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Emery’s Elements of Medical
Genetics and Genomics

SIXTEENTH EDITION

Peter D. Turnpenny, BSc MB ChB

FRCP FRCPCH FRCPath FHEA
Consultant Clinical Geneticist, Royal Devon and Exeter NHS Foundation
Trust, and Professor in Clinical Genomics, University of Exeter Medical
School

Sian Ellard, OBE BSc PhD FRCPath

Consultant Clinical Scientist, Royal Devon and Exeter NHS Foundation
Trust, and Professor of Genomic Medicine, University of Exeter Medical
School

Ruth Cleaver, BSc MB ChB PGCert

MRCP
Consultant Clinical Geneticist, Royal Devon and Exeter NHS Foundation
Trust
Table of Contents

Title page

Copyright

Preface

Acknowledgments

Dedication

1. The History and Impact of Genetics in Medicine

Abstract

Gregor Mendel and the Laws of Inheritance

DNA as the Basis of Inheritance

The Fruit Fly

The Origins of Medical Genetics

Major New Developments

The Societal Impact of Advances in Genetics

 Databases

Further Reading

Section A: The Scientific Basis of Human Genetics

2. The Cellular and Molecular Basis of Inheritance

Abstract

The Cell

DNA: The Hereditary Material

Chromosome Structure

Types of DNA Sequence

Transcription

Translation

The Genetic Code

Regulation of Gene Expression

RNA-Directed DNA Synthesis

Mutations

Mutations and Mutagenesis

Further Reading

3. Chromosomes and Cell Division

 Abstract

Human Chromosomes

Methods of Chromosome Analysis

Molecular Cytogenetics

Chromosome Nomenclature

Cell Division

Gametogenesis

Chromosome Abnormalities

Further Reading

4. Finding the Cause of Monogenic Disorders by Identifying Disease

Genes

Position-Independent Identification of Human Disease Genes

Positional Cloning

The Human Genome Project

Identifying the Genetic Etiology of Monogenic Disorders by

Next-Generation Sequencing

Further Reading

5. Laboratory Techniques for Diagnosis of Monogenic Disorders

Abstract

Polymerase Chain Reaction

 Application of DNA Sequence Polymorphisms

Nucleic Acid Hybridization Techniques

Mutation Detection

Sequencing-Based Methods

Dosage Analysis

Genome Sequencing as a Clinical Diagnostic Test

Further Reading

6. Patterns of Inheritance

Abstract

Family Studies

Mendelian Inheritance

Multiple Alleles and Complex Traits

Anticipation

Mosaicism

Uniparental Disomy

Genomic Imprinting

Mitochondrial Inheritance

Further Reading

7. Population and Mathematical Genetics

 Abstract

Allele Frequencies in Populations

Genetic Polymorphism

Segregation Analysis

Genetic Linkage

Medical and Societal Intervention

Conclusion

Further Reading

8. Risk Calculation

Abstract

Probability Theory

Autosomal Dominant Inheritance

Autosomal Recessive Inheritance

X-Linked Recessive Inheritance

The Use of Linked Markers

Bayes’ Theorem and Prenatal Screening

Empiric Risks

Further Reading

9. Developmental Genetics
 Abstract

Fertilization and Gastrulation

Developmental Gene Families

The Pharyngeal Arches

The Role of Cilia in Developmental Abnormalities

The Limb as a Developmental Model

Developmental Genes and Cancer

Positional Effects and Developmental Genes

Hydatidiform Moles

Epigenetics and Development

Sex Determination and Disorders of Sex Development

Twinning

Further Reading

Section B: Genetics in Medicine and Genomic

Medicine

10. Common Disease, Polygenic, and Multifactorial Genetics

Types and Mechanisms of Genetic Susceptibility

Approaches to Demonstrating Genetic Susceptibility to Common

Diseases
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 Polygenic Inheritance and the Normal Distribution

Multifactorial Inheritance—the Liability/Threshold Model

Identifying Genes That Cause Multifactorial Disorders

Polygenic Risk Scores

Disease Models for Multifactorial Inheritance

Further Reading

11. Screening for Genetic Disease

Abstract

Screening Those at High Risk

Carrier Testing for Autosomal Recessive and X-Linked Disorders

Presymptomatic Diagnosis of Autosomal Dominant Disorders

Ethical Considerations in Carrier Detection and Predictive

Testing

Population Screening

Criteria for a Screening Program

Prenatal and Postnatal Screening

Population Carrier Screening

Genetic Registers

Further Reading

Websites
12. Hemoglobin and the Hemoglobinopathies

Abstract

Structure of Hemoglobin

Developmental Expression of Hemoglobin

Globin Chain Structure

Synthesis and Control of Hemoglobin Expression

Disorders of Hemoglobin

Clinical Variation of the Hemoglobinopathies

Antenatal and Newborn Hemoglobinopathy Screening

Further Reading

Websites

13. Immunogenetics

Abstract

Immunity

Innate Immunity

Specific Acquired Immunity

Inherited Immunodeficiency Disorders

Blood Groups

Further Reading
14. The Genetics of Cancer…and Cancer Genetics

Abstract

Differentiation Between Genetic and Environmental Factors in

Cancer

Oncogenes

Tumor Suppressor Genes

Epigenetics and Cancer

Genetics of Common Cancers

DNA Tumor Profiling, Mutational Signatures, and Tumor

Mutational Burden

Inherited Cancer Syndromes

Genetic Counseling in Familial Cancer

Screening for Familial Cancer

What Treatment Is Appropriate?

Further Reading

15. Pharmacogenomics, Precision Medicine, and the Treatment of

Genetic Disease

Pharmacogenomics

Drug Metabolism

Genetic Variations Revealed by the Effects of Drugs

Precision Medicine
 Treatment of Genetic Disease

Therapeutic Applications of Recombinant DNA Technology

Gene Therapy

RNA Modification

Targeted Gene Correction

Stem Cell Therapy

Further Reading

Section C: Clinical Genetics, Counseling, and

Ethics

16. Congenital Abnormalities, Dysmorphic Syndromes, and

Intellectual Disability

Abstract

Incidence

Definition and Classification of Birth Defects

Genetic Causes of Malformations

Environmental Agents (Teratogens)

