Table of Contents

2. MEASUREMENT OF ATTITUDE OF PLANAR FEATURE OF ROCK............................1

2.1 ROCK OUTCROPS AND EXPOSURES..............................................................1
2.2 PLANNER FEATURES AT THE ROCK OUTCROPS.....................................1
Bedding Plane:................................................................................................ 2
Foliation Plane:............................................................................................... 2
Joints:.............................................................................................................. 2
2.3 ATTITUDES OF THE GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURES....................................3
a. Dip Direction:.............................................................................................. 3
b. Dip Amount:................................................................................................ 3
2.4 TYPES OF GEOLOGICAL COMPASS........................................................3
2.5 HANDLING OF GEOLOGICAL COMPASS...................................................3
2.6 MEASUREMENT OF THE ATTITUDES PLANAR FEATURES FROM THE
ROCK OUTCROP USING GEOLOGICAL COMPASS..........................................4
3. IDENTIFICATION OF THE ROCKS IN THE FIELD..........................................4
3.1 INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................... 4
3.2 IGNEOUS ROCKS........................................................................................ 4
3.3 SEDIMENTARY ROCKS............................................................................... 5
3.4 METAMORPHIC ROCKS.............................................................................. 6
3.5 ROCK CLEAVAGE:....................................................................................... 6
3.6 Field Identification Of Rock :.......................................................................7
5.STUDY OF GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURES IN THE FIELD..................................8
5.1-FOLD............................................................................................................ 8
5.2 FAULT.......................................................................................................... 8
5.3 JOINT........................................................................................................... 9
5.4 THRUST..................................................................................................... 10
5.5 UNCONFORMITY...................................................................................... 10
5.6 VEINS........................................................................................................ 10
6.ENGINEERING GEOLOGICAL STUDIES OF THE ROCK OUTCROPS............10
6.1 ENGINEERING GEOLOGY.........................................................................10
6.2 IMPORTANCE OF ENGINEERING GEOLOGY IN THE FIELD OF CIVIL
ENGINEERING................................................................................................ 11
6.3 ENGINEERING GEOLOGICAL DATA........................................................11
6.4 INTACT ROCK............................................................................................ 11
 6.5 ROCK MASS............................................................................................... 12
6.6 CHARACTERISTICS OF DISCONTINUITIES IN ROCK MASS..................12
6.6.1 Rock type:............................................................................................ 12
6.6.2 Orientation:.......................................................................................... 12
6.6.3 Intact Rock Strength:...........................................................................13
6.6.4 Spacing:............................................................................................... 13
6.6.5 Aperture:.............................................................................................. 13
6.6.6 Roughness:........................................................................................... 13
6.6.7 Seepage:.............................................................................................. 13
6.6.8 Infilling Materials:............................................................................... 13

2. MEASUREMENT OF ATTITUDE OF PLANAR FEATURE OF ROCK

2.1 ROCK OUTCROPS AND EXPOSURES

These are the terminologies used to define the rock mass that is exposed to
the surface that is there is no covering soil in the surface with either herbs,
shrubs or any other natural coverings. Outcrop is a geological term referring to
the appearance of bedrock or superficial deposits exposed at the surface of
the Earth. In most places the bedrock or superficial deposits are covered by a
mantle of soil and vegetation and cannot be seen or examined closely.
However, in places where the overlying cover is removed through erosion, the
rock may be exposed, or crop out. Such exposure will happen most frequently
in areas where erosion is rapid and exceeds the weathering rate such as on
steep hillsides, river banks, or tectonically active areas. Bedrock and
superficial deposits may also be exposed at the earth's surface due to human
excavations such as quarrying and building of transport routes.

2.2 PLANNER FEATURES AT THE ROCK OUTCROPS

The features preserved in rock, which are responsible to found the plane
surface, are called planner features. Bedding plane generally follows the
deposition plane.

