Lecture 01: Software Testing - Motivation

1. Importance of Software Testing:

o Software is ubiquitous, from ATMs and mobile phones to critical systems
like autopilots and medical equipment.
o Expectations from software include error-free operation, fast response,
and reliability even in critical scenarios (e.g., autopilot continuing to
function safely during a fault).
2. Real-World Consequences of Software Errors:
o Ariane 5 Rocket Failure (1996): A bug caused a rocket to crash within 36
seconds, losing years of effort and millions of euros.
o Therac-25 Radiation Machine (1985-87): Software bugs in medical
devices led to fatal radiation overdoses for six patients.
o Pentium Processor Division Error (1994): A flaw in floating-point
calculations cost Intel significant financial loss and reputational damage.
3. Economic Impact of Inadequate Testing:
o U.S. economy loses $22–59 billion annually due to poor software testing
(NIST report, 2002).
o Improved testing can save billions by preventing errors early in the
software development lifecycle.
4. Goals of Software Testing:
o Ensure software meets user expectations and performs as intended.
o Identify and fix errors before deployment to minimize risks and costs.
5. Summary:
o Software testing is not just a technical process but a critical investment in
quality assurance to prevent costly errors and ensure system reliability.
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Lecture 02: Software Testing - Terminologies
1. Purpose of the Lecture:
o To introduce key terms and concepts in software testing.
o To explain various testing types, methods, and activities.
o To provide a foundation for understanding the course structure.
2. Core Concepts:
o Verification vs. Validation:
▪ Verification: Ensures that the software meets the specified
requirements during development (e.g., code reviews, unit tests).
 ▪ Validation: Ensures that the final product meets user needs and
requirements (e.g., system testing, user acceptance testing).
o Testing: Primarily focuses on verification during the software lifecycle to
identify defects early.
3. Key Terms in Testing:
o Fault (Defect): A static error in the code, such as incorrect logic or a
missing function.
o Failure: The incorrect behavior observed during software execution due
to a fault.
o Error: The incorrect internal state caused by a fault that leads to a failure.
4. Testing Methods:
o White Box Testing: Focuses on the internal structure of the software
(e.g., code-level testing).
o Black Box Testing: Focuses on the software's external behavior without
knowing its internal structure.
o Functional Testing: Validates the software against its functional
requirements.
o Performance Testing: Evaluates the software's performance under
specified conditions.
o Usability Testing: Ensures the software is user-friendly and meets user
expectations.
5. Testing Phases:
o Unit Testing: Tests individual components or functions.
o Integration Testing: Ensures modules or components work together.
o System Testing: Tests the entire software system as a whole.
o Acceptance Testing: Validates the software with end-users or clients.
6. IEEE Standard Terminologies:
o STD-610 Glossary: Standardizes terms like verification, validation, fault,
error, and failure for consistency in software engineering.
7. Related Areas:
o Formal Methods: Techniques like model checking, theorem proving, and
program analysis for rigorous verification.
o Modeling and Simulation: Used for hardware and system design
validation.
o Accreditation: Certification processes for safety-critical software (e.g.,
autopilot systems).
8. Conclusion:
o Software testing involves diverse activities and phases.
o It requires a clear understanding of terms and methods to design effective
test cases and ensure software quality.
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Lecture 03: Testing Based on Models and Criteria
1. Purpose of the Lecture:
o To understand what software testing involves and what makes software
testable.
o To introduce model-based testing and criteria-based test design.
o To discuss key factors influencing testability.
2. Key Concepts:
o Testability:
▪ Refers to how easily a software can be tested.
▪ Encompasses two main aspects:
▪ Observability: The ability to observe outputs and internal
states during testing.
▪ Controllability: The ability to control the software by
providing specific inputs.
o Challenges in Testing:
▪ Observing internal variables or intermediate states that aren't
directly visible.
▪ Ensuring the correct function or code segment is executed during
testing.
3. RIPR Model:
o Defines four critical properties for software testability:
▪ Reachability (R): Ability to execute a specific part of the code.
▪ Infection (I): Ability to cause a fault in the code to manifest as an
incorrect state.
▪ Propagation (P): Ability to propagate the incorrect state to an
observable output.
▪ Revealing (R): Ability for the tester to observe and isolate the error.
o Example of RIPR:
▪ A test case should:
▪ Reach a target code segment.
▪ Trigger a fault if one exists.
▪ Propagate the fault to an output.
▪ Reveal the fault clearly to the tester.
4. Model-Based Testing:
o Uses models (e.g., state diagrams, flowcharts) to represent software
behavior.
 o Test cases are derived systematically from these models.
o Benefits include:
▪ Better test coverage.
▪ Clear criteria for test design.
5. Criteria-Based Test Design:
o Relies on formally defined testing criteria to ensure coverage and quality.
o Examples of criteria:
▪ Statement Coverage: Ensures every statement in the code is
executed at least once.
▪ Branch Coverage: Ensures every branch (decision point) in the
code is tested.
▪ Path Coverage: Ensures all possible execution paths are tested
(may not always be feasible).
6. Testability Parameters:
o High testability is crucial for effective and efficient testing.
o Observability and controllability must be prioritized during the design
phase to simplify testing.
7. Conclusion:
o Testing involves ensuring both observability and controllability to identify
and isolate errors.
o The RIPR model provides a structured framework to evaluate testability.
o Model-based and criteria-based testing are systematic approaches to
improve test case design and software quality.
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Lecture 04: Software Test Automation - JUnit as an Example
1. Purpose of the Lecture:
o To introduce the concept of test automation.
o To explain how test cases are prepared for execution.
o To use JUnit as an example of a test automation tool.
2. Test Automation Overview:
o Test automation involves:
▪ Controlling test execution.
▪ Comparing actual outputs with expected results.
▪ Reporting the outcomes automatically.
o Automation ensures consistency and efficiency, especially for large and
repetitive test cases.
3. Components of Test Automation:
o Prefix Values:
▪ Inputs required to set up the software in an appropriate state for
testing.
o Postfix Values:
▪ Verification Values: Used to check if the expected output
matches the actual output.
▪ Exit Values: Ensure the software exits cleanly after test execution
and retains any error states for debugging.
4. Executable Test Scripts:
o A fully prepared test case includes:
▪ Test inputs.
▪ Expected outputs.
▪ Prefix and postfix values.
o These elements together form an executable test script.
5. JUnit - A Test Automation Tool:
o What is JUnit?
▪ An open-source testing framework primarily for Java.
▪ Supports writing, automating, and evaluating test cases.
o Key Features:
▪ Assertions: Statements to check conditions during test execution.
▪ Sharing Test Data: Allows multiple developers to use common test
data.
▪ Test Suites: Facilitates organizing and executing multiple test
cases.
▪ Interfaces: Provides both textual and graphical interfaces.
o Usage:
▪ Can be used as a standalone tool or integrated into IDEs like
Eclipse.
6. Using Assertions in JUnit:
o Assertions are logical statements that verify test conditions.
o Examples:
▪ If an assertion evaluates to true, the test case passes.
▪ If it evaluates to false, it reveals an error.
7. Benefits of Test Automation with JUnit:
o Streamlines the test case execution process.
o Reduces manual effort and improves test accuracy.
o Supports both unit testing and integration testing.
8. Conclusion:
o Test automation, as exemplified by JUnit, is essential for efficient testing.
 o By automating prefix and postfix values, test cases become robust and
repeatable.
o JUnit provides an effective framework for automating and managing test
scripts.
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Lecture 05: Basics of Graphs - As Used in Testing
1. Purpose of the Lecture:
o To introduce graphs as a model for software artifacts.
o To explain graph-related terminologies and their relevance to test case
design.
o To prepare for algorithms that use graphs for test case generation.
2. Introduction to Graphs:
o Graphs represent software artifacts like code, requirements, and design.
o They are used to design systematic test cases to ensure thorough
coverage.
o Graph theory has applications in various disciplines, including sociology,
physics, and computer science.
3. Basic Graph Terminologies:
o Graph:
▪ Consists of vertices (nodes) and edges (arcs).
▪ Edges can be:
▪ Undirected: No direction (e.g., (u, v) is the same as (v, u)).
▪ Directed: Specific direction (e.g., (u, v) is distinct from (v,
u)).
o Degree of a Vertex:
▪ Undirected Graph: Number of edges connected to a vertex.
▪ Directed Graph:
▪ In-Degree: Number of edges entering a vertex.
▪ Out-Degree: Number of edges leaving a vertex.
o Types of Graphs:
▪ Finite Graphs: Limited number of vertices and edges (used in
software testing).
▪ Infinite Graphs: Not commonly applicable for testing.
4. Graph Elements Relevant to Testing:
o Special Vertices:
▪ Initial Vertex: Represents the start of computation or process.
 ▪ Final Vertex: Represents the end of computation or process.
o Paths and Loops:
▪ Path: Sequence of edges connecting vertices.
▪ Self-Loop: An edge connecting a vertex to itself.
5. Graphs in Software Testing:
o Graphs model software artifacts to:
▪ Identify control flow in code.
▪ Represent relationships between components.
▪ Visualize test coverage.
o Examples include control flow graphs (CFG) and data flow graphs.
6. Graph Properties for Testing:
o Connectivity:
▪ Determines if vertices are reachable from one another.
o Cycle Detection:
▪ Helps identify loops in code for testing.
7. Applications in Test Case Design:
o Graphs provide a systematic way to:
▪ Define test paths.
