1

~ qft i{i)q~,&1

4.0 \3C{~~1l

4.1 l'HflICl"11

4.2 t1$~IIBI cr~ t1$ClICfll cpy ~ffl5lfl

4.3 t1$ ClICfll cr2:ff CfTCf<T

4.4 t1c6ClICfll Cfm f.1um

4.5 t1$ClICfll ~ >1cPR

4.6 l1T:::rr Cfm lJUT

4.7 ~

4.8 ~~

4.9 3RT ~ 3tR ~

4.10 ~~~~

~ fcp ~ \ilT"1"Cf ~; ftp ~ ~ t1$~IIBI ctr·~ fcl~llCl'<1 ~ I ~

1) ~ ~, ~ ~ ~ t1$ClICfll "QX~ \JfTdT ~ Cfm 3RT t1c6ClICfll'i~
3Wm"QX~ctr~t ~~cpy~~~1 <ffi~~
~ ~ ftp ~ ~ ~ <IT ~ t1c6~lIx41 t1$ClICflll. \JIT ~ ~ Cfm ~
'1Wl ~ ~ ~ Cfm ~ ~ ~ cpy ~aror qmf ~I ~'~ ~ ftp
1:1$~II,{?1~ ~"# t1$ClICfll ~ ~5cq~O~ mer ~ I ~ ~"# 31TQ"
PtklRslt1
. fctt:n:IT cpy ~ >rll(f m:
• t1$ClICfll'i ctr ~ .
• ctr
t1Cf5C1ICfll'i ~

• ~ 1~CPloll ~ t1111\Jl "1, fll~I"iIt1I, ~, l1T:::rr, lJUT Cfm cpI4fcl~, ~

~ >1cPR ~ t1$ClICflli cpy cruR

~1I'f':fIll t1$~IIBI t1$ClICfll'i ~ ~ cr2:ff ClJftcp,<OI~ ~ ~ I t1$ClICfll ~

ClICfllli.'iicp \3C{\1'I~OIl~ \JIT <IT ffi ~ M ~<IT ftp-x ~ ~ ~~ .
~ ~ I~ t1c6ClICfll~ .~ CfTCf<T ctr fl5111t11~ ~ fcn<rr \JfTdT ~ I
\3~15'<°1 ~ ~, ~ t1$ClICfll '~m xtr ~" q;T ~, ~, ~ 3tR ~
41
 >fCPR 3RcP 1lm31T 1) ~ fcpm \1IT ~ ~ I 3T~ GT <IT GT ~ ~ cncfl/'
~ x=r1A dc6QICfl/ cpl ~ CR ~ ~ I rrn- cr4T ~ mm ~ \i16T dc6QICfll
cpl \ffl cncfl/' ~, ~ ~ ~ .~ ~, 3T~ ~ ~ 1) ~ ~ I 3Td': cncfl/'
dc6QICfll cpl ~ m cm ~ <IT \344>xol lfl?f mm ~ I dc6QICfl/ fctTfR
~ dc6~II'b1 qft ~ ~ ~ cncfl/' &114>xol qft ~ ~ I~ cncfl/' ~ ~ <IT .
l'fC'l'(f ~ ~ &114>xof!4> f.1l/1::IT mxr fcpm \i1TdT ~ I ~ d c6Q1Cfll ~ <IT
~ m~ ~ 3tR ~ ~ ~.ri mxr fcpm. \i1TdT ~ I ~
cncfl/' cm ~ mq \fflCf5T &114>xof!4> ~ ~ ~ ~ d c6QICfl/ cm ~
mq \fflCf5T 3T~ ~ \NfCPT d 1r¥4> Pt f6d I~ ~. I

~ >fCPR ~ cncfl/' ~ >fCPR ~ Cic6QI Cfl/ .~ m ~I ~ >fCPR ~ cncfl/' .