Malformations of Unknown Cause

Counseling

Intellectual Disability
 Further Reading

17. Chromosome Disorders

Abstract

Incidence of Chromosome Abnormalities

Disorders of the Sex Chromosomes

“Classic” Chromosome Deletion Syndromes

Chromosome Microarray/Microarray-Comparative Genomic

Hybridization

Chromosome Disorders and Behavioral Phenotypes

Chromosome Breakage Syndromes

Indications for Chromosome Microarray Analysis

Further Reading

18. Inborn Errors of Metabolism

Abstract

Disorders of Amino Acid and Peptide Metabolism

Disorders of Carbohydrate Metabolism

Disorders of Steroid Metabolism

Disorders of Lipid and Lipoprotein Metabolism

Lysosomal Storage Disorders

 Disorders in the Metabolism of Purines, Pyrimidines, and
Nucleotides

Disorders of Porphyrin and Heme Metabolism

Disorders in the Metabolism of Trace Elements and Metals

Peroxisomal Disorders

Disorders of Fatty Acid and Ketone Body Metabolism

Disorders of Energy Metabolism

Prenatal Diagnosis of Inborn Errors of Metabolism

Further Reading

19. Mainstream Monogenic Disorders

Abstract

Neurological Disorders

CADASIL and Early-Onset Dementia

Inherited Peripheral Neuropathies

Motor Neurone Disease

Neurocutaneous Disorders

Muscular Dystrophies

Respiratory Disorders

Inherited Cardiac Conditions

Connective Tissue Disorders

 Renal Disorders

Blood Disorders

Further Reading

20. Prenatal Testing and Reproductive Genetics

Abstract

Techniques Used in Prenatal Diagnosis

Antenatal and Prenatal Screening

Indications for Prenatal Testing

Special Problems in Prenatal Diagnosis

Termination of Pregnancy

Preimplantation Genetic Diagnosis

Assisted Conception and Implications for Genetic Disease

Prenatal Treatment

Further Reading

21. Genetic Counseling

Abstract

Definition

Establishing the Diagnosis

Calculating and Presenting the Risk

 Discussing the Options

Communication and Support

Genetic Counseling—Directive or Non-directive?

Outcomes in Genetic Counseling

Special Issues in Genetic Counseling

Further Reading

22. Ethical and Legal Issues in Medical Genetics

Abstract

General Principles

Ethical Dilemmas in the Genetics Clinic

Ethical Dilemmas and the Public Interest

Conclusion

Further Reading

Glossary

Appendix: Websites and Clinical Databases

General Genetic Websites

Human Genome Websites

Molecular Genetics Websites

 Cytogenetics Websites

Educational Human Genetics Websites

Human Genetics Societies

Clinical Databases

Other Resources

Multiple-Choice Questions

CHAPTER 2: The Cellular and Molecular Basis of Inheritance

CHAPTER 3: Chromosomes and Cell Division

CHAPTER 4: Finding the Cause of Monogenic Disorders by

Identifying Disease Genes

CHAPTER 5: Laboratory Techniques for Diagnosis of

Monogenic Disorders

CHAPTER 6: Patterns of Inheritance

CHAPTER 7: Population and Mathematical Genetics

CHAPTER 8: Risk Calculation

CHAPTER 9: Developmental Genetics

CHAPTER 10: Common Disease, Polygenic, and Multifactorial

Genetics

CHAPTER 11: Screening for Genetic Disease

CHAPTER 12: Hemoglobin and the Hemoglobinopathies

CHAPTER 13: Immunogenetics

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 CHAPTER 14: The Genetics of Cancer … and Cancer Genetics

CHAPTER 15: Pharmacogenomics, Precision Medicine, and the

Treatment of Genetic Disease

CHAPTER 16: Congenital Abnormalities, Dysmorphic

Syndromes, and Learning Disability

CHAPTER 17: Chromosome Disorders

CHAPTER 18: Inborn Errors of Metabolism

CHAPTER 19: Mainstream Monogenic Disorders

CHAPTER 20: Prenatal Testing and Reproductive Genetics

CHAPTER 21: Genetic Counseling

Case-Based Questions

CHAPTER 6: Patterns of Inheritance

CHAPTER 7: Population and Mathematical Genetics

CHAPTER 8: Risk Calculation

CHAPTER 9: Developmental Genetics

CHAPTER 10: Common Disease, Polygenic, and Multifactorial

Genetics

CHAPTER 11: Screening for Genetic Disease

CHAPTER 12: Hemoglobin and the Hemoglobinopathies

CHAPTER 13: Immunogenetics

CHAPTER 14: The Genetics of Cancer … and Cancer Genetics

 CHAPTER 16: Congenital Abnormalities, Dysmorphic
Syndromes, and Learning Disability

CHAPTER 17: Chromosome Disorders

CHAPTER 18: Inborn Errors of Metabolism

CHAPTER 19: Mainstream Monogenic Disorders

CHAPTER 20: Prenatal Testing and Reproductive Genetics

CHAPTER 21: Genetic Counseling

Multiple-Choice Answers

CHAPTER 2: The Cellular and Molecular Basis of Inheritance

CHAPTER 3: Chromosomes and Cell Division

CHAPTER 4: Finding the Cause of Monogenic Disorders by

Identifying Disease Genes

CHAPTER 5: Laboratory Techniques for Diagnosis of

Monogenic Disorders

CHAPTER 6: Patterns of Inheritance

CHAPTER 7: Population and Mathematical Genetics

CHAPTER 8: Risk Calculation

CHAPTER 9: Developmental Genetics

CHAPTER 10: Common Disease, Polygenic, and Multifactorial

Genetics

CHAPTER 11: Screening for Genetic Disease

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the following words:—“And when the Ḥayyot went, the Ofannim
went by them; and when the living creatures were lifted up from the
earth, the Ofannim were lifted up” (ver. 19); “and the Ofannim were
lifted up over against them” (ver. 20). And the cause of this is
explained thus:—“The spirit of the Ḥayyah was in the Ofannim”
(ibid.). For the sake of emphasis and further explanation the prophet
adds, “When those went, these went; and when those stood, these
stood; and when those were lifted up from the earth, the Ofannim
were lifted up over against them; for the spirit of the Ḥayyah was in
the Ofannim” (ver. 21). The order of these movements is therefore
as follows:—Whithersoever it is the will of God that the Ḥayyot
should move, thither they move of their own accord. When the
Ḥayyot move the Ofannim necessarily follow them, because they are
tied to them, and not because they move of their own accord in the
direction in which the Ḥayyot move. This order is expressed in the
words, “Whithersoever the spirit was to go, they went, thither was
the spirit to go; and the Ofannim were lifted up over against them;
for the spirit of the Ḥayyah was in the Ofannim” (ver. 20). I have
told you that Jonathan, the son of Uzziel, translates the verse thus,
“to the place whither it was the will that the Ḥayyot should go,” etc.

