
Exhibit 5.6-b P roof of Pythagorean Theorem
using Similar Triangles

∆ABC and ∆CBD are similar. A

c a D
Therefore, = θ
a x c
b x
2
i.e., a = cx
ϕ θ ϕ
C a B C a B

∆ABC and ∆ACD are similar. A A

y
b y
Therefore, = θ θ D
c b c
b b
2
i.e., b = cy ϕ
ϕ
C a B C

Adding and ,

a2 + b2 = cx + cy
a2 + b2 = c(x + y) = c(c) = c2
Therefore, a2 + b2 = c2.

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Proof Using a Geometric Construction

For this proof of the Pythagorean Theorem, start with a right-triangle with legs a and b, and
hypotenuse c. Then, create three additional copies of the triangle and line them up tip-to-tip so that
their boundaries form a square, as shown in Exhibit 5.6-c.
The outer boundary forms a square, as all angles are right-
angles and all side lengths are equal to (a + b). θ c
a θ + ϕ = 90°
ϕ
The inner boundary also forms a square, as all angles are
b
right-angles (by the IAT-2 from Section 5.2) and all side
lengths are equal to c.
a b
Area of larger square = Area of smaller square + Area of ϕ
each of the 4 triangles θ
a
b c θ
Using the formulas for the area of a square and the area
of a triangle: c
a×b a+b
(a + b) = c + 4 > H
ϕ ϕ
2 2
2 c
b
2 2 2
a + 2ab + b = c + 2ab a θ
c

a2 + b2 = c2 ϕ θ
b a
2 2 2
Therefore, a + b = c . a+b

Exhibit 5.6-c P roof of Pythagorean Theorem

using a Geometric Construction

Determining the Unknown Length of One Side of a Right Triangle

If we are given the lengths of any two sides of a right-triangle, we can use the Pythagorean Theorem
to determine the length of the third side.

Example 5.6-a Calculating the Length of the Hypotenuse of a Right-Triangle

Using the Pythagorean Theorem, calculate the length (rounded to the nearest hundredth, as needed)
of the hypotenuse, c, of the following right-triangles, given the lengths of the two legs, a and b.
(i) a = 3 m and b = 4 m (ii) a = 10 cm and b = 12 cm

A
Solution (i) Using a2 + b2 = c2,
2 2 2 2 2
c = a + b = 3 + 4 = 9 + 16 = 25
The set 3, 4, b=4m
and 5 is a c = √25 = 5 m
Pythagorean
triple. C a=3m B

(ii) Using a2 + b2 = c2, A

2 2 2 2 2
c = a + b = 10 + 12 = 100 + 144 = 244
c = √244 = 15.620499... = 15.62 cm b = 12 cm

C a = 10 cm B

Example 5.6-b Calculating the Length of One of the Legs of a Right-Triangle

Using the Pythagorean Theorem, calculate the length (rounded to the nearest hundredth, as needed)
of the missing leg of the following right-triangles, given the lengths of the hypotenuse, c, and one leg.
(i) a = 5 cm and c = 13 cm (ii) b = 8 m and c = 16 m

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A
2 2 2
Solution (i) Using a + b = c ,
b2 = c2 − a2 = 132 − 52 = 169 – 25 = 144 c = 13 cm
b
The set 5, 12,
and 13 is a b = √144 = 12 cm
Pythagorean C a = 5 cm B
triple.

(ii) Using a2 + b2 = c2, A

a2 = c2 − b2 = 162 – 82 = 256 – 64 = 192

c = 16 m
b=8m
a = √192 = 13.856406... = 13.86 m

C a B

Example 5.6-c Calculate the Unknown Lengths (x and y) in the Following Diagrams

In the following figures, calculate the lengths of x and y (rounded to the nearest tenth, as needed):

(i) A (ii) A (iii) A

y 40 m x
17 m y 8.8 m 4m 5m
D 10 m B x C
D D y B 10 m C
6m 41 m
B x C

Solution (i) D
10 m
In the right-triangle BCD, using the Pythagorean Theorem,
6m
x2 + 62 = 102
B x C
x2 = 102 − 62
= 100 − 36 = 64

x = √64 = 8 m
A In the right-triangle ABC, using the Pythagorean Theorem,
(y + 6)2 + 82 = 172
17 m
(y + 6) m (y + 6)2 = 172 − 82
= 289 − 64 = 225
B x=8m C (y + 6) = √225 = 15

y = 15 − 6 = 9 m

Therefore, x = 8 m and y = 9 m.