~ ~ ~ ~ Cic6QICfl/ ~ m ~I irrcm Pt~ill/ICi'l4>, SH1ICi'14>, ~'<+tl/61\I\:lCP
·~31I~~I't1il4> m~ ~I ~ Pt~ill/Ie+14> cncfl/' tft C1c6QICfl/ m ~~ ~
cncfl/' d ctRllCfl/ ~ m ~I
C1c6QICflll cm ~ PfllilC1 ~ ~ /qct cm ~ ~ ~ I~ iffil cpl ~
~ ~ 6ll ~ \3GI5,<01 ~ ~ 3tR ~ ~ fcp ~ 1) dc6QICflll qft cmr ~
mfft ~ 3tR dc6.~II~ ~ >fCPR dc6~II'b1 1) ~ wWT m ~;
f
~ llRCf lix °1ifl61 ~ >r~ ~. cncfl/' 3lItI'R ~ cncfl/'

~ ~ llRCf ~ ~ ~ CflCf<1 3lItI'R ~ cncfl/'

~tI~"! ~ ~ ~xol~61 ~ ~ ~ cncfl/' - ~ M> cncfl/'

~ 3lItI'R dc6QICflll cpl ~/31t1ftldl ~ >rGT1'~ dc6~lI~ ~ Ptllild

f.1l/1::IT ~ 3lItI'R 1:R ~ W ~ ~ fcp' ~ (~) ~ ~ <IT ~ I
••

~ ~ ~1I~1I dc6~II~, dc6cllCfl/ cpl ~ cncfl/' er> ~ ~. ~ cpW ~

~ fctim, ~ "d1m filll\i14> ~tl~I'1 m ~I "~ ~ ~.. ~ dc6qlCfll ~ I
-w '~' ~ t '~'~ % ~ '~' ~ filll\i14> ~ I~ ern- ~ ~
~ 1) ~ cpm Tfm ~I ~ ~ ~ ~ 1) cpm ~ cm>IT mq ~ ~
fill'l\J14> ern- ~ ~ ~ ~ 1) ~ ~ ~ I~ ~RtRcro ~1I~1I dc6~IIR=5t4j
~ ~ filll\i14> cpl ~ qd~114>161 1) tft (7j~ fcl>m W1T ~ I
~tI~"! ~lIf?Y1l1 dc6~lI~ CTTCflfT cpl dc6qlCfll ~ qft iffil m ~I ~ ~
~ dc6qlCfll cncfl/' ~ ~ ~ cncfl/' dc6qlCfll ~ ~ I~ ~ 3lmf:
~-~ C1c6~II'b1 G~H~"'bI 1) 3tffif: ~-lJOT ~ C1eq~~itll cpl ~
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~ C1c6qlCflll cpl TfR ~ -ij ~ cpW t 1<) TfR WPR Pt401ljtll,< ~ :

1) tl4&1ltfl tl4>I'<ICi'l4> (A C1c6QICfll)

2) tl4&1ltfl 14>1'<1Ci'lct>(E dc6QICfll)

3) 3i~1&114t)ltl4>lxlJ:J4> (I dc6QICfll)

4) 3i~I&1Iq) 14>lxICi'l4> ('0' tlc6QICfl/) .