After having completed the account of the Ḥayyot, with their form
and motion, and of the Ofannim, which are beneath the Ḥayyot,
connected with them and forced to move when the Ḥayyot move,
the prophet begins to describe a third object which he perceived
prophetically, and gives the account of a new thing, viz., of that
which is above the Ḥayyot. He says that the firmament is above the
four Ḥayyot, above the firmament is the likeness of a throne, and
over the throne the likeness of the appearance of man. This is the
whole account of what the prophet perceived at first at the river
Chebar.
[Contents]
 CHAPTER III
When Ezekiel recalled to memory the form of the Chariot, which he
described in the beginning of the book, the same vision presented
itself to him a second time; in this vision he was borne to Jerusalem.
He explains in describing it things which have not been made clear
at first, e.g., he substitutes the term “cherubim” for Ḥayyot, whereby
he expresses that the [256]Ḥayyot of the first vision are likewise
angels like the cherubim. He says, therefore: “Where the cherubims
went, the Ofannim went by them: and when the cherubims lifted up
their wings to mount up from the earth, the same Ofannim also
turned not from beside them” (x. 16). By these words he shows how
closely connected the two motions are [viz., that of the Ḥayyot and
that of the Ofannim]. The prophet adds, “This is the Ḥayyah that I
saw under the God of Israel by the river of Chebar; and I knew that
they were cherubims” (ver. 20). He thus describes the same forms
and the same motions, and states that the Ḥayyot and the cherubim
are identical. A second point is then made clear in this second
description, namely, that the Ofannim are spherical; for the prophet
says, “As for the Ofannim, it was cried unto them in my hearing, O
sphere” (ver. 13). A third point concerning the Ofannim is illustrated
here in the following words: “To the place whither the head looked
they followed it: they turned not as they went” (ver. 11). The motion
of the Ofannim is thus described as involuntary, and directed “to the
place whither the head looketh”; and of this it is stated that it moves
“whither the spirit is to go” (i. 20). A fourth point is added
concerning the Ofannim, namely, “And the Ofannim were full of eyes
round about, even the Ofannim that they four had” (x. 12). This has
not been mentioned before. In this second description there are
further mentioned “their flesh, and their backs, and their hands, and
their wings” (ibid.), whilst in the first account none of these is
mentioned; and it is only stated that they are bodies. Though they
are endowed in the second account with flesh, hands, and wings, no
form is given to them. In the second account each ofan is attributed
to a cherub, “one ofan by one cherub, and another ofan by another
cherub.” The four Ḥayyot are then described as one Ḥayyah on
account of their interjoining: “This is the Ḥayyah that I saw under
the God of Israel by the river of Chebar” (ver. 20). Also the Ofannim,
though being four in number, as has been mentioned, are called
“one ofan upon the earth” (ver. 15), because they interjoin, and
“they four have one likeness” (ver. 16). This is the additional
explanation which the second vision gives of the form of the Ḥayyot
and the Ofannim.

[Contents]
 CHAPTER IV
It is necessary to call your attention to an idea expressed by
Jonathan, the son of Uzziel. When he saw that the prophet says in
reference to the Ofannim, “It was cried unto them in my hearing, O
gilgal” (“sphere”) (x. 13), he assumed that by Ofannim the heavens
are meant, and rendered ofan by gilgal, “sphere,” and ofannim by
gilgelaya, “spheres.” I have no doubt that he found a confirmation of
his opinion in the words of the prophet that the Ofannim were like
unto the colour of tarshish (ver. 16), a colour ascribed to the
heavens, as is well known. When he, therefore, noticed the passage,
“Now as I beheld the Ḥayyot, behold one Ofan upon the earth” (i.
15), which clearly shows that the Ofannim were upon the earth, he
had a difficulty in explaining it in accordance with his opinion.
Following, however, his interpretation, he explains the terms ereẓ,
employed here as denoting the inner surface of the heavenly sphere,
which may be considered as ereẓ (“earth” or “below”), in relation to
all that is above that surface. He [257]therefore translates the words
ofan eḥad ba-areẓ as follows: “One ofan was below the height of the
heavens.” Consider what his explanation of the passage must be. I
think that he gave this explanation because he thought that gilgal
denotes in its original meaning “heaven.” My opinion is that gilgal
means originally “anything rolling”; comp. “And I will roll thee (ve-
gilgaltika) down from the rocks” (Jer. li. 25); “and rolled (va-yagel)
the stone” (Gen. xxix. 10); the same meaning the word has in the
phrase: “Like a rolling thing (gilgal) before the whirlwind” (Isa. xvii.
13). The poll of the head, being round, is therefore called gulgolet;
and because everything round rolls easily, every spherical thing is
called gilgal; also the heavens are called gilgallim on account of their
spherical form. Thus our Sages use the phrase, “It is a wheel (gilgal)
that moves round the world”; and a wooden ball, whether small or
large, is called gilgal. If so, the prophet merely intended by the
words, “As for the Ofannim, it is cried to them in my hearing, O
sphere” (gilgal), to indicate the shape of the Ofannim, as nothing
has been mentioned before respecting their form and shape; but he
did not mean to say that the Ofannim are the same as the heavens.
The term “like tarshish” is explained in the second account, in which
it is said of the Ofannim: “And the appearance of the ofannim was
like the colour of tarshish.” This latter passage is translated by
Jonathan, the son of Uzziel, “like the colour of a precious stone,”
exactly in the same manner as Onkelos translates the phrase ke-
maʻase libnat ha-sappir, “like the work of the whiteness of sapphire”
(Exod. xxix. 10). Note this. You will not find it strange that I mention
the explanation of Jonathan, son of Uzziel, whilst I gave a different
explanation myself; for you will find many of the wise men and the
commentators differ sometimes from him in the interpretation of
words and in many things respecting the prophets. Why should it be
otherwise in these profound matters? Besides, I do not decide in
favour of my interpretation. It is for you to learn both—the whole of
his explanation, from what I have pointed out to you, and also my
own opinion. God knoweth which of the two explanations is in
accordance with that which the prophet intended to say.