(ii) A In the right-triangle ABC, using the Pythagorean Theorem,

40 m y2 + 402 = 412
y
y2 = 412 − 402
B 41 m C = 1,681 − 1,600 = 81
y = √81 = 9 m

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Solution A In the right-triangle ABD, using the Pythagorean Theorem,

continued
x2 + 8.82 = 92
y=9m 8.8 m
x2 = 92 − 8.82
B x D = 81 − 77.44 = 3.56
x = √3.56 = 1.886796... ≈ 1.9 m

Therefore, x = 1.9 m and y = 9 m.

(iii) A In the right-triangle ADB, using the Pythagorean Theorem,

y2 + 42 = 52
4m 5m
y2 = 52 − 42

D y B = 25 − 16 = 9
y = √9 = 3 m

A In the right-triangle ADC, using the Pythagorean Theorem,

2 2 2
x 4 + 13 = x
4m
x2 = 16 + 169 = 185

D 3 + 10 = 13 m C x = √185 = 13.601470... ≈ 13.6 m

Therefore, x = 13.6 m and y = 3 m.

Calculating the Distance Between Two Points

In Chapter 8, the concept of the distance between two points on the Cartesian plane was introduced;
however, it was limited to points that are on the same vertical line (sharing the same x-coordinate)
or horizontal line (sharing the same y-coordinate). If the two points share neither the same
x-coordinate nor y-coordinate, the calculation becomes more difficult. Certainly, the distance is at
most the sum of the horizontal and vertical distances between the two points, but there is a shorter
distance: the line segment joining the two points.
In this section, the method to calculate the shortest distance between two points having coordinates
P(x1 , y1) and Q(x 2 , y 2) will be demonstrated.
In these last two Every horizontal line and every vertical line meet at a
Y
chapters, Δ has been right-angle. Therefore, the shortest distance between
used to specify the y2
Q = (x2, y2)
two points is related to the horizontal and vertical
name of a triangle
(e.g., ΔABC), but this distances between the points by the Pythagorean
symbol has many Theorem. This forms the equation for the shortest
uses. Recall from d
∆y = (y2 – y1)
distance:
Chapter 8 that Δ is
also commonly used d2 = (∆x)2 + (∆y)2
as a short form for
where ∆x is the horizontal distance between the
"the change in". y1
∆x = (x2 – x1)
two points (i.e., change in x) and ∆y is the vertical
P = (x1, y1)
X
distance between the two points (i.e., change in y).
x1 x2

Exhibit 5.6-d T he shortest distance between two

points, using the Pythagorean Theorem.

That is, using the two points P(x1, y1) and Q(x 2, y 2):
d2 = (x2 − x1)2 + (y 2 − y1)2
Performing the square root on both sides, the shortest distance, d, between the two points P(x1, y1)
and Q(x 2, y 2) is:
d= (x2 – x1)2 + (y2 – y1)2

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Example 5.6-d Calculating the Distance Between Two Points in the Cartesian Plane

Calculate the distance (rounded to the nearest tenth of a unit, as needed) between the following
points:

(i) A(2, 1) and B(7, 8)

(ii) P(–3, 7) and Q(3, –1)
(iii) X(4.5, –1.2) and Y(–7.3, 2.8)

Solution Using d2 = (x2 – x1)2 + (y2 – y1)2,

(i)  2 = (7 – 2)2 + (8 – 1)2

d
= 52 + 72 = 25 + 49 = 74
d = √74 = 8.602325... ≈ 8.6 units

(ii)  2 = [3 – (–3)]2 + [(–1) – 7]2

d
= 62 + (–8)2 = 36 + 64 = 100
d = √100 = 10 units

(iii) d2 = [(–7.3) – 4.5]2 + [2.8 – (–1.2)]2

= (–11.8)2 + (4.0)2 = 139.24 + 16 = 155.24
d = √155.24 = 12.459534... ≈ 12.5 units

Applications of the Pythagorean Theorem

Example 5.6-e Calculating the Distance Between Two Cities

Toronto is 45 km north and 26 km east of Hamilton. Determine the shortest flying distance
(rounded to the nearest kilometre) between the two cities.