▪ Cover specific elements (e.g., nodes, edges, or paths).
▪ Identify unreachable code or design inefficiencies.
8. Conclusion:
o Graphs are a powerful abstraction for modeling software.
o Understanding basic graph concepts is essential for applying graph-
based test case design algorithms.
o Future modules will explore how these concepts translate into practical
test case generation.
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Lecture 06: Structural Graph Coverage Criteria
1. Purpose of the Lecture:
o To explore structural graph coverage criteria in software testing.
o To introduce methods for designing test cases based on graph structure.
o To lay the foundation for applying these criteria to real-world software
artifacts.
2. Introduction to Graph-Based Testing:
o Software artifacts (e.g., code, requirements, design) can be modeled as
graphs.
 o Graph structures help define and implement systematic test coverage
criteria.
o This lecture focuses on criteria based on the structural elements of
graphs (nodes, edges, and paths).
3. Structural Coverage Criteria:
o Criteria specify what elements in the graph must be "covered" during
testing.
o Types of coverage criteria:
▪ Node Coverage: Test cases must visit every node in the graph.
▪ Edge Coverage: Test cases must traverse every edge in the graph.
▪ Edge-Pair Coverage: Test cases must traverse every consecutive
pair of edges.
▪ Path Coverage: Test cases must cover specific paths in the graph,
including:
▪ Complete Path Coverage: Covers all possible paths
(infeasible for large or looping graphs).
▪ Prime Path Coverage: Covers the longest simple paths
(paths that are not subpaths of other paths).
4. Node Coverage:
o Requires test cases to visit every reachable node in the graph.
o Particularly useful for identifying untested or unreachable parts of the
software.
o Example:
▪ In a graph with nodes 1, 2, and 3, a test path that visits nodes 1 → 2
→ 3 ensures node coverage.
5. Edge Coverage:
o Requires test cases to traverse every edge in the graph.
o Extends node coverage by ensuring all transitions between nodes are
tested.
o Example:
▪ In a graph with edges (1, 2), (1, 3), and (2, 3), test paths must
include all three edges.
6. Subsumption in Coverage Criteria:
o Edge Coverage Subsumes Node Coverage: If all edges are covered, all
nodes are necessarily covered.
o Test paths designed for edge coverage will satisfy node coverage as well.
7. Edge-Pair Coverage:
o Focuses on sequences of two consecutive edges.
o Example:
▪ For edges (1, 2), (2, 3), and (1, 3), edge-pair coverage includes
paths like 1 → 2 → 3.
 8. Path Coverage:
o Covers sequences of edges forming paths in the graph.
o Includes:
▪ Prime Path Coverage: Focuses on maximal simple paths (paths
that do not appear as subpaths of others).
▪ Round-Trip Coverage: Ensures that looping paths are tested
effectively.
9. Application of Coverage Criteria:
o Structural criteria are applied to graphs representing:
▪ Control flow (e.g., code execution paths).
▪ Software design (e.g., state transitions).
o These criteria ensure systematic and thorough testing.
10. Conclusion:
o Structural coverage criteria provide a robust framework for designing test
cases.
o Node, edge, and path coverage criteria are foundational for testing
completeness.
o Future lectures will introduce algorithms for implementing these criteria
in real-world scenarios.
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Lecture 07: Elementary Graph Algorithms
1. Purpose of the Lecture:
o To introduce elementary graph algorithms for designing test cases.
o To focus on Breadth-First Search (BFS) as a foundation for test generation.
o To prepare for advanced graph algorithms and their application in
software testing.
2. Introduction:
o Graph-based testing often uses search algorithms to generate test paths.
o BFS and Depth-First Search (DFS) are key algorithms for graph traversal.
o These algorithms help achieve various graph coverage criteria, such as
node and edge coverage.
3. Graph Representations:
o Graphs can be represented in two standard ways:
▪ Adjacency List:
▪ Stores an array of lists where each list corresponds to a
vertex.
 ▪ Suitable for sparse graphs (graphs with fewer edges relative
to vertices).
▪ Space complexity: O(V+E)O(V + E)O(V+E), where VVV is the
number of vertices and EEE is the number of edges.
▪ Adjacency Matrix:
▪ A V×VV \times VV×V matrix where each entry represents the
presence or absence of an edge.
▪ Suitable for dense graphs (graphs with many edges relative
to vertices).
▪ Space complexity: O(V2)O(V^2)O(V2).
4. Breadth-First Search (BFS):
o Overview:
▪ Explores all neighbors of a vertex before moving to the next level of
neighbors.
▪ Traverses the graph layer by layer.
o Steps:
1. Start from a designated source vertex.
2. Visit all vertices directly connected to the source.
3. Move to the next level of vertices connected to the visited vertices, and so on.
o Applications in Testing:
▪ BFS generates a tree structure (Breadth-First Tree) from the graph.
▪ This tree can be used to generate test paths for node and edge
coverage.
5. Advantages of BFS:
o Ensures all vertices at the same "distance" from the source are visited
first.
o Useful for identifying shortest paths in unweighted graphs.
o Generates systematic test paths for simple coverage criteria.
6. Comparing Adjacency List and Matrix for BFS:
o Adjacency List:
▪ Efficient for sparse graphs due to lower space requirements.
▪ Faster to traverse all edges in sparse graphs.
o Adjacency Matrix:
▪ Simple to implement but inefficient for sparse graphs.
▪ Ideal for dense graphs where most vertex pairs are connected.
7. Use of BFS in Test Case Design:
o Node Coverage:
▪ BFS ensures all nodes are visited, satisfying node coverage
requirements.
o Edge Coverage:
▪ BFS can be extended to traverse all edges, ensuring edge coverage.
 8. Conclusion:
o BFS is a foundational algorithm for graph traversal and test case
generation.
o Its systematic approach ensures thorough coverage for testing criteria like
node and edge coverage.
o Future lectures will explore DFS and its application in advanced graph-
based testing.
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Lecture 08: Elementary Graph Algorithms (Continued)
1. Purpose of the Lecture:
o To introduce Depth-First Search (DFS) as a complementary graph
traversal algorithm.
o To explore the concept of strongly connected components (SCCs) in
directed graphs.
o To explain the use of DFS in identifying SCCs and designing test paths.
2. Depth-First Search (DFS):
o Overview:
▪ DFS explores as deeply as possible along one branch before
backtracking.
▪ Focuses on depth-first exploration rather than breadth.
o Steps:
1. Start from a designated source vertex.
2. Explore the first unvisited vertex in the adjacency list.
3. Continue exploring deeper until no unvisited vertices remain.
4. Backtrack and repeat for other vertices in the adjacency list.
o Attributes:
▪ Each vertex has:
▪ Discovery Time (d): The time when it is first visited.
▪ Finish Time (f): The time when the exploration of its
adjacency list is completed.
▪ Color: Indicates the state of the vertex:
▪ White: Unvisited.
▪ Grey: Discovered but not fully explored.
▪ Black: Fully explored.
3. DFS Algorithm:
o Initializes all vertices as white.
 o Sets the parent (predecessor) attribute of each vertex to nil.
o Updates the discovery and finish times during traversal.
o Produces a DFS tree or forest:
▪ Tree Edges: Part of the DFS tree.
▪ Back Edges: Connect a vertex to an ancestor in the DFS tree.
▪ Forward Edges: Connect a vertex to a descendant in the DFS tree.
▪ Cross Edges: Connect vertices in different branches of the DFS
tree.
4. Applications of DFS:
o Cycle Detection:
▪ DFS can identify cycles in directed graphs by detecting back
edges.
o Topological Sorting:
▪ Used for directed acyclic graphs (DAGs).
o Strongly Connected Components (SCCs):
▪ Identifies subsets of vertices where each vertex is reachable from
every other vertex in the subset.
5. Strongly Connected Components (SCCs):
o Definition:
▪ A strongly connected component is a maximal subgraph where
every vertex is reachable from every other vertex in the subgraph.
o Steps to Identify SCCs Using DFS:
1. Perform a DFS on the original graph and record the finish times of all vertices.
2. Transpose the graph (reverse the direction of all edges).
3. Perform a DFS on the transposed graph, starting with vertices in the decreasing
order of their finish times from the first DFS.
4. Each DFS tree in the second pass corresponds to an SCC.
6. DFS in Software Testing:
o Helps identify and analyze strongly connected components in software
models.
o Useful for ensuring comprehensive test coverage in systems with loops or
interdependent components.
7. Comparison: BFS vs. DFS:
o BFS:
▪ Explores all neighbors at the same level before proceeding.
▪ Useful for shortest path and simple graph traversal.
o DFS:
▪ Explores depth-first, uncovering tree structures and cycles.
▪ Useful for identifying SCCs and deeper structural insights.
8. Conclusion:
 o DFS complements BFS in graph-based testing, offering deeper insights
into graph structures.
o SCCs provide a way to understand interconnected parts of software
models.
o These techniques are crucial for designing robust test paths and ensuring
thorough test coverage.
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Lecture 09: Algorithms for Structural Graph Coverage Criteria
1. Purpose of the Lecture:
o To revisit structural coverage criteria.
o To introduce algorithms for writing test requirements and generating test
paths.
o To link graph traversal techniques with practical test case design.
2. Recap of Structural Coverage Criteria:
o Coverage criteria for graphs focus on ensuring specific elements are
visited during testing:
▪ Node Coverage: Visit every node in the graph.