[Contents]
 CHAPTER V
It is necessary to notice that the plural marot elohim, “visions of
God,” is here used, and not the singular mareh, “vision,” for there
were several things, of different kinds, that were perceived by the
prophet. The following three things were perceived by him: the
Ofannim, the Ḥayyot, and the man above the Ḥayyot. The
description of each of these visions is introduced by the word va-
ereh, “and I beheld.” For the account of the Ḥayyot, begins, “And I
looked (va-ereh), and behold a whirlwind,” etc. (Ezek. i. 4). The
account of the Ofannim begins: “Now as I beheld (va-ereh) the
Ḥayyot, behold one Ofan upon the earth” (ver. 15). The vision of
that which is above the Ḥayyot in order and rank begins: “And I saw
(va-ereh) as the colour of the amber, etc., from the appearance of
his loins even upward” (ver. 27). The word va-ereh, “and I beheld,”
only occurs these three times in the description of the Mercabah.
The doctors of the Mishnah have already explained this fact, and my
attention was called to it by their remarks. [258]For they said that
only the two first visions, namely, that of the Ḥayyot and the
Ofannim, might be interpreted to others; but of the third vision, viz.,
that of the ḥashmal and all that is connected with it, only the heads
of the sections may be taught. Rabbi [Jehudah], the Holy, is of
opinion that all the three visions are called maʻaseh mercabah, and
nothing but the heads of the sections could be communicated to
others. The exact words of the discussion are as follows:—Where
does maʻaseh mercabhah end? Rabbi says, with the last va-ereh;
Rabbi Yiẓḥak says it ends at the word ḥashmal (ver. 27). The portion
from va-ereh to ḥashmal may be fully taught; of that which follows,
only the heads of the sections; according to some it is the passage
from va-ereh to ḥashmal, of which the heads of the sections may be
taught, but that which follows may only be studied by those who
possess the capacity, whilst those that cannot study it by themselves
must leave it.—It is clear from the words of our Sages that different
visions are described, as may also be inferred from the repetition of
the word va-ereh, and that these visions are different from each
other in degree; the last and highest of them is the vision
commencing, “And I saw as the colour of ḥashmal”; that is to say,
the divided figure of the man, described as “the appearance of fire,
etc., from the appearance of his loins even upward, and from the
appearance of his loins even downward,” etc. There is a difference of
opinion among our Sages whether it is permitted to give by way of
hints an exposition of any part of this third vision, or whether it is
prohibited even to teach of it the heads of the sections, so that only
the wise can arrive at understanding it by their own studies. You will
also notice a difference of opinion among our Sages in reference to
the two first visions, viz., that of the Ḥayyot and that of the Ofannim
whether these may be taught explicitly or only by way of hints, dark
sayings, and heads of sections. You must also notice the order of
these three visions. First comes the vision of the Ḥayyot, because
they are first in rank and in the causal relation, as it is said, “For the
spirit of the Ḥayyah was in the Ofannim” and also for other reasons.
The vision of the Ofannim [comes next, and] is followed by one
which is higher than the Ḥayyot, as has been shown. The cause of
this arrangement is, that in study the first two must necessarily
precede the third, and in fact they lead to it.

[Contents]
 CHAPTER VI
The sublime and great subject which Ezekiel by prophetic impulse
began to teach us in the description of the Mercabah, is exactly the
same which Isaiah taught us in general outlines, because he did not
require all the detail. Isaiah says, “I saw the Lord sitting upon a
throne, high and lifted up, and his train filled the temple. Above it
stood seraphims,” etc. (Isa. vi. 1 seq.). Our Sages have already
stated all this clearly, and called our attention to it. For they say that
the vision of Ezekiel is the same as that of Isaiah, and illustrate their
view by the following simile:—Two men saw the king riding, the one
a townsman, the other a countryman. The former, seeing that his
neighbours know well how the king rides, simply tells them that he
saw the king; but the villager, wishing to tell his friends things which
they do not know, relates in detail how the king was riding,
describes his followers, and [259]the officers who execute his order
and command. This remark is a most useful hint; it is contained in
the following passage (Ḥagigah, 13 b): “Isaiah saw all that has been
seen by Ezekiel; Isaiah is like a townsman that sees the king, Ezekiel
like a countryman that sees the king.” These words can be explained
in the manner which I have just mentioned, viz., the generation of
Isaiah did not require the detailed description; his account, “I saw
the Lord,” etc., sufficed. The generation of the Babylonian exile
wanted to learn all the details. It is, however, possible that the
author of this saying held Isaiah as more perfect than Ezekiel, so
that the vision might have overawed Ezekiel and appeared fearful to
him; but Isaiah was so familiar with it that he did not consider it
necessary to communicate it to others as a new thing, especially as
it was well known to the intelligent.
[Contents]
 CHAPTER VII
One of the points that require investigation is the connexion
between the vision of the mercabah and the year, month, and day,
and also the place of the vision. A reason must be found for this
connexion, and we must not think that it is an indifferent element in
the vision. We must consider the words, “the heavens were opened”
(Ezek. i. 1); they give the key to the understanding of the whole.
The figure of opening, also that of opening the gates, occurs
frequently in the books of the prophets; e.g., “Open ye the gates
that the righteous nation may enter in” (Isa. xxvi. 2); “He opened
the doors of heaven” (Ps. lxxviii. 23); “Lift them up, ye everlasting
doors” (ibid. xxiv. 9); “Open to me the gates of righteousness, I will
go into them, and I will praise the Lord” (ibid. cxviii. 19). There are
many other instances of this kind. You must further notice that the
whole description refers undoubtedly to a prophetic vision, as it is
said, “And the hand of the Lord was there upon him” (Ezek. i. 3);
and yet there is a very great difference between the various parts of
the description, for in the account of the Ḥayyot the prophet does
not say four Ḥayyot, but “the likeness of the four Ḥayyot” (ibid. ver.
5); similarly he says, “And the likeness of a firmament was over the
heads of the Ḥayyot” (ver. 22); “as the appearance of a sapphire
stone, the likeness of a throne,” and “the likeness of the appearance
of man above it” (ver. 26). In all these instances the word “likeness”
is used, whilst in the account of the Ofannim the phrases, “the
likeness of Ofannim,” the “likeness of an Ofan,” are not employed,
but they are described in a positive manner as beings in actual
existence, with their real properties. The sentence “they four had
one likeness” must not mislead you, for here the word “likeness” is
not used in the same connexion or in the same sense as indicated
above. In the description of the last vision the prophet confirms and
explains this view. When he commences to describe the firmament
in detail, he says, “the firmament,” without adding the words “the
likeness of,” for he says, “And I looked, and behold, in the firmament
that was above the head of the cherubims there appeared over them
as it were a sapphire stone, as the appearance of the likeness of a
throne” (x. 1). Here the prophet speaks of “the firmament” and not
of “the likeness of the firmament,” as he does when he connects the
firmament with the [260]heads of the likeness of the Ḥayyot (i. 22).
But, as regards the throne, he says, “the likeness of a throne
appeared over them,” in order to indicate that the firmament was
first perceived and then the likeness of the throne was seen over it.
Consider this well.