Bedding Plane:
In geology a bed is the smallest division of a geologic formation or
stratigraphic rock series marked by well-defined divisional planes (bedding
planes) separating it from layers above and below. A bed is the smallest litho-

PAGE 1
stratigraphic unit, usually ranging in thickness from a centimeter to several
meters and distinguishable from beds above and below it. Beds can be
differentiated in various ways, including rock or mineral type and particle size.
The term is generally applied to sedimentary strata, but may also be used for
volcanic flows or ash layers.

In a quarry, bedding is a term used for a structure occurring in granite and

similar massive rocks that allows them to split in well-defined planes
horizontally or parallel to the land surface.

Foliation Plane:
Foliation is usually formed by the preferred orientation of minerals within a
rock. Foliation is any penetrative planar fabric present in rocks. Foliation is
common to rocks affected by regional metamorphic compression typical of
orogenic belts. Rocks exhibiting foliation include the typical metamorphic rock
sequence of slate, phyllite, schist and gneiss.

Foliation in areas of shearing, and within the plane of thrust faults, can provide
information on the transport direction or sense of movement on the thrust or
shear. Generally, the acute intersection angle shows the direction of transport.
Foliations typically bend or curve into a shear, which provides the same
information, if it is of a scale which can be observed.

Joints:
In geology the term joint refers to a fracture in rock where there has been no
lateral movement in the plane of the fracture (up, down or sideways) of one
side relative to the other. This makes it distinct from a fault which is defined as
a fracture in rock where one side slides laterally past to the other. Joints
normally have a regular spacing related to either the mechanical properties of
the individual rock or the thickness of the layer involved. Joints generally occur
as sets, with each set consisting of joints sub-parallel to each other.

Joints form one of the most important types of discontinuity within rock
masses, typically having no residual strength.

2.3 ATTITUDES OF THE GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURES

Strike and dip refer to the orientation or attitude of a geologic feature. The
strike of a stratum or planar feature is a line representing the intersection of
that feature with the horizontal. Strike and dip are determined in the field with a
compass and a clinometer or combination known as a Brunton compass.

PAGE 2
a. Dip Direction:
It is the direction of the rock strata towards which it dips i.e. inclined and it
always lies at right angle to the strike. Strike is the direction on sloping surface
in which a horizontal line can be drawn.

b. Dip Amount:
It is the maximum angle of inclination of the rock strata with the horizontal, and
is measured in vertical plane.

2.4 TYPES OF GEOLOGICAL COMPASS

Compass is used for the measurement of dip direction and dip amount of
bedding plane, folds, joints etc. there are five types of compasses in general
use.
• Clinometer Compass
• Brunton Compass
• Clar Compass
• Digital Compass

2.5 HANDLING OF GEOLOGICAL COMPASS

The compass used in the field was a Brunton compass.

Procedures to handle the compass:

 The compass should be opened carefully.

 Measurement of the dip direction and dip angle should be done carefully.
 Measurement of the dip direction and dip angle should be done as mention
above.
 The rotation of the compass parts should be done carefully in such a way that
the minimum force is applied.
 While using the compass for the accurate measurements, the compass
should be aligned in the direction of the maximum inclination.
Measurement of the Bearing (Dip Direction):
The face with the mirror should be placed parallel to the planar surface; also
align its maximum inclination. Then folding the other part, i.e. main part, the
main, the main part should be made horizontal by centering the spirit level in it,
Then the reading/bearing shown by the needle should be recorded as the dip
direction of the planar feature.

PAGE 3
Measurement of Inclination (Dip Angle):
The edge of the compass should be aligned in the direction of maximum slope.
Then leveling the bubble in the center of the tube the angle of the structure
was seen, which is the dip angle. The leveling should be dine accurately. If
necessary, the mirror can be used. For more accurate data, the reading can
be taken at two or more places in the same planar features.