▪ Edge Coverage: Traverse every edge.
▪ Edge-Pair Coverage: Traverse every consecutive pair of edges.
▪ Path Coverage:
▪ Complete Path Coverage: Infeasible for graphs with loops.
▪ Specified Path Coverage: Covers paths explicitly provided
by the user.
▪ Prime Path Coverage: Focuses on the longest simple
paths.
▪ Round-Trip Coverage: Ensures loops are thoroughly tested.
3. Algorithms for Coverage Criteria:
o Algorithms derive test requirements (TR) and corresponding test paths for
each coverage criterion.
o Assumes the coverage criteria are feasible; infeasible criteria are not
considered for path generation.
4. Test Requirements (TR):
o Node Coverage: TR is the set of all vertices in the graph.
o Edge Coverage: TR is the set of all edges in the graph.
o Edge-Pair Coverage: TR includes all consecutive edge pairs.
 o Path Coverage: TR varies based on specific path coverage requirements
(e.g., prime paths or round trips).
5. Generating Test Paths:
o Node Coverage:
▪ Use BFS or DFS to explore all nodes in the graph.
▪ If all nodes are not reachable from the initial source, perform
BFS/DFS from multiple sources to generate a forest of trees.
o Edge Coverage:
▪ Extend BFS or DFS to ensure all edges are traversed.
▪ Include cross, tree, and back edges as needed to cover all edges.
6. Handling Loops in Graphs:
o Loops can make certain coverage criteria infeasible (e.g., complete path
coverage).
o Strategies to handle loops:
▪ Specify key paths to test (Specified Path Coverage).
▪ Use side trips and detours:
▪ Side Trips: Temporarily leave a path, explore a loop or
segment, and return.
▪ Detours: Skip certain edges or segments to test alternative
paths.
7. Algorithmic Considerations:
o Graph traversal algorithms like BFS and DFS are foundational for
generating test paths.
o These algorithms need modifications to account for:
▪ Loops and backtracking.
▪ Ensuring paths start and end at designated nodes.
▪ Adherence to specific coverage requirements.
8. Subsumption in Coverage Criteria:
o Coverage criteria have a hierarchy of subsumption:
▪ Edge Coverage subsumes Node Coverage.
▪ Prime Path Coverage subsumes Edge Coverage.
o Understanding these relationships helps optimize test case design.
9. Conclusion:
o Structural graph coverage criteria provide a systematic approach to test
case generation.
o Algorithms like BFS and DFS are key tools for achieving these criteria.
o Handling loops and understanding subsumption are critical for designing
effective test paths.
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Lecture 10: Structural Coverage Criteria - Assignment Walkthrough
1. Purpose of the Lecture:
o To review the assignment on structural coverage criteria.
o To demonstrate the correct answers and reasoning behind them.
o To reinforce concepts of structural graph coverage criteria through
practical examples.
2. Assignment Overview:
o Consists of eight questions focusing on coverage criteria.
o Tests understanding of concepts like subsumption, path coverage, and
test path generation.
3. Question 1: Subsumption Relationships
o Correct Answer: Prime Path Coverage → Edge Coverage → Node
Coverage.
o Explanation:
▪ Prime Path Coverage subsumes Edge Coverage since it includes
all paths that cover edges.
▪ Edge Coverage subsumes Node Coverage since all edges connect
nodes.
4. Question 2: Edge Coverage to Node Coverage
o Question: What requirement should be added to edge coverage to
subsume node coverage?
o Correct Answer: Length up to 1.
o Explanation:
▪ Edge coverage includes paths of length 1 (covering edges).
▪ Including paths of length 0 (single nodes) ensures node coverage.
5. Question 3: Making Infeasible Requirements Feasible
o Question: What elements are added to test paths to make infeasible
requirements feasible?
o Correct Answer: Side trips and detours.
o Explanation:
▪ Side Trips: Temporarily leave a test path to explore additional
edges or nodes.
▪ Detours: Skip specific segments to bypass infeasibilities.
6. Question 4: Prime Path Definition
o Question: What kind of path is a prime path?
o Correct Answer: Maximal simple path.
o Explanation:
 ▪ A prime path is a simple path (no repeated vertices or edges) that
is not a subpath of any longer simple path.
7. Additional Questions:
o Explored topics like round-trip coverage, test path generation, and
subsumption relations among coverage criteria.
8. Reinforcement of Key Concepts:
o Specified Path Coverage: User-defined paths to ensure meaningful
testing in complex graphs.
o Round-Trip Coverage: Ensures loops are tested thoroughly by executing
all or representative loop paths.
o Maximal Simple Paths: Important for testing loops and avoiding
redundancy in test paths.
9. Conclusion:
o Structural graph coverage criteria provide a systematic approach to
testing.
o Assignments reinforce theoretical concepts through practical scenarios.
o Understanding relationships like subsumption helps optimize test case
design and selection.
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Lecture 11: Data Flow in Graphs
1. Purpose of the Lecture:
o To introduce data flow coverage criteria in graphs.
o To model data usage in software artifacts and define test paths for data
flow testing.
2. Introduction to Data Flow Testing:
o Focuses on how data (variables) flows through a program.
o Data is represented as variables, which can be:
▪ Defined: When a value is assigned (e.g., input, assignment,
parameter passing).
▪ Used: When accessed for conditions, calculations, or as part of
statements.
o A key objective is to track variables from definition to their uses to ensure
correctness.
3. Key Concepts:
o Definition (Def):
▪ A location in the program where a variable's value is stored in
memory.
▪ Examples include assignment statements, parameter passing, and
input statements.
o Use (Use):
▪ A location where a variable's value is accessed.
▪ Examples include conditions in if statements, loop checks, or
being on the right-hand side of an assignment.
o DU-Pairs:
▪ A pair of locations (li,lj)(l_i, l_j)(li,lj) where a variable is defined at
lil_ili and used at ljl_jlj.
▪ Represents the flow of data from a definition to a use.
4. Modeling Data Flow in Graphs:
o Programs are modeled as graphs with:
▪ Nodes: Represent program statements or basic blocks.
▪ Edges: Represent control flow between statements or blocks.
o Def(n): Variables defined at node nnn.
o Use(n): Variables used at node nnn.
o Def(e): Variables defined on edge eee (rare in program graphs but
common in design graphs).
o Use(e): Variables used on edge eee.
5. Importance of Data Flow Testing:
 o Identifies unused variables or uninitialized variables.
o Ensures all variable definitions are used appropriately.
o Tracks potential errors like using a variable before it is initialized.
6. Applications:
o Data flow testing is crucial in scenarios where correctness depends on
the relationship between variable definitions and their usage.
7. Conclusion:
o Data flow coverage focuses on tracking variable definitions and their
usages through graphs.
o DU-pairs form the basis for defining test paths that ensure robust data
flow testing.
o Future modules will delve into coverage criteria that use data flow
concepts to generate test paths.
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Lecture 12: Algorithms for Data Flow Graph Coverage Criteria
1. Purpose of the Lecture:
o To define data flow coverage criteria using DU-paths.
o To discuss algorithms for achieving data flow coverage.
o To explore the grouping of DU-paths for systematic testing.
2. Recap of Data Flow Concepts:
o Definition (Def): A variable is assigned a value at a location in the
program.
o Use: A variable's value is accessed (e.g., in a condition or calculation).
o DU-Pair: A pair of locations where a variable is defined at one point and
used at another without being redefined in between.
3. DU-Paths:
o A DU-path is a simple path that:
▪ Begins at a variable’s definition.
▪ Ends at one of its uses.
▪ Contains no redefinition of the variable in intermediate nodes.
4. Defining Data Flow Coverage Criteria:
o All-Defs Coverage: Ensures every variable definition is covered by at
least one use.
o All-Uses Coverage: Ensures every variable definition reaches all possible
uses.
 o All DU-Paths Coverage: Ensures every variable definition reaches all
possible uses through all distinct paths.
5. Grouping DU-Paths:
o By Definition:
▪ Collects all DU-paths for a variable vvv starting at a specific node
nin_ini.
▪ Forms a Def Path Set, which includes all DU-paths originating
from nin_ini.
o By Definition and Use:
▪ Groups DU-paths that start at nin_ini (definition) and end at njn_jnj
(use).
▪ Forms a Def Pair Set, which includes all paths between a specific
definition-use pair.
6. Algorithms for Data Flow Coverage:
o Finding DU-Paths:
▪ Traverse the control flow graph (CFG) to identify paths between
definitions and uses.
▪ Ensure paths are simple and definition-clear.
o Coverage Testing:
▪ Use best effort touring to construct test paths.
▪ Allow side trips and detours as long as the test paths remain
definition-clear.
o Grouping and Optimizing Paths:
▪ Group paths systematically to minimize redundant testing.
▪ Focus on key DU-pairs for comprehensive coverage.
7. Example Application:
o An example program for pattern matching is used to illustrate:
▪ How to identify DU-paths in its control flow graph.
▪ How to group paths for systematic testing.
8. Importance of Data Flow Testing:
o Highlights errors such as:
▪ Unused variable definitions.
▪ Variables used without being initialized.
o Provides a structured approach to test cases for data correctness.
9. Conclusion:
o Data flow coverage criteria, such as All-Defs, All-Uses, and All DU-Paths,
ensure robust testing of variable usage.
o Algorithms for identifying and testing DU-paths form the foundation of
data flow testing.
o Grouping DU-paths optimizes the testing process by reducing
redundancy.