You must further notice that in the description of the first vision the
Ḥayyot have wings and at the same time human hands, whilst in the
second vision, in which the term cherubim is substituted for Ḥayyot,
at first only wings were perceived, and later on human hands were
seen. Comp. “And there appeared in the cherubims the form of a
man’s hand under their wings” (x. 8). Here “form” (tabnit) is used
instead of “likeness” (demut); and the hands are placed under the
wings. Note this.

Consider that in reference to the ofannim, the prophet says, le-

ʻummatam, “over against them,” although he does not ascribe to
them any form.

He further says, “As the appearance of the bow that is in the cloud
in the day of rain, so was the appearance of the brightness round
about. This was the appearance of the likeness of the glory,” etc. (i.
28). The substance and true essence of the bow described here is
well known. The simile and comparison is in this case very
extraordinary, and is undoubtedly part of the prophecy; and note it
well.
It is also noteworthy that the likeness of man above the throne is
divided, the upper part being like the colour of ḥashmal, the lower
part like the appearance of fire. As regards the word ḥashmal, it has
been explained to be a compound of two words ḥash and mal,
including two different notions, viz., ḥash signifying “swiftness,” and
mal denoting “pause.” The two different notions are here joined in
one word in order to indicate figuratively the two different parts,—
the upper part and the lower. We have already given a second
explanation, namely, that ḥashmal includes the two notions of
speech and silence; in accordance with the saying of our Sages, “At
times they are silent, at times they speak,” thus deriving hash of the
same root as heḥeshethi, “I have been silent” (Isa. xlii. 14); the
word ḥashmal thus includes two notions, and indicates “speech
without sound.” There is no doubt that the words, “at times they are
silent, at times they speak,” refer to a created object. Now consider
how they clearly stated that the divided likeness of man over the
throne does not represent God, who is above the whole chariot, but
represents a part of the creation. The prophet likewise says “that is
the likeness of the glory of the Lord”; but “the glory of the Lord” is
different from “the Lord” Himself, as has been shown by us several
times. All the figures in this vision refer to the glory of the Lord, to
the chariot, and not to Him who rides upon the chariot; for God
cannot be compared to anything. Note this. I have thus given you
also in this chapter as much of the heads of the sections as will be
useful to you for the comprehension of this subject, if you fill out
[the sections of] these heads. If you consider all that has been said
in this part up to this chapter, the greater part of this subject or the
whole of it will be clear to you, except a few points and some
repetitions the meaning of which is unknown. Perhaps further study
will help to reveal even these things so that nothing will remain
unintelligible.
Do not expect or hope to hear from me after this chapter a word on
this subject, either explicitly or implicitly, for all that could be said on
it has been [261]said, though with great difficulty and struggle. I will
now begin to treat of some of the other subjects which I hope to
elucidate in this treatise.