'<) C1c6C1ICfl/Pt'{ti4IfWp dc6QICfl/ Cfj5(>f1~~ ~ ~ ~ >fCPR qft ~ ~

.. 42
(Condition) S'lfdlfcld "TIft ~ I Cf>l~J;q)'j
1) ~ '31eR ~ ~ ~, \JIT 3ltR
~ d$qICf4i. \JIT 3lllT ~ 3ft2RFf 1) 61§dllld 1) I3qlll~1 ~ ~ ~, cf; ~
~~~~I

,~ ~ .~ ~, 'A' d$~II'bI cpr I3GIt:"{OI~ I ,~ '4T ~ ~ "TIft ~,

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I3GIt:,,{OI~ Cf\2lT.'~ ~ ~tiI'1GI"{ ~, <r5 '0' d$qlCfll ~ I

~ ~. Fct~I"{ifj ~ ~~'j~ dlf¥ifj ~ cm ~ W:rr I ~ llffi ~ fcn

d$q ICfll ~ \ilftc;r ~ifj("4'11 ~ ~ Gl1:lG 3l~ ~ fcl1m ~ ~ ~ mer
~ I ~ d$qlCfll cf; ~ ~ cpr ~ \Nfqft 11T?IT
('fl4CZlIQ)<IT3i~ICZlIQ)
~:rr ('{iifjl"{l~ifj <IT'1ifjl"{lC""lifj)&m mm~ I ~ ~.cf; fcl~c'ltlOI,~
(wnr) cf; "W-I5R ~ cpr f.1l:ITuTcpW
dcff~II'bI ~. Fc1t111Cltg ~I

~ cm ~ arffi'ldlf¥Cfl (Metalogical) dcfiqlCflll cff ~ cm ~ ~ ~

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~ ffi~1I1~'1 f.!I<:r1l <) ~ ~ ~qlC""lifj (Modal) d$~II'bI ~ ifjl~ifj
(Temporal) d$~II'bI ~ ~ cf; tit:6=I'iuf Wr ~ I ~ ~ d$qlCfll d$~II'bI cf;
~ fftcai(11~ qRifj~:ld (Hytothetical) dcffClICflll~ dcff~II'bI cpr ~
>RWf fcnm I ~ TR 3Tlq~IRifj dlf¥ifj fftcaictl Wf>1 ~ 13({lF&icf; ~ difj~ifj
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fcnm I
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~ qIP?!d 3tR fclCflfft d fcnm I

dCB~II'bIA ~ ~ >rCRf;:r ~ GHfPlifj ~ cfi Cf)"R"Uf

~ "§3TT
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~ cf; d$~II'bI cpr ~ ~ I~
"§3TT GI~fPlCf>l~ 1l1~ ~ (Liar
Paradox) "fff%c=r
~ d If¥Cfl ~ ~ '4T \Jft=q ~ ~ I~ ~ cf; ~
t1cff~lIf?TI ~fftq'fl ~ ~~'j~ d$~II"{"?I ~ ~ ~ ..~ I ~ ~.1l
d $~II 'bI cf; al?r 1) ~ fctcm:r ~ ~ ~ \JIT fctcm:r ~ ~ \3"'1ll cg£9 fctcRur,
~ ~11f~1li. 3fjCTTG.
~ CZlI
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1) ~ I ~ ~ cf; ~ 3tR wwfr ~ 1) ~ ~ -,~ xTl1 'fl1!4I\Tllcf;
fftfft'<\' 41"{cnl~~~ ~~. 611~~re:'1fcrnR cClC'1141'1'{1.
~ ~ cf; ~C'lcn~~.
~fclffl'1l. ~ ~fcI'<l'flI

d$ClICfll cf; ~ ~ d$~lIf?TI ~ ~ ~~C'lI\SI ~ 12clT "ffCft cf; ~

~ 1) ~al?r I ~
1) q;r:r fcnirr l1:IT d$~II'bI ~ ~ ~.~ ~
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CZlFLclJl1l
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~ 3l~ ~ fftcaict'i cpr ~ S'lf?1qIG'1
fcnm I ~~C'lI\Sdlf¥ifj qRollii'j cf;
~ m til'1ci'S"'jcf; ~ cf; ~ et>
S'lf?1qIG'1 ~ '4T I3ctNGI~ ~ I ~ til'1ci\S
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S'lf?1qR1