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Lecture 13: Graph Coverage Criteria Applied to Test Code
1. Purpose of the Lecture:
o To demonstrate the application of graph coverage criteria to test source
code.
o To explain the process of modeling source code as control flow graphs
(CFGs).
o To apply structural coverage criteria to ensure thorough code testing.
2. Introduction to Graph Coverage Criteria:
o Graphs are used to model the flow of control in software.
o Coverage criteria like node, edge, and path coverage ensure that test
cases are comprehensive.
o The lecture builds on previous concepts and focuses on applying these
criteria to real source code.
3. Modeling Source Code as Graphs:
o Control Flow Graph (CFG):
▪ Nodes represent basic blocks (sequential statements without
branching).
▪ Edges represent control flow between blocks (e.g., conditions in if
statements, loops, or function calls).
o Annotations:
▪ CFGs can include branch predicates, definitions, and uses to
support advanced testing criteria.
4. Steps to Apply Graph Coverage:
o Step 1: Construct the CFG:
▪ Identify basic blocks and connect them based on the control flow.
▪ Example: For an if-else structure, create a branching CFG with a
merging node after the else block.
o Step 2: Apply Coverage Criteria:
▪ Node Coverage: Ensure every node (basic block) is executed.
▪ Edge Coverage: Ensure every edge (transition) is traversed.
▪ Prime Path Coverage: Cover all maximal simple paths in the CFG.
5. Examples of CFG Construction:
o If-Else Structure:
▪ Nodes for the condition, then block, else block, and the statement
following the structure.
 o Loops:
▪ Nodes represent loop initialization, body, and exit conditions.
▪ Edges represent entry, iteration, and exit transitions.
6. Relation to Testing Terms:
o Node Coverage → Statement Coverage:
▪ Covers all executable statements in the source code.
o Edge Coverage → Branch Coverage:
▪ Covers all decision outcomes in the source code.
o Prime Path Coverage → Loop Coverage:
▪ Ensures loops are executed for various iterations, including
skipping and maximal iterations.
7. Advantages of Applying Graph Coverage:
o Systematic testing ensures all control flows are evaluated.
o Identifies untested code blocks or redundant branches.
o Provides a clear structure for test case generation.
8. Conclusion:
o Modeling source code as CFGs helps bridge the gap between theoretical
criteria and practical testing.
o Structural coverage criteria ensure comprehensive testing of code’s
control flow.
o Advanced testing (e.g., data flow criteria) builds upon CFGs for deeper
analysis.
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Lecture 14: Testing Source Code - Classical Coverage Criteria
1. Purpose of the Lecture:
o To explore the relationship between classical testing terms and graph-
based structural coverage criteria.
o To bridge the concepts of graph modeling and commonly used terms in
white-box testing.
o To introduce classical metrics like cyclomatic complexity and decision
coverage.
2. Classical Coverage Terminologies:
o Popular terms in white-box testing include:
▪ Code Coverage: Measures how much code is executed during
testing.
 ▪ Statement Coverage: Ensures every statement in the code is
executed.
▪ Branch Coverage: Ensures each branch in decision points is
tested.
▪ Decision Coverage: Tests outcomes of decisions in if, while, or for
statements.
▪ Modified Condition/Decision Coverage (MCDC): Tests individual
conditions within decisions for independence.
▪ Path Coverage: Covers all possible execution paths.
3. Mapping Classical Terms to Graph Coverage:
o Node Coverage: Equivalent to statement coverage.
▪ Each node in the control flow graph (CFG) corresponds to a
statement or basic block.
o Edge Coverage: Equivalent to branch coverage.
▪ Ensures all transitions (branches) in the CFG are tested.
o Loop Coverage: Tests loop behavior, including:
▪ Skipping the loop.
▪ Executing the loop once.
▪ Executing the loop multiple times up to its maximum allowed
iterations.
o Prime Path Coverage: Handles paths that include loops, ensuring all
maximal simple paths are tested.
4. Cyclomatic Complexity:
o A metric for measuring the complexity of a program based on its control
flow.
o Defined as: V(G)=E−N+2PV(G) = E - N + 2PV(G)=E−N+2P
▪ EEE: Number of edges in the graph.
▪ NNN: Number of nodes.
▪ PPP: Number of connected components (usually 1 for a single
program).
o Cyclomatic complexity helps:
▪ Estimate the number of test cases needed for branch coverage.
▪ Identify overly complex code that may require simplification.
5. Basis Path Testing:
o Derives test cases based on cyclomatic complexity.
o Ensures all independent paths in the graph are tested.
o Focuses on uncovering errors related to control flow.
6. Testing Safety-Critical Software:
o Decision coverage, MCDC, and loop coverage are widely used in testing
safety-critical systems.
 o These criteria help ensure robust and reliable behavior under all
conditions.
7. Conclusion:
o Classical testing terms map directly to structural coverage criteria,
making it easier to adopt graph-based testing.
o Metrics like cyclomatic complexity provide insights into code complexity
and testing requirements.
o Combining classical and graph-based approaches enhances testing
thoroughness and efficiency.
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Lecture 15: Data Flow Graph Coverage Criteria Applied to Test Code
1. Purpose of the Lecture:
o To apply data flow graph coverage criteria to source code testing.
o To augment control flow graphs (CFGs) with data definitions and uses for
robust testing.
o To explore how definitions reach their uses in source code through DU-
paths.
2. Recap of Data Flow Coverage Criteria:
o DU-Paths (Definition-Use Paths):
▪ A path from a variable’s definition to its use without redefinition in
intermediate nodes.
o Criteria:
▪ All-Defs Coverage: Ensures each definition reaches at least one
use.
▪ All-Uses Coverage: Ensures each definition reaches all possible
uses.
▪ All DU-Paths Coverage: Ensures each definition reaches all uses
through all distinct paths.
3. Augmenting CFGs with Data Information:
o Nodes in CFGs represent statements or blocks containing variable
definitions and uses.
o Definitions (Def): Occur at nodes where variables are assigned values.
o Uses (Use): Occur at nodes where variables are read or accessed for
conditions, calculations, etc.
4. Process of Applying Data Flow Criteria:
o Step 1: Identify Def-Use Pairs:
 ▪ For each variable, track definitions and their corresponding uses.
o Step 2: Construct DU-Paths:
▪ Generate simple paths from definitions to uses, ensuring no
intermediate redefinitions.
o Step 3: Test Path Design:
▪ Use paths to create test cases that satisfy the selected data flow
coverage criterion.
5. Example Application:
o Code Example:
▪ A simple program computes statistical parameters like mean and
variance.
▪ Variables like sum, mean, and varsum are defined and used across
loops and calculations.
o CFG Construction:
▪ Nodes represent key operations (e.g., loop initialization,
summation, calculations).
▪ Edges represent control flow transitions.
o Def-Use Pairs Identification:
▪ For example, sum is defined in a loop and used for calculating
mean.
6. Handling Loops and Complex Paths:
o Loops often introduce multiple DU-paths for a single definition.
o Use side trips and detours cautiously to maintain definition-clear paths.
7. Key Insights from Data Flow Testing:
o Highlights potential errors like:
▪ Unused variable definitions.
▪ Variables used without initialization.
o Ensures correctness of variable flows, reducing runtime errors.
8. Conclusion:
o Data flow coverage criteria provide a structured approach to testing the
flow of variables in code.
o Augmenting CFGs with definitions and uses allows comprehensive
testing of variable interactions.
o Applying All-Defs, All-Uses, and All DU-Paths criteria ensures robust
testing of data flows.
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Lecture 16: Software Design and Integration Testing
1. Purpose of the Lecture:
o To introduce integration testing based on software design.
o To transition from testing code to testing design models using graph
coverage criteria.
o To explore the role of integration testing in verifying module interactions.
2. Overview of Integration Testing:
o Integration testing focuses on testing interactions between software
modules.
o Ensures modules work together as intended, verifying both control and
data flow.
o Follows unit testing in the software testing lifecycle.
3. Key Concepts in Software Design:
o Modules (Components):
▪ Self-contained elements of a system that take inputs, perform
computations, and produce outputs.
▪ Examples include functions in C, methods in Java, or entire
subsystems.
o Interfaces:
▪ Mechanisms for modules to interact, passing control and data.
▪ Types of interfaces include:
▪ Procedure Call Interface: Common in functional
programming.
▪ Shared Data Interface: Modules share access to a
common data structure.
▪ Message Passing Interface: Modules communicate via
messages.
4. Integration Testing Approaches:
o Top-Down Integration:
▪ Starts testing from the top-level module, integrating lower-level
modules incrementally.
▪ Requires test stubs to simulate lower-level modules not yet
implemented.
o Bottom-Up Integration:
▪ Starts testing from the lowest-level modules, integrating higher-
level modules progressively.
▪ Requires test drivers to simulate calling higher-level modules.
o Big Bang Integration:
 ▪ Tests all modules together after development, requiring
comprehensive test cases.
o Incremental Integration:
▪ Combines features of top-down and bottom-up approaches for
flexibility.
5. Graph Models for Integration Testing:
o Call Graphs:
▪ Nodes represent modules or components.
▪ Edges represent calls or interactions between modules.
o Structural Coverage Criteria on Call Graphs:
▪ Node Coverage: Ensure every module is called at least once.
▪ Edge Coverage: Ensure every interaction (call) between modules
is tested.