2.6 MEASUREMENT OF THE ATTITUDES PLANAR FEATURES FROM

THE ROCK OUTCROP USING GEOLOGICAL COMPASS

The measurement of planer feature of rock

was done at location 1 which was few
kilometers from Bhedetar towards Tamor
River. The following readings of Dip amount
and Dip Direction were taken with the help of
Brunton Compass:

S.N Dip Direction Dip Amount Altitude Remark

PAGE 4
3. IDENTIFICATION OF THE ROCKS IN THE FIELD

3.1 INTRODUCTION
Rocks are the aggregates of minerals, which form the earth's crust. So
rocks are composed of the minerals. According to the modes of origin, all
rocks are categorized into three major groups. They are: - a. Igneous Rocks
or Primary Rocks

b. Sedimentary Rocks or Secondary Rocks

c. Metamorphic Rocks

Rocks are identified in the field by the study of its size of grain or texture,
shape of grain layers, color, composition of minerals etc. as they exposed
naturally or artificially on the surface of the earth.

3.2 IGNEOUS ROCKS

These are the rocks formed by the solidification of magma either under
neat the surface or above it. Accordingly, they are divided into two groups:

a. Intrusive Bodies: These are formed underneath the surface of the earth.
b. Extrusive Bodies: These are formed due to consolidation of magma
above the surface of the earth. These are also known as volcanic rocks.

On the basis of the depth of formation, intrusive rocks are of two types:
• Plutonic rocks: These are formed at very high depths.
• Hypabyssal rocks: These are formed at shallow depths.

Identification of Igneous Rocks in Field:

PAGE 5
 Generally igneous rocks are hard, massive, and compact with interlocking grains.
 Entire absence of fossils.
 Absence of bedding plane.
 Random orientation of minerals, usually containing much Feldspar.

Xenoliths: The relic of the host rock preserved in the igneous rock is
called xenoliths.

3.3 SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

Sedimentary rocks are formed by the process of sedimentation.
Sedimentation is the process by which the rocks are formed from the
deposition and consolidation of sediments or precipitation of soluble
material s in layers. The sediments are formed from the weathering of old
rocks either igneous, metamorphic and even sedimentary itself and are
then eroded and transported by geological agents (water, wind, ice). These
eroded and transported sediments are then deposited on the depositional
basic and accumulated layer by layer one after another.

According to the modes of transportation of the deposits these rocks are

sub divided into three types:

i. Mechanically Deposited (Clastic Rock)

ii. Chemically and Organically Formed (Non-Clastic Rock)
Identification of Sedimentary Rock in Field:

 Generally, soft, stratified i.e. characteristically bedded.

 Fossils common.
 Stratification, lamination, cross bedding, ripple marks, mud-marks etc. are the
usual structures.
 No effect on the enclosing or the top and bottom rocks.
 Quartz, clay minerals, calcite, dolomite, hematite are the common minerals.
E.g.: Calcite, Limestone, Magnesite, Sandstone, Shale, etc.

3.4 METAMORPHIC ROCKS

These are formed by the alternation of pre-existing rocks by the action of
temperature, pressure added by sub-terrain fluids (magnetic or
nonmagnetic).

Metamorphism:

PAGE 6
It is a natural process whereby the pre-existing rocks are altered or
modified under the influence of pressure, temperature and the chemical
solution. Under the influence of those factors, the rocks are changed into
new rocks physically and chemically. In metamorphic rocks minerals are
arranged in preferred orientation.

Types of Metamorphism:

 Dynamic Metamorphism
 Thermal Metamorphism
 Dynamo-Thermal Metamorphism
Identification of Metamorphic Rocks in Field:

 Generally hard, interlocking grains and bedded (if derived from stratified rocks).
 Foliated, gneissose, schistose, granular lose, slaty etc are the common
structure.
 Fossils are rarely preserved in rocks of sedimentary origin except slate.
 Proffered orientation of minerals is observed.
 Have foliation plane and rock cleavage
 Common minerals are andalusite, sillimanite, cyanite, cordierite, wollastonite,
garnet, graphite etc.
 Generally, has rock cleavage.

E.g.: Slate, Phyllite, Schist, Gneiss, Amphibolite etc.