[Contents]
 CHAPTER VIII
Transient bodies are only subject to destruction through their
substance and not through their form, nor can the essence of their
form be destroyed; in this respect they are permanent. The generic
forms, as you know, are all permanent and stable. Form can only be
destroyed accidentally, i.e., on account of its connexion with
substance, the true nature of which consists in the property of never
being without a disposition to receive form. This is the reason why
no form remains permanently in a substance; a constant change
takes place, one form is taken off and another is put on. How
wonderfully wise is the simile of King Solomon, in which he
compares matter to a faithless wife; for matter is never found
without form, and is therefore always like such a wife who is never
without a husband, never single; and yet, though being wedded,
constantly seeks another man in the place of her husband; she
entices and attracts him in every possible manner till he obtains from
her what her husband has obtained. The same is the case with
matter. Whatever form it has, it is disposed to receive another form;
it never leaves off moving and casting off the form which it has in
order to receive another. The same takes place when this second
form is received. It is therefore clear that all corruption, destruction,
or defect comes from matter. Take, e.g., man; his deformities and
unnatural shape of limbs; all weakness, interruption, or disorder of
his actions, whether innate or not, originate in the transient
substance, not in the form. All other living beings likewise die or
become ill through the substance of the body and not through its
form. Man’s shortcomings and sins are all due to the substance of
the body and not to its form; while all his merits are exclusively due
to his form. Thus the knowledge of God, the formation of ideas, the
mastery of desire and passion, the distinction between that which is
to be chosen and that which is to be rejected, all these man owes to
his form; but eating, drinking, sexual intercourse, excessive lust,
passion, and all vices, have their origin in the substance of his body.
Now it was clear that this was the case,—it was impossible,
according to the wisdom of God, that substance should exist without
form, or any of the forms of the bodies without substance, and it
was necessary that the very noble form of man, which is the image
and likeness of God, as has been shown by us, should be joined to
the substance of dust and darkness, the source of all defect and
loss. For these reasons the Creator gave to the form of man power,
rule, and dominion over the substance;—the form can subdue the
substance, refuse the fulfilment of its desires, and reduce them, as
far as possible, to a just and proper measure. The station of man
varies according to the exercise of this power. Some persons
constantly strive to choose that which is noble, and to seek
perpetuation in accordance with the direction of their nobler part,—
their form; their thoughts are engaged in the formation of ideas, the
acquisition of true knowledge about everything, and the union with
the divine intellect which flows down upon them, and which is the
source of man’s form. Whenever they are led by the wants of the
body to that which is low and avowedly disgraceful, they are grieved
at their [262]position, they feel ashamed and confounded at their
situation. They try with all their might to diminish this disgrace, and
to guard against it in every possible way. They feel like a person
whom the king in his anger ordered to remove refuse from one place
to another in order to put him to shame; that person tries as much
as possible to hide himself during the time of his disgrace; he
perhaps removes a small quantity a short distance in such a manner
that his hands and garments remain clean, and he himself be
unnoticed by his fellow-men. Such would be the conduct of a free
man, whilst a slave would find pleasure in such work;—he would not
consider it a great burden, but throw himself into the refuse, smear
his face and his hands, carry the refuse openly, laughing and
singing. This is exactly the difference in the conduct of different
men. Some consider, as we just said, all wants of the body as
shame, disgrace, and defect to which they are compelled to attend;
this is chiefly the case with the sense of touch, which is a disgrace to
us according to Aristotle, and which is the cause of our desire for
eating, drinking, and sensuality. Intelligent persons must, as much
as possible, reduce these wants, guard against them, feel grieved
when satisfying them, abstain from speaking of them, discussing
them, and attending to them in company with others. Man must
have control over all these desires, reduce them as much as
possible, and only retain of them as much as is indispensable. His
aim must be the aim of man as man, viz., the formation of ideas,
and nothing else. The best and sublimest among them is the idea
which man forms of God, angels, and the rest of the creation
according to his capacity. Such men are always with God, and of
them it is said, “Ye are princes, and all of you are children of the
Most High” (Ps. lxxxii. 6). This is man’s task and purpose. Others,
however, that are separated from God form the multitude of fools,
and do just the opposite. They neglect all thought and all reflection
on ideas, and consider as their task the cultivation of the sense of
touch,—that sense which is the greatest disgrace; they only think
and reason about eating and love. Thus it is said of the wicked who
are drowned in eating, drinking, and love, “They also have erred
through wine, and through strong drink are out of the way,” etc.
(Isa. xxviii. 7), “for all tables are full of vomit and filthiness, so that
there is no place clean” (ver. 8); again, “And women rule over them”
(ibid. iii. 2),—the opposite of that which man was told in the
beginning of the creation, “And for thy husband shall thy desire be,
and he shall rule over thee” (Gen. iii. 16). The intensity of their lust
is then described thus, “Every one neighed after his neighbour’s
wife,” etc. (Jer. v. 8); “they are all adulterers, an assembly of
treacherous men” (ibid. ix. 2). The whole book of the Proverbs of
Solomon treats of this subject, and exhorts to abstain from lust and
intemperance. These two vices ruin those that hate God and keep
far from Him; to them the following passages may be applied, “They
are not the Lord’s” (ibid. v. 10); “Cast them out of my sight, and let
them go forth” (ibid. xv. 1). As regards the portion beginning, “Who
can find a virtuous woman?” it is clear what is meant by the
figurative expression, “a virtuous woman.” When man possesses a
good sound body that does not overpower him nor disturb the
equilibrium in him, he possesses a divine gift. In short, a good
constitution facilitates the rule of the soul over the body, but it is not
impossible to conquer a bad constitution by training. For this reason
King [263]Solomon and others wrote the moral lessons; also all the
commandments and exhortations in the Pentateuch aim at
conquering the desires of the body. Those who desire to be men in
truth, and not brutes, having only the appearance and shape of
men, must constantly endeavour to reduce the wants of the body,
such as eating, love, drinking, anger, and all vices originating in lust
and passion; they must feel ashamed of them and set limits to them
for themselves. As for eating and drinking in so far as it is
indispensable, they will eat and drink only as much as is useful and
necessary as food, and not for the purpose of pleasure. They will
also speak little of these things, and rarely congregate for such
purposes. Thus our Sages, as is well known, kept aloof from a
banquet that was not part of a religious act, and pious men followed
the example of R. Phineḥas, son of Jair, who never dined with other
persons, and even refused to accept an invitation of R. Jehudah, the
Holy. Wine may be treated as food, if taken as such, but to form
parties for the purpose of drinking wine together must be considered
more disgraceful than the unrestrained conduct of persons who in
daylight meet in the same house undressed and naked. For the
natural action of the digestive organ is indispensable to man, he
cannot do without it; whilst drunkenness depends on the free will of
an evil man. To appear naked in the presence of other people is
misconduct only according to public opinion, not according to the
dictates of reason, whilst drunkenness, which ruins the mind and the
body of man, reason stamps as a vice. You, therefore, who desire to
act as human beings must keep away from it, and even from
speaking of it. On sexual intercourse, I need not add anything after I
have pointed out in the commentary on Abot (i. 17) how it is treated
by our Law, which is the teaching of pure wisdom—no excuse
whatever should induce us to mention it or to speak of it. Thus our
Sages said, that Elisha the prophet is called holy, because he did not
think of it, and consequently never found himself polluted with
semen. In a similar manner they say that Jacob had the first issue of
semen for the conception of Reuben. All these traditional stories
have the object of teaching the nation humane conduct. There is a
well-known saying of our Sages, “The thoughts about the sin are
more dangerous than the sin itself.” I can offer a good explanation of
this saying: When a person is disobedient, this is due to certain
accidents connected with the corporeal element in his constitution;
for man sins only by his animal nature, whereas thinking is a faculty
of man connected with his form,—a person who thinks sinfully sins
therefore by means of the nobler portion of his self; and he who
wrongly causes a foolish slave to work does not sin as much as he
who wrongly causes a noble and free man to do the work of a slave.
For this specifically human element, with all its properties and
powers, should only be employed in suitable work, in attempts to
join higher beings, and not in attempts to go down and reach the
lower creatures. You know how we condemn lowness of speech, and
justly so, for speech is likewise peculiar to man and a boon which
God granted to him that he may be distinguished from the rest of
living creatures. Thus God says, “Who gave a mouth to man?”
(Exod. iv. 11); and the prophet declares, “The Lord God hath given
me a learned tongue” (Isa. l. 4). This gift, therefore, which God gave
us in order to enable us to perfect ourselves, to learn and to teach,
must not be employed in doing that which is for us most
[264]degrading and perfectly disgraceful; we must not imitate the
songs and tales of ignorant and lascivious people. It may be suitable
to them, but is not fit for those who are told, “And ye shall be unto
me a kingdom of priests and a holy nation” (Exod. xix. 6). Those
who employ the faculty of thinking and speaking in the service of
that sense which is no honour to us, who think more than necessary
of drink and love, or even sing of these things; they employ and use
the divine gift in acts of rebellion against the Giver, and in the
transgression of His commandments. To them the following words
may be applied: “And I multiplied her silver and gold, which they
prepared for Baal” (Hos. ii. 10). I have also a reason and cause for
calling our language the holy language—do not think it is
exaggeration or error on my part, it is perfectly correct—the Hebrew
language has no special name for the organ of generation in females
or in males, nor for the act of generation itself, nor for semen, nor
for secretion. The Hebrew has no original expressions for these
things, and only describes them in figurative language and by way of
hints, as if to indicate thereby that these things should not be
mentioned, and should therefore have no names; we ought to be
silent about them, and when we are compelled to mention them, we
must manage to employ for that purpose some suitable expressions,
although these are generally used in a different sense. Thus the
organ of generation in males is called in Hebrew gid, which is a
figurative term, reminding of the words, “And thy neck is an iron
sinew” (gid) (Isa. xlviii. 4). It is also called shupka, “pouring out”
(Deut. xxiii. 2), on account of its function. The female organ is called
kobah (Num. xxv. 8), from kebah (Deut. xviii. 3), which denotes
“stomach”; reḥem, “womb,” is the inner organ in which the fœtus
develops; ẓoah (Isa. xxviii. 8), “refuse,” is derived from the verb
yaẓa, “he went out”; for “urine” the phrase meme raglayim, “the
water of the feet” (2 Kings. xviii. 17), is used; semen is expressed by
shikbat zeraʻ, “a layer of seed.” For the act of generation there is no
expression whatever in Hebrew; it is described by the following
words only: baʻal, “he was master”; shakab, “he lay”; laḳaḥ, “he
took”; gillah ʻervah, “he uncovered the nakedness.” Be not misled by
the word yishgalennah (Deut. xxviii. 30), to take it as denoting that
act; this is not the case, for shegal denotes a female ready for
cohabitation. Comp. “Upon thy right hand did stand the maiden”
(shegal) “in gold of Ophir” (Ps. xlv. 10). Yishgalennah, according to
the Kethib, denotes therefore “he will take the female for the
purpose of cohabitation.”