Solution Toronto Let d be the distance between the two cities.

Using the Pythagorean theorem,
d
45 km
d2 = 452 + 262
= 2,025 + 676 = 2,701

26 km
d = √2,701
Hamilton
= 51.971145... ≈ 52 km
Therefore, the shortest flying distance between the two cities is 52 km.

Example 5.6-f Calculating the Length of a Guy Wire

A guy wire is tied to an antenna tower 12 m above the ground and the other end of the guy wire is
tied to the ground 15 m away. Determine the length of the guy wire, rounded to the nearest tenth
of a metre.

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Solution Let l be the length of the guy wire.

Antenna
Using the Pythagorean Theorem, Tower
2 2 2
l = 15 + 12 12 m
l Guy wire
= 225 + 144 = 369
15 m Ground
l = √369
= 19.209372... ≈ 19.2 m
Therefore, the length of the guy wire is 19.2 m.

Example 5.6-g Determining the Dimensions of a Television

A 42″ television, with a length to height ratio 16 : 9, measures 42 inches across the diagonal.
Determine the length and the height of the TV, to the nearest tenth of an inch.

Solution Since the ratio of the length of the TV to the height of the TV is 16 : 9, let 16x represent the length of
the TV and 9x represent the height of the TV.

Using the Pythagorean Theorem,

422 = (16x)2 + (9x)2 hes
inc 9x
1,764 = 256x + 81x 2 2 42

1,764 = 337x2
1,764 16x
x2 = = 5.234421...
337
x = √5.234421... = 2.287885...

Length of the TV = 16x = 16(2.287885...) = 36.606172... ≈ 36.6 inches

Height of the TV = 9x = 9(2.287885...) = 20.590972... ≈ 20.6 inches
Therefore, the length of the TV is 36.6 inches and the height is 20.6 inches.

Example 5.6-h Calculating the Height, Surface Area, and Volume of a Pyramid

The Great Pyramids of Giza in Egypt have certain special properties: the ratio of the slant height (s)
of the pyramid to the semi-base (b1) of the pyramid adheres to the “Golden Ratio,” which is
approximately 1.618 : 1.
Jorge wishes to know the height (h), surface area (SA),
and volume (V) of the largest pyramid. If he measures the
length of one side of the base to be 230 m, find the height
h
of the pyramid, rounded to the nearest metre. Then, find
s
the surface area and volume of the pyramid, rounded to
b1
the nearest square metre and cubic metre, respectively.
230
230

Solution 230
Since the base is 230 m, b1 = = 115 m.
2
s
Step 1: Calculate the slant height of the pyramid, s, using the Golden Ratio = 1.618,
b1
s = 1.618(115) = 186.07 ≈ 186 m
Therefore, the slant height of the pyramid is 186 m.

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256

Solution Step 2: Calculate the height of the pyramid using the Pythagorean Theorem.
continued
s2 = b1 + h2
2

(186)2 = (115)2 + (h)2

34,596 = 13,225 + h2
h2 = 21,371
h = √21,371 = 146.188234... ≈ 146 m
Therefore, the height of the pyramid is 146 m.

 alculate the surface area of the four equal triangular sides using slant height s = 186 m and
Step 3: C
b = 230 m.
(230 m)(186 m)
SA = 4 × > H = 85,560 m
2
2
 alculate the volume of the pyramid using base b = 230 m, height h = 146 m, and the
Step 4: C
formula for a square-based pyramid.
(230 m)2(146 m) 3
V= ≈ 2,574,467 m
3
Therefore, the surface area of the pyramid is 85,560 m2 and the volume of the pyramid is

2,574,467 m3.

5.6 | Exercises Answers to odd-numbered problems are available at the end of the textbook.