▪ Specified Path Coverage: Used for comprehensive testing in Big
Bang integration.
6. Examples of Integration Testing:
o Procedure Call Testing:
▪ Example: A function calls another function, passing parameters
and receiving results.
▪ Focuses on testing the correctness of calls and returns.
o Shared Data Testing:
▪ Example: Multiple modules read/write to a shared data structure.
▪ Ensures consistency and prevents race conditions.
7. Challenges in Integration Testing:
o Handling incomplete modules (requires stubs and drivers).
o Identifying and testing all interactions between modules.
o Ensuring seamless integration of independently developed components.
8. Conclusion:
o Integration testing bridges unit testing and system testing, focusing on
module interactions.
o Graph models like call graphs and structural criteria provide a systematic
approach to integration testing.
o Future lectures will extend these ideas to object-oriented systems and
complex designs.
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Lecture 17: Design Integration Testing and Graph Coverage
1. Purpose of the Lecture:
o To extend graph coverage criteria to design integration testing.
o To apply structural and data flow coverage criteria to call graphs.
o To analyze interactions between modules and interfaces during
integration testing.
2. Overview of Graph Models for Design:
o Call Graphs:
▪ Nodes represent software modules, test stubs, or drivers.
▪ Edges represent calls or interactions between modules.
o Structural Coverage Criteria:
▪ Applied to call graphs to ensure comprehensive testing of module
interactions.
o Data Flow Coverage Criteria:
▪ Tracks how data flows between modules via interfaces.
3. Structural Coverage Criteria in Integration Testing:
o Node Coverage:
▪ Ensures every module in the system is called at least once.
▪ Identifies unused or redundant modules.
o Edge Coverage:
▪ Ensures every interaction between modules (edges in the call
graph) is tested.
▪ Verifies correctness of module-to-module calls.
o Specified Path Coverage:
▪ Useful in Big Bang integration testing to test specific module
sequences.
4. Data Flow Coverage Criteria in Integration Testing:
o Focuses on the flow of data between modules:
▪ Parameter Passing: Ensures correct data transfer between caller
and callee modules.
▪ Return Values: Verifies correctness of data returned by called
modules.
o Identifies errors like incorrect data handling or type mismatches.
5. Application of Coverage Criteria:
o Example: Call Graph of a Modular System:
▪ Nodes represent functions or methods.
▪ Edges represent calls (e.g., module A calls module B).
▪ Test paths are designed to cover all nodes, edges, and significant
paths.
6. Challenges with Call Graphs:
o Loops in Call Graphs:
▪ Rare but can occur in recursive calls or circular dependencies.
 ▪ Requires careful testing to ensure termination and correctness.
o Stub and Driver Management:
▪ Stubs simulate lower-level modules for top-down testing.
▪ Drivers simulate higher-level modules for bottom-up testing.
7. Class Call Graphs in Object-Oriented Systems:
o Represents interactions between classes.
o Covers methods and their calls within a class hierarchy.
o Introduces new challenges like inheritance and polymorphism.
8. Key Insights:
o Integration testing focuses on ensuring module interactions and data flow
correctness.
o Graph models like call graphs provide a clear representation of module
interactions.
o Structural and data flow coverage criteria enhance the robustness of
integration testing.
9. Conclusion:
o Graph-based coverage criteria are instrumental in verifying module
interactions during integration testing.
o Call graphs and associated criteria ensure thorough testing of both
control and data flow.
o Future lectures will explore advanced testing methods for object-oriented
designs and specifications.
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Lecture 18: Specification Testing and Graph Coverage
1. Purpose of the Lecture:
o To explore the use of graph coverage criteria for specification testing.
o To understand how sequencing constraints and preconditions influence
testing.
o To introduce specification models like finite state machines for testing
design.
2. Introduction to Specification Testing:
o Focuses on validating the design specifications of software.
o Design specifications describe:
▪ How modules interact.
▪ Constraints on the order of operations.
o These constraints are often beyond the scope of functional requirements.
3. Design Specifications and Sequencing Constraints:
o Design Specifications:
▪ Define the requirements or constraints for module interactions.
▪ May include sequencing rules, preconditions, and postconditions.
o Sequencing Constraints:
▪ Specify the order in which operations must be executed.
▪ Example: A deQueue operation must follow at least one enQueue
operation to avoid errors.
4. Preconditions and Postconditions:
o Preconditions: Conditions that must hold true before an operation.
▪ Example: A queue must not be empty before deQueue.
o Postconditions: Conditions that must hold true after an operation.
▪ Example: An enQueue operation adds the element to the end of
the queue.
5. Graph Models for Specification Testing:
o Control Flow Graphs (CFGs):
▪ Nodes represent operations or methods.
▪ Edges represent transitions between operations.
o Sequencing Graphs:
▪ Nodes represent states or constraints.
▪ Edges represent allowed transitions between states.
o Graph coverage criteria ensure that all possible sequences and
constraints are validated.
6. Testing Sequencing Constraints:
o Test cases are designed to:
▪ Verify that valid sequences are executed correctly.
▪ Intentionally violate constraints to identify errors.
o Example: Testing a queue by attempting deQueue on an empty queue to
check for error handling.
7. Finite State Machines (FSMs) in Specification Testing:
o FSMs model the behavior of systems with well-defined states and
transitions.
o Nodes represent states (e.g., Open, Closed).
o Edges represent transitions triggered by actions or conditions (e.g.,
pressing an open door button).
o Coverage criteria for FSMs:
▪ Node Coverage: Test every state.
▪ Edge Coverage: Test every transition.
▪ Path Coverage: Test sequences of transitions.
8. Importance of Specification Testing:
o Ensures that design-level constraints are met before implementation.
 o Detects errors early, reducing downstream costs.
o Enhances the robustness and reliability of the system.
9. Conclusion:
o Specification testing bridges the gap between design and
implementation.
o Sequencing constraints and FSMs provide a foundation for validating
system behavior.
o Graph coverage criteria ensure thorough testing of design specifications.
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Lecture 19: Graph Coverage and Finite State Machines
1. Purpose of the Lecture:
o To introduce finite state machines (FSMs) as a model for system design
and testing.
o To apply graph coverage criteria to FSMs for robust testing.
o To summarize the applications of graph-based testing in software
systems.
2. Introduction to Finite State Machines (FSMs):
o FSMs model system behavior using:
▪ States: Representing specific conditions or configurations.
▪ Transitions: Representing changes between states triggered by
actions or events.
o Commonly used in:
▪ Embedded systems (e.g., elevators, traffic lights).
▪ Protocols and hardware design.
▪ Abstract data types (e.g., queue operations).
3. Components of FSMs:
o States:
▪ Nodes in the FSM graph.
▪ Represent variable configurations at a specific point.
o Transitions:
▪ Edges in the FSM graph.
▪ Represent actions or events that change the state.
▪ Often associated with conditions (guards) and triggers.
4. FSM Example: Elevator Door:
o States:
▪ Closed: The door is closed.
 ▪ Open: The door is open.
o Transitions:
▪ From Closed to Open when the "Open Door" button is pressed and
the elevator speed is zero.
▪ From Open to Closed after a timeout or manual command.
5. Graph Coverage Criteria for FSMs:
o Node Coverage:
▪ Ensures every state is visited.
▪ Validates all system configurations.
o Edge Coverage:
▪ Ensures every transition is traversed.
▪ Tests all possible state changes.
o Path Coverage:
▪ Ensures sequences of transitions are tested.
▪ Includes simple paths, prime paths, or specified paths.
6. Testing with FSMs:
o FSMs provide a structured way to:
▪ Test all possible system behaviors.
▪ Identify unreachable or redundant states.
▪ Validate preconditions, postconditions, and constraints.
7. Advantages of FSM-Based Testing:
o Models design behavior before implementation.
o Helps detect errors early in the development lifecycle.
o Reduces the cost of fixing errors by addressing them during the design
phase.
8. Application of FSMs in Testing:
o Widely used in testing safety-critical and embedded systems.
o Example: Modeling a queue’s enQueue and deQueue operations with
constraints ensures robust implementation.
o FSMs can also be used to automatically generate test cases from design
specifications.
9. Conclusion:
o FSMs are a powerful tool for modeling and testing system design.
o Applying graph coverage criteria ensures comprehensive testing of states
and transitions.
o FSM-based testing enhances system reliability and reduces downstream
errors.
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Lecture 20: Assignment 4 - Graph Coverage Criteria: Data Flow Coverage Over
Source Code, Design, and Specifications
1. Purpose of the Lecture:
o To provide solutions and explanations for Assignment 4.
o To review data flow coverage criteria applied to source code, design, and
specifications.
o To reinforce understanding of graph-based testing concepts through
practical examples.
2. Overview of Assignment 4:
o The assignment focused on:
▪ Design Integration Testing:
▪ Graph coverage applied to module interactions and
sequencing constraints.
▪ Data Flow Testing:
▪ Def-use paths and criteria for variable definitions and uses.
o Included questions on scaffolding, sequencing constraints, and data flow
coverage.
3. Question Discussions:
o Question 1: Phase of Integration Testing
▪ Integration testing follows unit testing in the software
development lifecycle.
▪ Verifies the interaction between unit-tested modules.
o Question 2: Scaffolding in Integration Testing
▪ Involves test stubs (simulating called modules) and test drivers
(simulating calling modules).