We have made in the greater part of this chapter a digression from

the theme of this treatise, and introduced some moral and religious
matter, although they do not entirely belong to the subject of this
treatise, but the course of the discussion has led to it.

[Contents]
 CHAPTER IX
The corporeal element in man is a large screen and partition that
prevents him from perfectly perceiving abstract ideals; this would be
the case even if the corporeal element were as pure and superior as
the substance of the spheres; how much more must this be the case
with our dark and opaque body. However great the exertion of our
mind may be to comprehend the Divine Being or any of the ideals,
we find a screen and partition between Him [265]and ourselves. Thus
the prophets frequently hint at the existence of a partition between
God and us. They say He is concealed from us in vapours, in
darkness, in mist, or in a thick cloud; or use similar figures to
express that on account of our bodies we are unable to comprehend
His essence. This is the meaning of the words, “Clouds and darkness
are round about Him” (Ps. xcvii. 2). The prophets tell us that the
difficulty consists in the grossness of our substance; they do not
imply, as might be gathered from the literal meaning of their words,
that God is corporeal, and is invisible because He is surrounded by
thick clouds, vapours, darkness, or mist. This figure is also expressed
in the passage, “He made darkness His secret place” (Ps. xviii. 12).
The object of God revealing Himself in thick clouds, darkness,
vapours, and mist was to teach this lesson; for every prophetic
vision contains some lesson by means of allegory; that mighty
vision, therefore, though the greatest of all visions, and above all
comparison, viz., His revelation in a thick cloud, did not take place
without any purpose, it was intended to indicate that we cannot
comprehend Him on account of the dark body that surrounds us. It
does not surround God, because He is incorporeal. A tradition is
current among our people that the day of the revelation on Mount
Sinai was misty, cloudy, and a little rainy. Comp. “Lord, when thou
wentest forth from Seir, when thou marchedst out of the field of
Edom, the earth trembled, and the heavens dropped water” (Judges
v. 4). The same idea is expressed by the words “darkness, clouds,
and thick darkness” (Deut. iv. 11). The phrase does not denote that
darkness surrounds God, for with Him there is no darkness, but the
great, strong, and permanent light, which, emanating from Him,
illuminates all darkness, as is expressed by the prophetic simile,
“And the earth shined with His glory” (Ezek. xliii. 2).

[Contents]
 CHAPTER X
The Mutakallemim, as I have already told you, apply the term non-
existence only to absolute non-existence, and not to the absence of
properties. A property and the absence of that property are
considered by them as two opposites, they treat, e.g., blindness and
sight, death and life, in the same way as heat and cold. Therefore
they say, without any qualification, non-existence does not require
any agent, an agent is required when something is produced. From
a certain point of view this is correct. Although they hold that non-
existence does not require an agent, they say in accordance with
their principle that God causes blindness and deafness, and gives
rest to anything that moves, for they consider these negative
conditions as positive properties. We must now state our opinion in
accordance with the results of philosophical research. You know that
he who removes the obstacle of motion is to some extent the cause
of the motion, e.g., if one removes the pillar which supports the
beam he causes the beam to move, as has been stated by Aristotle
in his Physics (VIII., chap. iv.); in this sense we say of him who
removed a certain property that he produced the absence of that
property, although absence of a property is nothing positive. Just as
we say of him who puts out the light at night that he has produced
darkness, so we say of him who destroyed the sight of any being
that he produced blindness, although darkness and blindness are
negative properties, and require no agent. [266]In accordance with
this view we explain the following passage of Isaiah: “I form the
light and create (bore) darkness: I make peace, and create (bore)
evil” (Isa. xlv. 7), for darkness and evil are non-existing things.
Consider that the prophet does not say, I make (ʻoseh) darkness, I
make (ʻoseh) evil, because darkness and evil are not things in
positive existence to which the verb “to make” would apply; the verb
bara “he created” is used, because in Hebrew this verb is applied to
non-existing things, e.g., “In the beginning God created” (bara),
etc.; here the creation took place from nothing. Only in this sense
can non-existence be said to be produced by a certain action of an
agent. In the same way we must explain the following passage:
“Who hath made man’s mouth? or who maketh the dumb, or the
deaf, or the seeing,” etc. (Exod. iv. 11). The passage can also be
explained as follows: Who has made man able to speak? or can
create him without the capacity of speaking, i.e., create a substance
that is incapable of acquiring this property? for he who produces a
substance that cannot acquire a certain property may be called the
producer of that privation. Thus we say, if any one abstains from
delivering a fellow-man from death, although he is able to do so,
that he killed him. It is now clear that according to all these different
views the action of an agent cannot be directly connected with a
thing that does not exist; only indirectly is non-existence described
as the result of the action of an agent, whilst in a direct manner an
action can only influence a thing really in existence; accordingly,
whoever the agent may be, he can only act upon an existing thing.