For Problems 1 to 4, use the Pythagorean Theorem to determine the length (rounded to the nearest hundredth, wherever
applicable) of the missing side in the given right-angled triangles, where a and b represent the legs of the triangle and c represents
the hypotenuse of the triangle.
1. a b c 2. a b c
a. 15 cm 20 cm ? a. 7 cm 24 cm ?
b. 2.5 cm ? 6.5 cm b. 7.5 cm ? 12.5 cm
c. ? 6 cm 6.25 cm c. ? 20 cm 20.5 cm

3. a b c 4. a b c
a. 12 cm 15 cm ? a. 16 cm 18 cm ?
b. 8 cm ? 17 cm b. 20 cm ? 29 cm
c. ? 15 cm 16 cm c. ? 17 cm 23 cm

For Problems 5 to 10, calculate the length of the missing side for each of the diagrams.

5. 1.5 m 6.

2.2 m 1.75 m x
14 cm

x 16 cm

Chapter 5 | Basic Geometry and Trigonometry

 257

7. 8.

11 m

x
5m 1 cm
x
8m

9. 10.
x

7 cm
x

10 cm 4m 3m

For Problems 11 to 14, calculate the perimeter and area of each of the given diagrams.
11. 12.

37 cm 35 cm

60° 60°

71° 71° 15 cm

13. 14. 1.8 m

6.4 m

3.6 m
For Problems 15 to 22, calculate the length of the line segments joining the pairs of points.
15. A(–2, 5) and B(4, 7) 16. C(–6, 1) and D(2, 5) 17. E(4, –3) and F(–1, 5) 18. G(1, –6) and H(–4, 3)

19. M(–3, –3) and N(–7, 2) 20. P(–4, –1) and Q(3, –5) 21. S(0, 4) and T(–3, 0) 22. U(2, 0) and V(0, –6)

23. A laptop screen measures 31 cm long by 17.5 cm high. Determine the diagonal length of the computer screen,
rounded to the nearest tenth of a cm.

24. From a point ‘X’, a person walked 850 m due west and then turned and walked for another 1.7 km due south to reach
point ‘Y’. Calculate the shortest distance between X and Y, rounded to the nearest hundredth of a km.

25. A 2.5 m tent pole is secured using a 4.3 m long guy rope from the top of the pole. How far away from the base of the
pole will the rope need to be secured to the ground, assuming it is pulled taut?

26. A 5 m ladder is leaned up against a wall. If the base of the ladder is placed on the ground 1.7 m away from the wall,
how high up against the wall will the ladder reach, rounded to the nearest tenth of a metre?

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3
27. A skateboard ramp that is 3.5 m long is built with a slope of . Determine the maximum height of the ramp, rounded
5
to the nearest cm.

1
28. A wheelchair ramp is to be constructed to the top of a set of stairs that is 1.75 m tall, with a maximum slope of .
12
Determine the minimum ramp length required, in order for the ramp to be built according to specifications. Can you
suggest a way to build the ramp that would save space?

29. A towel rack that is 1 m long is to be placed in a box measuring 75 cm × 60 cm × 45 cm. Will the towel rack fit along the
diagonal at the bottom of the box? Will it fit in the box if placed on the 3-dimensional diagonal?

30. Will a 16-foot-long piece of lumber fit in a truck with interior cargo dimensions of 12.5 feet by 8 feet by 7.5 feet?
For Problems 31 to 36, calculate the perpendicular height (to the nearest tenth), surface area (to the nearest whole number),
and volume (to the nearest whole number) of the solids.
31. A cone with a base diameter of 24 cm and a slant height of 30 cm.

30 cm

24 cm

32. A cone with a base diameter of 64 mm and a slant height of 105 mm. 64 mm

105 mm

33. A square pyramid with a base length and corner edge length all equal to 98 m. 98 m

98 m
98 m

34. A pyramid with a rectangular base that has a length of 50 cm, a width of 45 cm
36 cm, and a corner edge length of 45 cm.

36 cm
50 cm

35. A truncated cone with a top diameter of 24 cm, a base diameter of 40 cm,
and a slant height of 18 cm. 24 cm
18 cm

40 cm
36. A truncated square pyramid with a top side length of 75 m, a base side length 75 m
of 225 m, and a slant height of 120 m.
120 m

225 m

Chapter 5 | Basic Geometry and Trigonometry