3.5 ROCK CLEAVAGE:

Types of rock cleavage:

 Slaty cleavage
 Schistosity
 Gneissosity

3.6 FIELD IDENTIFICATION OF ROCK :

PAGE 7
Location 1:

Sample1:

S.N Properties Observation/Discription

1. Color The specimen appears to have a light, perhaps whitish
pale yellow color.
2. Texture Rough with possible signs of etching or pitting.
3. Structure
4. Hardness 3 to 4 on the Mohs scale
5. Grain size
6. Specific Gravity
7. Mineralogical Composition
8. Rock Type
9. Identification
10. Engeenering Properties
11. Uses
12.Occurance

5.STUDY OF GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURES IN THE FIELD

The structural features preserved in the rock during the formation of rock
or after its formation are called geological structures. Folds, faults, joints,
etc. are the examples of geological structures.

PAGE 8
Continuous Deformation Structures: These are the products of plastic
and viscoelastic deformations. E.g.: folds, veins, foliation, cleavage, etc.

Discontinuous Deformation Structures: These are

the product of brittle deformation.

E.g.: joints, faults, etc.

5.1-FOLD
Any type of undulations, bending and curvatures developed in the rocks
due to the action of stresses in the geological past and preserved in the
rocks are known as folds. Folds are the results of plastic and viscoelastic
deformation in the geological past preserved in the rocks. Folds are best
displayed by stratified formations such as sedimentary or volcanic rocks or
their metamorphic equivalents. But any layered or foliated rock, such as
gabbro, granite or gneiss may show folds. Some folds are a few miles
across. The width of other is to be measured in feet or inches or even
fractions of an inch. Folds of continental proportions are hundreds of miles
wide.

Recognition of folds in the field:

• The easiest and simplest way is the visual inspection. If we find any
geological structure according to the normal definition of a fold then
it can be identified as fold.
• The repetition & omission of beds also indicates the presence of fold.
• By plotting the attitudes of beds in map.
• When the types of folds are to be recognized on the basis of the age
consideration of the beds, the top and bottom of beds are
determined by taking into account the nature, and form of the
features occurring on the beds itself. Accordingly, some types of
folds have been inferred.

5.2 FAULT
Faults are well- defined cracks along which the rock- masses on either side
have relative displacement along the fracture plane or they are the
ruptures in which the opposite blocks moved past each other. The
displacement is parallel to the fracture plane. The attitude of faults is
defined in terms of their strike and dip. The strike and dip of fault are
measured in the same way as they are for bedding.

Recognition of faults in the field:

To recognize the faults in the field, a number of criteria are used. The faults
may be directly seen in the field, particularly in artificial exposes such as
river-cuttings, road cuttings, etc. In field the faults may be recognized by:

PAGE 9
 • Variation in the behavior of the ground.
• Evidences of the past deformation.
• Change in bearing capacity of the materials.
• Deviation in stress path.
• Variation in the hydraulic behavior.

Structure formed during faulting:

Slicken sides: They are the polished and or striated or grooved surfaces
which are produced due to rubbing action of the adjacent blocks during the
act of faulting. These form important evidences of faulting.

Gouge: It is a finely pulverized, clay-like powered rock material, which

occurs at or near the base of the faulting zones. It is obviously the result of
strong rubbing action on the rocks during the faulting process.

Fault Breccia: It is the crushed (and but powdered) angular, fragmentary

material produced during faulting and found in some cases at or mar the
base of the up thrown block. Very often the angular fragments get
embedded and cemented in the gouge and produce a rock-like mass once
again which is also called fault-breccia.

Mylonite: This rock also called micro breccia, is extremely fine-grained

and very hare and coherent. Faulting is believed to be the cause of
development of such rocks. It is the metamorphic form of fault Breccia.

At the site, 330m upstream from Malekhu old bridge along left
bank, fault zone was observed.