cpr ~ fcnm Cfl1:IT (Material implication) cpr ~
~1I~ifj S'lf?1qR1 fcnm I

~~C'lI\S~ fua:rr3lT~ ~ GRT S'lfdlfcld 'fltiflll3lT ~ ~ 31jCITGT

~ ~
~ 3fXf d$~lIf?TI .~ cf; ~ cf; fclq"{on'cm 3l1C""l'flld~ c;rT I ~
qRolltix:q~q 13clT ~Idl&fl cf; ~ 1) ~ ~(Supposition theory) cf; ~ 43
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~'!5ljllfUld, ~\jPlfUld, Fcl~~tlol ~ xlc ~ "CflTNfflf<&Cfl,!OI (Axiomatcation)
~ t I \3GI5,!ol cfi ~, ~T ~ 1908 1f xlc ~ cfi Nfflf<&Cfl,!OI "CflTfrrITur'
~ ~ ~ ~ 3Rl1 cfi fctqffi cm fi~~d ~ I~ ~, ~ cm
vrifc?r JffcPc;r Wc #r;cirrcfi ~ xl \ifRT \ifT(fT t I <ffi ~ %1 ~Ii, ~ ~

cWf ~ 3tR 3Rl1 &RT ~ ~ cgt9 +JQl<'5lon ~ flI~Cfl,!On WT qROll1i tI

1Cf)~'5 cm ~ ciR'~ ~lfUldll1 ~ cfi cgt9 ~ ~ x:<r:m& ~
~ 1f ~ cfi f.1<l1::ITcfi ~ ~ cm wfi1c;r ~ 1i5CGlJ\ui ~ I cgt9
~ 1f, ~ fcp f6C'161e -cr~ ~ ~, <ffi 3f)Q:qIRCflqlcfl G~i'i~II~lI
Cfll4xttfl "CflT~ ~ ~ ~ 6fR ~ Cf)74ffiJf~ C{)gT \ifT(fT t 1·3Rl ~ ~
~ ~ ~ Cfll4wJil cfi ~ cfi ~ cfi W11'1f 3id'!$1I'iqlG cfi d$~II{?1
~ 3i d '! $11'i q Icfl 'lfUrd- x:<r:m& >fRiiLIT "CflTf.1l:ITur ~ I

iict5fflFc1:q ~ 3RIT ~ ~ 1f ~lfUlct1l1 d$<Wf4i 'R ~ cm ~ ~ I

d$~II~ cm x:<r:~ ~ cfi ~ c;rR cfi ~ ~ 'lfUrd- ~ ~ ~ cfi ~
1f ~~ql~d ~ Tf<:rr I ~ 3Rf1ffi d~ql~lI d~~II~,CflI~Cfl d~~II~,
czrn- d~~II~, ~1I1 ~\l1~lfUld ~ ~~C'I'hJ11~ ~UII~1I1 cm ~Cfl~d ~
~ ~~ ~ d fct;m -rn:rr I

~ ~, Cj4>lffiFc1:q cm m, '{ff qm;f 'lIT ~ 3Rt qm;f' eT> ~

'<2\l1'iI('+14> ~ ~ d$~1I~1I1 1f xl ~ ~ I~ W1JCf ~lfUl\1111 ~
G~i'i~II~lI ~31T ~ ~ 1f CllfGCP '+Jl1 xl ~ 'S3lT ~ I GI~i~Cl?'i 1f
-4M ~, ~ ~ dlf¥Cfl qRulI+11 ~ ~ ~ cfi ~ ~ ~ ~,
~ g~Cfl,<UI cBT 3l~ ~ ~ ~ ~ cm >I~qIG'i ~ I
615'<5IC'1,<ffi ~ ~ 1f xl11T?f mer 'fiT ~ t, \ill ~~IIi~Cfl ~ ~ ~
~ 'qRUff31T ~ fiA!\uidl, fcl~~:qlldl, '{4~lddl, g~Cfl,<UllIdl, ~ ~
~ qca~1I1 cm >lG~id ~ ~ I 20cll ~ cfi ~ cgt9 ~ 1f d$~II~ cm
~ ~ ~~5Ifi1f x:-,crffitcp 1i5CGlJ\ui ~ ~, ~ mcf ~ '+Jl1 xl
~ d$QICflll C1~ crrcrm m-'~ 1f 3RcP -fftaur d$~II~lI,~ Cfil<t fcpm t I

4.3 d <tf~ ICfll (f~ ~ICfll

d$QICf<1 cm ~ crrcm cfi ~ xl ~ ~ \ifT(fT tI ~, ~ crrcm

d$QICf<1 '16f m-a tI ~ crrcrm cfi cgt9 \3GI5,{UI ~:

1) ~ \J15~~ m-a ~
2) egg ~ ~ffilil'i tl

3) 3lT%T ~ CfflT t?
4) ~ ~ 3lRfm ~I

5) CfflT 'Cf)N t!
6) ~ q)c ~ I

~ err fctcRur ~~ ~ 3lR,~ FclQ'{un cfi 6fR 1f ~ % ~ ~ -4 'lIT ill

~ ~ 'lIT 3fficx:r I ~fif~~, -4 d$QICf<1 ~ I
45