▪ Supports top-down and bottom-up integration strategies.
o Question 3: Data Flow Between Caller and Callee
▪ Data can flow in both directions (caller to callee and vice versa).
▪ Statements asserting one-way data flow are false.
o Question 4: Implicit Initializations
▪ Implicit initializations of global variables (e.g., in C or Java) are
definitions.
▪ These initializations must be considered when applying data flow
criteria.
o Question 5: Sequencing Constraints
▪ Sequencing constraints involve ensuring test requirements align
with preconditions and postconditions.
▪ For example, violating sequencing constraints intentionally during
testing helps identify errors.
 4. Def-Use Paths in the Assignment:
o Program Example:
▪ A program computes the square root using a classical divide-and-
conquer algorithm.
o Def-Use Analysis:
▪ Variables are defined (e.g., initialization) and used (e.g.,
calculations) across different nodes.
▪ Paths are constructed from definitions to uses, ensuring no
redefinitions in between.
5. Application of Graph-Based Testing:
o Demonstrated through control flow graphs (CFGs) augmented with def-
use information.
o Graph-based testing ensures systematic coverage of variable interactions
and module behaviors.
6. Key Takeaways:
o Integration testing verifies module interactions, ensuring correctness at
interfaces.
o Data flow coverage identifies unused or uninitialized variables, improving
code reliability.
o Assignments reinforce theoretical concepts with practical applications.
7. Conclusion:
o Assignment 4 highlighted the importance of combining design, data flow,
and sequencing constraints in testing.
o Graph coverage criteria provide a structured approach to testing at
multiple levels of software design.
o Future modules will move beyond graph-based criteria to explore new
models and testing strategies.
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Lecture 21: Logics - Basics Needed for Software Testing
1. Purpose of the Lecture:
o To introduce the basics of logic necessary for designing test cases in
software testing.
o To establish the relevance of logic in analyzing and designing test cases
for predicates and specifications.
2. Why Logic in Software Testing?
o Logic is foundational to decision-making constructs in programs, such as
if, while, and for loops.
o These constructs contain predicates that evaluate to either true or false,
determining execution paths.
o Logic aids in creating systematic test cases for predicates in programs
and specifications.
3. Historical Context of Logic:
o Originates from Mathematics and Philosophy, dating back to Aristotle
(320 BC).
o Various fields have extensively utilized formal logic, including
mathematics, astronomy, and software engineering.
4. Types of Logic Discussed:
o Propositional Logic:
▪ Deals with atomic propositions that are either true or false.
▪ Combines propositions using Boolean connectives like AND (∧),
OR (∨), NOT (¬), IMPLIES (→), and EQUIVALENCE (↔).
o Predicate Logic:
▪ Extends propositional logic with predicates and quantifiers (∀ for
"for all" and ∃ for "there exists").
▪ In software testing, predicates evaluate to true or false but without
explicit quantifiers.
5. Propositional Logic Basics:
 o Propositions:
▪ Basic entities in logic, such as "New Delhi is the capital of India"
(true) or "3 + 3 = 8" (false).
o Syntax:
▪ Built from atomic propositions combined using Boolean
connectives.
▪ Example: ¬p ∨ q means "not p or q."
6. Predicate Logic Basics:
o Predicates:
▪ Functions or relations that evaluate to true or false.
▪ Example: x > y OR C OR f(z), where x > y is a clause, C is a Boolean
variable, and f(z) is a Boolean-returning function.
o Quantifiers:
▪ Typically excluded in software testing but central to formal
predicate logic.
7. Importance of Logical Understanding:
o Enables the creation of test cases based on logical predicates and
specifications.
o Facilitates a deeper understanding of program decisions and systematic
coverage.
8. Conclusion:
o Propositional and predicate logic are the foundation for designing test
cases.
o Future lectures will introduce coverage criteria for predicates and their
applications to programs and specifications.
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Lecture 22: Logic Coverage Criteria - Introduction
1. Purpose of the Lecture:
o To introduce logic coverage criteria for software testing.
o To establish the relationship between logical predicates and systematic
test case design.
o To provide a foundation for applying logic coverage to source code,
design, and specifications.
2. What Are Logic Coverage Criteria?
o Define systematic ways to test logical predicates in decision statements.
 o Aim to ensure thorough evaluation of conditions that control program
flow.
o Based on evaluating all possible outcomes (true and false) for predicates
and their clauses.
3. Key Concepts in Logic Coverage:
o Predicate:
▪ A Boolean expression in decision-making constructs like if, while,
or switch.
▪ Example: A > B OR C.
o Clause:
▪ Individual components of a predicate.
▪ Example: In A > B OR C, A > B and C are clauses.
4. Logic Coverage Criteria:
o Predicate Coverage:
▪ Ensures the entire predicate evaluates to true and false at least
once.
▪ Simple but may not ensure all clauses are tested.
o Clause Coverage:
▪ Ensures each clause evaluates to true and false at least once.
▪ Does not guarantee interaction between clauses is fully tested.
o Combinatorial Coverage:
▪ Ensures all possible combinations of clause values are tested.
▪ Covers the entire truth table but may be impractical for large
predicates.
5. Advanced Coverage Criteria:
o Active Clause Coverage:
▪ Focuses on the effect of individual clauses (major clauses) on the
predicate outcome.
▪ Correlated Active Clause Coverage: Tests major clauses while
holding other clauses constant.
o Inactive Clause Coverage:
▪ Similar to active clause coverage but tests the effect of "non-
major" clauses.
o All Combinations Coverage:
▪ Tests all possible combinations of clause values (entire truth
table).
6. Subsumption Relationships:
o Coverage criteria have a hierarchy based on thoroughness:
▪ Combinatorial Coverage subsumes Active Clause Coverage.
▪ Clause Coverage subsumes Predicate Coverage.
7. Importance of Logic Coverage:
 o Ensures decision statements in programs are thoroughly tested.
o Helps identify hidden errors in complex predicates.
o Widely used in safety-critical domains, such as aviation and medical
software.
8. Challenges:
o Combinatorial coverage can lead to an explosion of test cases for
predicates with many clauses.
o Active and inactive clause coverage require detailed analysis and
systematic test case design.
9. Conclusion:
o Logic coverage criteria provide a framework for testing predicates in
software.
o Predicate, clause, and active clause coverage are foundational to
ensuring thorough testing.
o Future lectures will focus on applying these criteria to source code,
design, and specifications.
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Lecture 23: Predicate Coverage - Practical Applications
1. Purpose of the Lecture:
o To demonstrate the practical application of predicate coverage.
o To highlight the use of predicate coverage in testing decision constructs.
o To explain the limitations and scope of predicate coverage.
2. What Is Predicate Coverage?
o Ensures each predicate in the code evaluates to both true and false at
least once.
o Aims to test the overall effect of decision-making constructs without
delving into individual clause behavior.
3. Applying Predicate Coverage to Code:
o Source of Predicates:
▪ Found in control statements like if, while, for, and switch.
▪ Example: In if (A > B && C), the entire condition is the predicate.
o Test Case Design:
▪ Create inputs that make the predicate evaluate to true and false.
▪ Example: For if (A > B && C):
▪ Test case 1: Inputs such that A > B and C are both true,
making the predicate true.
 ▪ Test case 2: Inputs such that at least one clause is false,
making the predicate false.
4. Advantages of Predicate Coverage:
o Simple and easy to implement.
o Provides a baseline level of confidence in decision-making constructs.
o Detects errors in the overall structure of predicates.
5. Limitations of Predicate Coverage:
o Does not test the behavior of individual clauses within a predicate.
o Fails to uncover errors that arise from clause interactions.
o Example: In if (A > B && C), predicate coverage may not test scenarios
where A > B is false but C is true.
6. Examples:
o Example 1: Simple Predicate
▪ Code: if (X > 10) { action(); }
▪ Test Cases:
▪ X = 15 (predicate true).
▪ X = 5 (predicate false).
o Example 2: Compound Predicate
▪ Code: if (X > 10 || Y < 5) { action(); }
▪ Test Cases:
▪ X = 15, Y = 6 (predicate true due to X > 10).
▪ X = 8, Y = 2 (predicate true due to Y < 5).
▪ X = 8, Y = 6 (predicate false).
7. Predicate Coverage in Specifications:
o Predicates in requirements or specifications are often tested using similar
principles.
o Example: "If the pin code is valid, the address should be saved."
▪ Create test cases where the pin code is valid and invalid to
evaluate the predicate.
8. Use Cases:
o Predicate coverage is a starting point for white-box testing.
o Used in conjunction with other criteria like clause coverage for more
thorough testing.
9. Conclusion:
o Predicate coverage provides a basic yet essential method for testing
decision-making constructs.
o While it has limitations, it lays the groundwork for more detailed testing
criteria like clause and combinatorial coverage.
o Future lectures will explore how to overcome these limitations using
advanced criteria.
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Lecture 24: Clause Coverage - Practical Applications
1. Purpose of the Lecture:
o To explain clause coverage and its application in software testing.
o To highlight how clause coverage extends predicate coverage by focusing
on individual clauses.
o To demonstrate the benefits and challenges of clause coverage.
2. What Is Clause Coverage?
o Ensures each clause in a predicate evaluates to true and false at least
once.
o Goes beyond predicate coverage by testing the behavior of individual
components (clauses) within a predicate.
3. Key Differences from Predicate Coverage:
o Predicate coverage evaluates the entire predicate as a whole.
o Clause coverage evaluates each clause independently, ensuring each
clause contributes to the predicate’s behavior.