After this explanation you must recall to memory that, as has been
proved, the [so-called] evils are evils only in relation to a certain
thing, and that which is evil in reference to a certain existing thing,
either includes the non-existence of that thing or the non-existence
of some of its good conditions. The proposition has therefore been
laid down in the most general terms, “All evils are negations.” Thus
for man death is evil; death is his non-existence. Illness, poverty,
and ignorance are evils for man; all these are privations of
properties. If you examine all single cases to which this general
proposition applies, you will find that there is not one case in which
the proposition is wrong except in the opinion of those who do not
make any distinction between negative and positive properties, or
between two opposites, or do not know the nature of things,—who,
e.g., do not know that health in general denotes a certain
equilibrium, and is a relative term. The absence of that relation is
illness in general, and death is the absence of life in the case of any
animal. The destruction of other things is likewise nothing but the
absence of their form.

After these propositions, it must be admitted as a fact that it cannot

be said of God that He directly creates evil, or He has the direct
intention to produce evil; this is impossible. His works are all
perfectly good. He only produces existence, and all existence is
good; whilst evils are of a negative character, and cannot be acted
upon. Evil can only be attributed to Him in the way we have
mentioned. He creates evil only in so far as He produces the
corporeal element such as it actually is; it is always connected with
negatives, and is on that account the source of all destruction and all
evil. Those beings that do not possess this corporeal element are not
subject to destruction or evil; consequently the true work of God is
all good, since it [267]is existence. The book which enlightened the
darkness of the world says therefore, “And God saw everything that
He had made, and, behold, it was very good” (Gen. i. 31). Even the
existence of this corporeal element, low as it in reality is, because it
is the source of death and all evils, is likewise good for the
permanence of the Universe and the continuation of the order of
things, so that one thing departs and the other succeeds. Rabbi Meir
therefore explains the words “and behold it was very good” (tob
me’od); that even death was good in accordance with what we have
observed in this chapter. Remember what I said in this chapter,
consider it, and you will understand all that the prophets and our
Sages remarked about the perfect goodness of all the direct works
of God. In Bereshit Rabba (chap. i.) the same idea is expressed thus:
“No evil comes down from above.”
[Contents]
 CHAPTER XI
All the great evils which men cause to each other because of certain
intentions, desires, opinions, or religious principles, are likewise due
to non-existence, because they originate in ignorance, which is
absence of wisdom. A blind man, for example, who has no guide,
stumbles constantly, because he cannot see, and causes injury and
harm to himself and others. In the same manner various classes of
men, each man in proportion to his ignorance, bring great evils upon
themselves and upon other individual members of the species. If
men possessed wisdom, which stands in the same relation to the
form of man as the sight to the eye, they would not cause any injury
to themselves or to others; for the knowledge of truth removes
hatred and quarrels, and prevents mutual injuries. This state of
society is promised to us by the prophet in the words: “And the wolf
shall dwell with the lamb,” etc.; “and the cow and the bear shall feed
together,” etc.; and “the sucking child shall play on the hole of the
asp,” etc. (Isa. xi. 6 seq.). The prophet also points out what will be
the cause of this change; for he says that hatred, quarrel, and
fighting will come to an end, because men will then have a true
knowledge of God. “They shall not hurt nor destroy in all my holy
mountain: for the earth shall be full of the knowledge of the Lord, as
the waters cover the sea” (ibid. ver. 9). Note it.

[Contents]
 CHAPTER XII
Men frequently think that the evils in the world are more numerous
than the good things; many savings and songs of the nations dwell
on this idea. They say that a good thing is found only exceptionally,
whilst evil things are numerous and lasting. Not only common people
make this mistake, but even many who believe that they are wise.
Al-Razi wrote a well-known book On Metaphysics [or Theology].
Among other mad and foolish things, it contains also the idea,
discovered by him, that there exists more evil than good. For if the
happiness of man and his pleasure in the times of prosperity be
compared with the mishaps that befall him,—such as grief, acute
pain, defects, paralysis of the limbs, fears, anxieties, and troubles,—
it would seem as if the existence of man is a punishment and a
great evil for him. This author commenced to verify his opinion by
counting all the evils one by one; by [268]this means he opposed
those who hold the correct view of the benefits bestowed by God
and His evident kindness, viz., that God is perfect goodness, and
that all that comes from Him is absolutely good. The origin of the
error is to be found in the circumstance that this ignorant man, and
his party among the common people, judge the whole universe by
examining one single person. For an ignorant man believes that the
whole universe only exists for him; as if nothing else required any
consideration. If, therefore, anything happens to him contrary to his
expectation, he at once concludes that the whole universe is evil. If,
however, he would take into consideration the whole universe, form
an idea of it, and comprehend what a small portion he is of the
Universe, he will find the truth. For it is clear that persons who have
fallen into this widespread error as regards the multitude of evils in
the world, do not find the evils among the angels, the spheres and
stars, the elements, and that which is formed of them, viz., minerals
and plants, or in the various species of living beings, but only in
some individual instances of mankind. They wonder that a person,
who became leprous in consequence of bad food, should be afflicted
with so great an illness and suffer such a misfortune; or that he who
indulges so much in sensuality as to weaken his sight, should be
struck with blindness! and the like. What we have, in truth, to
consider is this:—The whole mankind at present in existence, and a
fortiori, every other species of animals, form an infinitesimal portion
of the permanent universe. Comp. “Man is like to vanity” (Ps. cxliv.
4); “How much less man, that is a worm; and the son of man, which
is a worm” (Job xxv. 6); “How much less in them who dwell in
houses of clay” (ibid. iv. 19); “Behold, the nations are as a drop of
the bucket” (Isa. xl. 15). There are many other passages in the
books of the prophets expressing the same idea. It is of great
advantage that man should know his station, and not erroneously
imagine that the whole universe exists only for him. We hold that
the universe exists because the Creator wills it so; that mankind is
low in rank as compared with the uppermost portion of the universe,
viz., with the spheres and the stars; but, as regards the angels,
there cannot be any real comparison between man and angels,
although man is the highest of all beings on earth; i.e., of all beings
formed of the four elements. Man’s existence is nevertheless a great
boon to him, and his distinction and perfection is a divine gift. The
numerous evils to which individual persons are exposed are due to
the defects existing in the persons themselves. We complain and
seek relief from our own faults; we suffer from the evils which we,
by our own free will, inflict on ourselves and ascribe them to God,
who is far from being connected with them! Comp. “Is destruction
his [work]? No. Ye [who call yourselves] wrongly his sons, you who
are a perverse and crooked generation” (Deut. xxxii. 5). This is
explained by Solomon, who says, “The foolishness of man perverteth
his way, and his heart fretteth against the Lord” (Prov. xix. 3).