5.3 JOINT
A joint is defined, as a fracture in a rock between the sides of which there
is no observable relative movement. They are present in most consolidated
rocks of igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary origin.

Field Identification of Joints:

• Joints are generally recognized in the field as faults without relative

displacement. Their dimension varies within wide–limits. Sometimes
they are very short in their extension, but in certain cases they are
found to extend for miles together.
• Joints commonly control the drainage pattern of an area. They also
determine the shape of coastlines, because they provide a passage,
whereby water may penetrate deeply into rock mass thus allowing
weathering to take place.
• Jointed rocks are pervious to fluids and may act as aquifers or
reservoir rocks for oil or natural gas.

PAGE 10
 • Sometimes joints act as avenues for molten rock materials to come
above the surface. It also determines the localization of some
mineral deposits.

5.4 THRUST
A kind of reversed fault in which hanging wall has actually moved up
relative to the footwall is called thrust. E.g.: Mahabharat thrust
separates Nuwakot complex and Kathmandu complex.

5.5 UNCONFORMITY
Surface of erosional and depositional gap within a sequence of strata is
called unconformity. These are usually the weak contact where the failure
starts to generate. It creates permeability contrast; thus, natural springs or
discharge can occur in such places.

5.6 VEINS
The filling of the minerals in between the fault planes or fractured rocks
produces a new structure, which is called veins. Veins may have valuable
minerals like gold, copper, diamond, silver etc.

In the field we have studied and recognized quartzite vein on the right
bank of Trisuli River about 200m downstream from Malekhu Suspension
Bridge.

6.ENGINEERING GEOLOGICAL STUDIES OF THE ROCK

OUTCROPS

6.1 ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

Engineering geology is the application of the geologic sciences to
engineering practice for the purpose of assuring that the geologic factors
affecting the location, design, construction, operation and maintenance of
engineering works are recognized and adequately provided for.
Engineering geologists investigate and provide geologic and geotechnical
recommendations, analysis, and design. Engineering geologic studies may
be performed during the planning, environmental impact analysis, civil
engineering design, value engineering and construction phases of public
and private works projects, and during post-construction and forensic
phases of projects. Works completed by engineering geologists include

PAGE 11
geological hazards, geotechnical and material properties, landslide and
slope stability, erosion, flooding, dewatering, and seismic investigations,
etc. Engineering geological studies are performed by a geologist or an
engineering geologist educated, professionally trained and skilled at the
recognition and analysis of geologic hazards and adverse geologic
conditions. Their overall objective is the protection of life and property
against damage and the solution of geologic problems.

6.2 IMPORTANCE OF ENGINEERING GEOLOGY IN THE FIELD OF CIVIL

ENGINEERING
Geology in civil engineering concerned with the engineering behavior of
earth materials. It includes investigating existing subsurface conditions and
materials, assessing risks posed by site conditions, designing earthworks
and structure foundations, and monitoring site conditions, earthwork and
foundation construction.

A typical geotechnical engineering project begins with a site investigation

of soil, rock, fault distribution and bedrock properties on and below an area
of interest to determine their engineering properties including how they
will interact with, on or in a proposed construction. Site investigations are
needed to gain an understanding of the area in or on which the
engineering will take place. Investigations can include the assessment of
the risk to humans, property and the environment from natural hazards
such as earthquakes, landslides, sinkholes, soil liquefaction, debris flows
and rock falls.

6.3 ENGINEERING GEOLOGICAL DATA

Collection of engineering data from outcrops for certain purpose is called
engineering geological data collection. Engineering data are those, which
are purposed specific and quantitative. These data collected from outcrops
are attitude of rock (i.e. dip and strike).

6.4 INTACT ROCK

Intact rock is the part of the rock mass which is free from the
discontinuities. The combination of the intact rock and the discontinuous
rock forms the rock mass. Size of the intact rock is small at the surface and
large below the surface. It is different from different types of the rock.