4. Example of Clause Coverage:
o Code:
java
Copy code
if (A > B && C) {
action();
}
o Clauses:
▪ A > B (Clause 1).
▪ C (Clause 2).
o Test Cases for Clause Coverage:
▪ Case 1: A > B is true, C is true.
▪ Case 2: A > B is true, C is false.
▪ Case 3: A > B is false, C is true.
▪ Case 4: A > B is false, C is false.
5. Advantages of Clause Coverage:
o Provides a deeper level of testing compared to predicate coverage.
o Ensures all possible outcomes of individual clauses are considered.
o Can detect errors that may be missed in predicate coverage, especially in
complex predicates.
6. Limitations of Clause Coverage:
 o Does not consider interactions between clauses.
o May not fully test how combinations of clause values affect the predicate
outcome.
o Example: For if (A > B || C), clause coverage does not test how A > B and C
interact to determine the predicate’s truth value.
7. Application in Specifications:
o Clause coverage can be applied to logical conditions in specifications.
o Example: Specification states, "If the user is logged in and has admin
rights, they can access the settings."
▪ Clause 1: User is logged in.
▪ Clause 2: User has admin rights.
▪ Test cases ensure both clauses independently evaluate to true and
false.
8. Combining Clause and Predicate Coverage:
o Clause coverage is often used in conjunction with predicate coverage for
comprehensive testing.
o Ensures both the overall predicate and its individual clauses are
thoroughly tested.
9. Conclusion:
o Clause coverage extends predicate coverage by focusing on the behavior
of individual components within predicates.
o It provides a more granular approach to testing but does not account for
clause interactions.
o Future lectures will address advanced criteria like active clause coverage,
which bridges this gap.
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Lecture 25: Active Clause Coverage - Practical Applications
1. Purpose of the Lecture:
o To explain active clause coverage and its role in testing software.
o To demonstrate how active clause coverage tests the effect of individual
clauses on a predicate.
o To address the limitations of predicate and clause coverage by focusing
on clause-predicate relationships.
2. What Is Active Clause Coverage?
o Ensures that each major clause in a predicate is independently tested for
its impact on the predicate’s truth value.
 o Other clauses in the predicate are fixed to values that do not affect the
outcome of the predicate.
o Active clause coverage accounts for interactions between clauses and
their influence on the predicate.
3. Key Concepts:
o Major Clause:
▪ The clause being tested to determine its effect on the predicate’s
value.
o Minor Clauses:
▪ The remaining clauses in the predicate that are fixed during
testing.
o Ensures that changes in the major clause alone affect the predicate’s
outcome.
4. Steps to Apply Active Clause Coverage:
o Identify all clauses in the predicate.
o Select each clause as the major clause in turn.
o Assign values to minor clauses to fix the predicate’s value, ensuring the
major clause’s effect is isolated.
o Test the major clause for both true and false values.
5. Example:
o Code:
java
Copy code
if (A > B || C) {
action();
}
o Clauses:
▪ Clause 1: A > B.
▪ Clause 2: C.
o Test Cases for Active Clause Coverage:
▪ Major Clause: A > B
▪ Set C = false (minor clause fixed).
▪ Test cases:
▪ A > B = true → Predicate true.
▪ A > B = false → Predicate false.
▪ Major Clause: C
▪ Set A > B = false (minor clause fixed).
▪ Test cases:
▪ C = true → Predicate true.
▪ C = false → Predicate false.
6. Advantages of Active Clause Coverage:
 o Captures interactions between clauses and their influence on predicates.
o Identifies subtle errors in complex predicates that clause or predicate
coverage may miss.
o Provides a systematic approach to testing individual clauses in context.
7. Challenges of Active Clause Coverage:
o Requires detailed analysis to determine appropriate fixed values for minor
clauses.
o More complex and time-consuming than predicate or clause coverage,
especially for predicates with many clauses.
8. Use Cases:
o Active clause coverage is particularly useful for safety-critical systems
where correctness is paramount.
o Example: Ensuring the correctness of conditions in avionics software or
medical devices.
9. Conclusion:
o Active clause coverage builds on predicate and clause coverage by
isolating the effect of individual clauses.
o While more complex, it provides deeper insights into predicate behavior
and ensures thorough testing.
o Future lectures will explore correlated active clause coverage for more
nuanced testing.
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Lecture 26: Logic Coverage Criteria - Applied to Test Code
1. Purpose of the Lecture:
o To illustrate the application of logic coverage criteria for testing source
code.
o To analyze predicates and their clauses in a code example.
o To demonstrate test case design for logic coverage using real-world
examples.
2. Overview of the Lecture:
o Discusses applying logic coverage criteria to test practical code
examples.
o Revisits concepts like predicate coverage and active clause coverage with
detailed illustrations.
3. Example Program:
o Triangle Classification Program:
 ▪ A program that determines the type of a triangle based on the
lengths of its three sides.
▪ Outputs:
▪ 1: Scalene triangle (all sides are different).
▪ 2: Isosceles triangle (two sides are equal).
▪ 3: Equilateral triangle (all sides are equal).
▪ 4: Not a valid triangle (e.g., a side has non-positive length).
4. Logic in Triangle Classification:
o Input Validation:
▪ Checks if all sides are positive:
java
Copy code
if (A <= 0 || B <= 0 || C <= 0) {
return 4; // Not a valid triangle
}
▪ This predicate ensures valid input and is the first step in the logic.
o Classification Logic:
▪ Determines the type of triangle:
java
Copy code
if (A == B && B == C) {
return 3; // Equilateral
} else if (A == B || B == C || A == C) {
return 2; // Isosceles
} else {
return 1; // Scalene
}
5. Applying Logic Coverage Criteria:
o Predicate Coverage:
▪ Ensures predicates like A <= 0 || B <= 0 || C <= 0 evaluate to both
true and false.
▪ Test cases:
▪ Case 1: A = -1, B = 5, C = 6 → Predicate true, outputs 4.
▪ Case 2: A = 3, B = 4, C = 5 → Predicate false, proceeds to
classification.
o Clause Coverage:
▪ Ensures each clause in a predicate (A <= 0, B <= 0, C <= 0)
evaluates to both true and false.
▪ Test cases:
▪ Clause A <= 0: A = -1, B = 5, C = 6 (true); A = 3, B = 5, C = 6
(false).
 ▪ Similarly for B <= 0 and C <= 0.
o Active Clause Coverage:
▪ Focuses on each clause’s effect on the predicate outcome while
fixing other clauses.
▪ Test cases for the predicate A == B && B == C:
▪ Major Clause: A == B.
▪ Fix B == C = true.
▪ Test A == B = true → Predicate true; A == B = false →
Predicate false.
▪ Repeat for other clauses.
6. Challenges and Observations:
o Long predicates with multiple clauses increase complexity.
o Manual test case design for logic coverage requires deep analysis of code
behavior.
o Complex predicates may require auxiliary tools or simplifications.
7. Conclusion:
o Applying logic coverage criteria to code ensures thorough testing of
decision constructs.
o Examples like the triangle classification program highlight how predicates
and clauses can be systematically tested.
o Future lectures will explore the application of these criteria to
specifications and advanced testing scenarios.
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Lecture 27: Logic Coverage Criteria - Issues in Applying to Test Code
1. Purpose of the Lecture:
o To discuss practical challenges in applying logic coverage criteria to
source code.
o To evaluate the effectiveness of logic coverage for large and complex
programs.
o To explore the concept of predicate transformation and its limitations.
2. Recap of Logic Coverage:
o Predicate Coverage: Ensures predicates evaluate to both true and false.
o Clause Coverage: Ensures individual clauses evaluate to true and false.
o Active Clause Coverage: Focuses on how specific clauses affect the
predicate outcome.
3. Challenges in Applying Logic Coverage:
 o Size and Complexity of Programs:
▪ Large programs with thousands of lines of code contain numerous
predicates and clauses.
▪ Manually deriving test cases for each clause or predicate is time-
consuming and error-prone.
o Predicates with Multiple Clauses:
▪ Complex predicates with more than one clause require extensive
analysis.
▪ Example: A predicate with four clauses involves solving for each
clause’s truth values while holding others fixed, leading to
exponential growth in test cases.
4. Debates on Predicate Simplification:
o Some advocate rewriting programs to simplify predicates by breaking
them into smaller parts.
o This process, called predicate transformation, involves:
▪ Splitting predicates with multiple clauses into multiple predicates
with a single clause each.
▪ Example: Rewrite if (A && B) as:
java
Copy code
if (A) {
if (B) {
// Action
}
}
o Benefits:
▪ Simplifies test case design by reducing the complexity of individual
predicates.
o Drawbacks:
▪ Increases the control structure of the program (e.g., more nested if
statements).
▪ Makes the program harder to read, maintain, and debug.
▪ May not achieve the same level of test coverage as active clause
coverage.
5. Why Predicate Transformation May Fail:
o Rewriting predicates does not guarantee equivalent logic coverage.
o For example, achieving active clause coverage in the original program
does not equate to achieving predicate coverage in the transformed
program.
o Predicate transformation may alter the semantics of the original logic,
leading to incorrect results.
 6. Examples Illustrating Issues:
o Example 1: Nested Predicates
▪ Original Predicate: if (A && B && C)
▪ Transformed:
java
Copy code
if (A) {
if (B) {
if (C) {
// Action
}
}
}
▪ Observations:
▪ Increased nesting makes the program harder to
understand.