Intact rock strength:

It has already been explained that the intact rock is the rock material
without discontinuities. They have greater strength than the rock mass.
Their strength can be determined in the following ways:

PAGE 12
 Check in lab: Required size of intact rock can be taken from the rock mass and
checked in the lab.
 Check by hammer striking: This is the cheapest and easiest way to find out the
approximate strength of rock material and this can be done directly in the field.
For this, rock material is struck by geological hammer and the sound is identified.
If metallic sound comes then the rock material is strong having strength more
than 100Mpa and if sound is as in soil, then the rock material is weak having
strength less than 10Mpa. If sound is in between metallic to soil, then strength is
also in between 100Mpa to 10Mpa.
 Schmidt Hammer: It is also an easy but nearly accurate method to check the
intact strength. It can give numerical value of strength of the rock material.
Actually, the hammer is a special type of hammer which measures the rebound
value.

6.5 ROCK MASS

The collective mass formed by the rock material and discontinuities is
called rock mass. So the rock exposed on the outcrop is not rock. In fact, it
is the rock mass. Rock materials (intact rock) are part of rock mass. Since,
in actual practice discontinuities are present, rock material alone doesn't
exist in nature.

6.6 CHARACTERISTICS OF DISCONTINUITIES IN ROCK MASS

These are the structural features of the rock, which are developed due to
the existence of different stresses on the earth. Discontinuity decreases
the strength of the rock. A rock mass may contain two-three sets of
discontinuity. The rock of two set of discontinuity is stronger than the rock
of the three set of the discontinuity.

Characteristics of discontinuities in the rock mass:

6.6.1 Rock type:

The rocks are classified on the basis of the characteristics of intact rock as
well as the discontinuities present.

 Cleavage/foliation plane, bedding plane, etc.

 Materials
 Particle size textures etc.

PAGE 13
6.6.2 Orientation:
Orientation of discontinuities is the attitude of the discontinuities.
Depending upon the slope of discontinuity, rock has different strength in
different directions. If the direction of the discontinuity is in the same
direction as the rock mass, it is an unfavorable condition. But if the
discontinuity is in opposite direction to the rock mass, it is a favorable
condition.

6.6.3 Intact Rock Strength:

The strength of the intact rock is tested by Schmidt Hammer rebound test.
Schmidt Hammer is the instrument used to test bearing capacity of site
rock mass by rebound test. There are two ways of testing by Schmidt
Hammer; one is mono-axial and another is tri-axial test.

6.6.4 Spacing:
It is the perpendicular distance between the two adjacent discontinuities of
the same set. The space between the discontinuities set in the same
direction also causes variation in the strength of the rock. The rock
material in between the discontinuity is intact material. The volume of
intact material governs the strength of the rock.

6.6.5 Aperture:
Aperture is the open spacing present in the rock due to discontinuity
present in it .The crack due to any means like alkaline water has high
tendency to dissolve calcite material may get widened up. Depending upon
space it is classified as widely open (>1 cm),open (2 mm-1 cm),close
(<2mm),tight (<1mm).The apertures wide and open cause the mechanical
discontinuity as no stress is transferred all over the rock. However if the
open discontinuity is filled with any other material then strength is
transferred. The open and close aperture, if filled by any other material,
has the strength and the stability of the rock increase depending upon the
material type filling the aperture.

6.6.6 Roughness:
It is one of the characteristics of the discontinuity present in it. In rough
discontinuity surfaces due to low friction shear strength is high. It is
generally of two types rough planar (rough surface with a plane flow) rough
wavy (rough surface with a wave like flow).

6.6.7 Seepage:
It is the flow of water under gravitational forces in a permeable medium.
Flow of water takes place from point of high head to a point of low head.

6.6.8 Infilling Materials:

These are the materials filled in the open apertures of discontinuities. If
there is no fill material, it is called clean material. If the rock has

PAGE 14
mineralized discontinuity, the strength may be considerably high. If the
rock is both powdered material and mineralized, the rock may be either
cohesive or non-cohesive. Tensile strength of soil is low.

PAGE 15