▪ Test cases for active clause coverage in the original code
may not map directly to the transformed code.
o Example 2: Cyclomatic Complexity:
▪ Cyclomatic complexity measures the number of independent
paths in the program.
▪ Simplifying predicates often increases complexity due to
additional control flow paths, complicating overall testing.
7. Conclusion:
o While logic coverage criteria like active clause coverage are effective,
their application to large programs poses challenges.
o Simplifying predicates through transformation may reduce immediate
testing complexity but introduces maintenance and readability issues.
o Future approaches should balance logic coverage needs with practical
considerations like program readability and maintainability.
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Lecture 28: Logic Coverage Criteria - Applied to Test Specifications
1. Purpose of the Lecture:
o To explore the application of logic coverage criteria to test specifications
rather than source code.
 o To derive logical predicates from specifications and apply coverage
criteria for testing.
o To demonstrate how preconditions and invariants in specifications can be
tested systematically.
2. Logic in Specifications:
o Specifications often include conditions expressed in natural language or
semi-formal notations.
o Logical predicates can be derived from specifications to ensure precise
testing.
o Examples:
▪ Preconditions: Conditions that must hold before executing a
program or function.
▪ Postconditions: Conditions that must hold after execution.
▪ Invariants: Properties that remain true throughout the program's
execution.
3. Deriving Logical Predicates:
o Logical predicates represent the constraints or rules in specifications.
o Example:
▪ Specification: "A pin code must be exactly six digits long."
▪ Logical Predicate: pinCode >= 100000 && pinCode <= 999999.
4. Example - Address Validation:
o Specification:
▪ The address must include:
▪ A non-empty name.
▪ A valid state from a predefined list.
▪ A pin code exactly six digits long.
o Logical Predicates:
▪ name != ""
▪ state IN validStates
▪ pinCode >= 100000 && pinCode <= 999999
o Logical predicates can be combined using logical operators (e.g., AND,
OR) to form complex conditions.
5. Applying Logic Coverage Criteria:
o Predicate Coverage:
▪ Test cases ensure each predicate evaluates to both true and false.
▪ Example: For pinCode >= 100000 && pinCode <= 999999:
▪ Case 1: pinCode = 123456 (true).
▪ Case 2: pinCode = 12345 (false).
o Clause Coverage:
▪ Test cases ensure each clause in a predicate evaluates to true and
false.
 ▪ Example: For pinCode >= 100000:
▪ Case 1: pinCode = 123456 (true).
▪ Case 2: pinCode = 99999 (false).
o Active Clause Coverage:
▪ Focuses on the effect of each clause on the predicate outcome
while keeping other clauses fixed.
6. Challenges in Testing Specifications:
o Ambiguity:
▪ Specifications written in natural language may lack precision.
▪ Translating such specifications into logical predicates requires
careful interpretation.
o Complexity:
▪ Specifications with multiple conditions lead to complex logical
predicates, increasing testing effort.
7. Benefits of Applying Logic Coverage to Specifications:
o Ensures specifications are complete and consistent.
o Detects errors in design before implementation begins.
o Provides a basis for systematic test case generation.
8. Conclusion:
o Logic coverage criteria are as applicable to specifications as they are to
source code.
o Testing specifications ensures correctness at the design stage, reducing
errors in later stages.
o Future lectures will focus on applying these criteria to finite state
machines and other specification models.
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Lecture 29: Logic Coverage Criteria - Applied to Finite State Machines
1. Purpose of the Lecture:
o To apply logic coverage criteria to finite state machines (FSMs).
o To demonstrate how FSMs represent specifications and how logic
coverage can be used for systematic testing.
o To explore testing transitions and guards in FSMs using logical predicates.
2. Overview of Finite State Machines (FSMs):
o FSMs model systems with discrete states and transitions between them.
o Components of FSMs:
▪ States: Represent distinct configurations or conditions.
 ▪ Transitions: Represent events or actions that cause state
changes.
▪ Guards: Conditions that must hold true for a transition to occur.
▪ Actions: Outputs or operations triggered by transitions.
3. Using FSMs in Specifications:
o FSMs are commonly used in:
▪ Embedded systems (e.g., control algorithms).
▪ Protocol design (e.g., communication protocols).
▪ Systems with strict sequencing rules (e.g., user authentication
processes).
o Example: An FSM for a subway train door control system with states:
▪ Doors Closed
▪ Left Doors Open
▪ Right Doors Open
▪ All Doors Open
4. Applying Logic Coverage to FSMs:
o Predicate Coverage:
▪ Test cases ensure guards on transitions evaluate to both true and
false.
▪ Example:
▪ Guard: trainSpeed == 0 && platformSide == "Left"
▪ Test cases:
▪ Case 1: trainSpeed = 0, platformSide = "Left" (true).
▪ Case 2: trainSpeed = 10, platformSide = "Left"
(false).
o Clause Coverage:
▪ Ensures each clause in a guard evaluates to true and false.
▪ Example:
▪ Guard: trainSpeed == 0 && platformSide == "Left"
▪ Clauses:
▪ trainSpeed == 0
▪ platformSide == "Left"
▪ Test cases:
▪ Case 1: trainSpeed = 0 (true); trainSpeed = 10 (false).
▪ Case 2: platformSide = "Left" (true); platformSide =
"Right" (false).
o Active Clause Coverage:
▪ Focuses on the effect of each clause on the guard’s outcome,
keeping other clauses fixed.
▪ Example:
▪ Major clause: trainSpeed == 0
 ▪ Fix platformSide == "Left".
▪ Test trainSpeed == 0 → Guard true; trainSpeed != 0 →
Guard false.
5. FSM Example - Subway Train Door Control:
o States:
▪ Doors Closed, Left Doors Open, Right Doors Open, All Doors
Open.
o Transitions:
▪ From Doors Closed to Left Doors Open:
▪ Guard: trainSpeed == 0 && platformSide == "Left" &&
trainLocation == "Station".
▪ Test cases:
▪ Case 1: All conditions true → Transition occurs.
▪ Case 2: Any condition false → Transition does not
occur.
6. Benefits of Applying Logic Coverage to FSMs:
o Ensures every state and transition in the FSM is tested.
o Validates guards to detect missing or incorrect conditions.
o Enhances the reliability of systems modeled using FSMs.
7. Challenges in Testing FSMs:
o Large FSMs with numerous states and transitions increase testing
complexity.
o Complex guards with multiple clauses require careful analysis and test
design.
8. Conclusion:
o Applying logic coverage criteria to FSMs ensures systematic testing of
state transitions and guards.
o This approach improves the reliability and correctness of systems
modeled as FSMs.
o Future lectures will explore advanced test design algorithms and
methodologies.
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Lecture 30: Assignment Solving - Week 6
1. Purpose of the Lecture:
o To provide solutions and explanations for the Week 6 assignment.
 o To reinforce the application of logic coverage criteria to source code,
design, and specifications.
o To ensure clarity on key concepts like reachability, controllability, and
predicate coverage.
2. Overview of Week 6 Assignment:
o Focused on logic coverage criteria, including predicate, clause, and
combinatorial coverage.
o Tested understanding of preconditions, postconditions, and logical
predicates in design.
o Included multiple-choice questions and short-answer questions for
practical application.
3. Assignment Solutions:
o Question 1: Reachability and Controllability
▪ Problem: Reaching a specific predicate in the source code with
internal variables and assigning input values to make clauses true
or false.
▪ Answer: Controllability is the ability to assign values to inputs to
control a predicate’s truth value, following reachability, which
ensures the predicate can be reached.
o Question 2: Clause Coverage and Predicate Coverage
▪ Problem: Determine whether clause coverage, predicate
coverage, and combinatorial coverage are equivalent for a
predicate with one clause.
▪ Answer: True.
▪ Explanation: For a predicate with one clause, testing the
predicate to true or false also tests the clause, and all
possible combinations are inherently covered.
o Question 3: Normal Forms in Preconditions
▪ Problem: Identify the normal form in which preconditions are
typically expressed.
▪ Options: Prenex normal form, disjunctive normal form,
conjunctive normal form, none of the above.
▪ Answer: Conjunctive Normal Form (CNF).
▪ Explanation: Preconditions are usually expressed as an
“AND” of multiple conditions, aligning with CNF.
o Question 4: Logical Coverage Criteria
▪ Problem: Match the type of logical coverage applied to a given
program snippet.
▪ Answer: Predicate coverage focuses on ensuring the overall
predicate evaluates to both true and false.
4. Key Takeaways from the Assignment:
 o Reachability and Controllability:
▪ Essential for testing predicates containing internal variables.
o Predicate and Clause Coverage:
▪ Equivalent when predicates have a single clause but diverge with
multiple clauses.
o Logical Normal Forms:
▪ CNF is a common structure for expressing preconditions and
invariants in program specifications.
5. Challenges Discussed:
o Complex Predicates:
▪ Large predicates with multiple clauses require systematic test
case design to ensure coverage.
o Transforming Specifications into Logical Predicates:
▪ Translating natural language requirements into formal logical
predicates can be challenging, requiring attention to detail.
6. Conclusion:
o The assignment clarified the practical applications of logic coverage
criteria in testing.
o Concepts like reachability, controllability, and clause coverage are
fundamental to systematic test case design.
o The next series of lectures will introduce advanced test case design
algorithms to build on these principles.
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