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(1~qICfll'i cm 4 t:iI 1'11 I ~ ~ ~-~ (1~~lIt?I, (1~qICfll CBT ~ ~
~ 11T?r~ I

(1~qICfll'i cm ~ ~Cf)lOn xf ~ \iIT "ffCPffi ~. w.n ~ fclfi1n:r. WPM ~ •

q ~ftCli(1 fcpm \iIT "ffCPffi ~ :

1~Cf)lOI (1~qICfll ~ WPR

fill~I\J1'1 ~, ~ <IT ~

flli1I~(11 ~, flli1l~

-m Pl~41m, Xi141fSCf>

ll"P-IT fief &11If!, 3i~1&11If!

TT fI Cf>1'<1f'"l Cf>, '1 Cf>1'<1f'"l Cf>

~ 4 1f'"l Cf>(11 3lf.1crr<f, PI ~illll f'"l Cf>, fI i1flW 1(1

~ ~1I~Cf> / Fcl~&lt:toll(iiCf>, qlfClFclCf> / fi~&lt:toll(iiCf>

'{i4l\i1"i f1 IEI 1,<01 (1c6QI<tll

\:IGIt:,<OI: Wr ~ ~ I .

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~ (1~qICfll ~ ~ ~ ~ w.n ~ ~ men ~ I &rR ~ fcl;' ~ 'x=MT

m~' ~ ~ ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~I ~ WPR ~ ~~ll'1' ~ ~
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'tilll\J1"i: ~m f1"lIlRJtd dc6QI<tll

\:IGIt:,<ol :~ xf egg mt<i ~ mm w.n ~ .~:"\81" ~ mm II

crs ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ xf.q>l<f ~ q')X ~I

<IT m crs ~i1I'1GI'< ~'<IT ~ I

mG \ilR tR 3ITq1TI (fGf gl1 :rTI ~ I

'crs ~ ~' ~ ~ d~qlCfll ~ I '-m 'ltt ~ ~' cm 'cm' -m ~ ~
~' '4T fc1w \iIT "ffCPffi t '\J1T T1: ~ ~ (1~q 1Cfll ~ I ~ ~
dcfiq ICfll'i cm ~ ~ W6G '~' xf ~ 7fllT ~ I

\'jf6f en <IT ~ ~ cn<fllT cm ~ ~ "TCP ~c1 q)~ ~ fcpm \JlTffi'

~m~ ~ <IT ~ Oq5qlCfll >f]"t(l men ~ I
f11"1I'""l1dl : ~ dc6QI<tll

\:IGI~5'<OI:~ ~ ~ cm f&rmT ~ I

47
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~ ~ (lcBClICfll ~ ~ ~ PI~i'ld ~ Cffg cpl- ~~~l(l Cf>'<"dTt ID ~ ~
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~ ~ li\Jl IFchll 1 ~ I

~ ~ ~ ~ fi:nfVT c;rfi ~ ~I
cgffiT ~ ~ cpl- f6c;ncrr t I
~ ~ (lcBellCfll ~ ~ ~ xl am ~3IT xl ~ men- t ID ~ ~
~ (lctqlCfll cpl- '<illil~ (lcBqlCfll et®" t
'\J1Tc'!T I ~ W-P'R et> (lc$qICfll cm '~'
~ \JlIRlqloqCf) ~ Nfft ~ I ~ <:ffi" ~ mm ~ ID ~ '~' ~ cm wWT
fcm:rr '\J1Tc'!T~ I '~ wm' ~ ~ mm ~, ~ ~ wm I <:ffi" ~ ~ cm
ttl~I~~qz(l ~ ~ I mG ~ 'egg', '~', ~ ~ ~ ~3IT cpl- ~ ~I
. m\!f - Pl~ql~<f) dc6qICf~

\ijcp .~ ~ et> ~ 3TTUT "l6l ~ I

x=iTIm Wr cm ~ tI
~ ~ ~fi:m 11AT ~ mf. et> fcpxfT 5lm ctI ~ Cf>'<"dTt m ~ ~ t
ID ~ PI'Q41m (lc$ClICfll ~ ~ I ¥: ~ (f.Uf cnT mG ~ fcp (lc$ClICfll ~
~ ~, ~ ~ ~ ~ 'fi£!1\JlCf) ~ men- t 1·'fi£!1\JlCf) ~ ~ cpl- ~
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ctI ~ t I ~ \3 ~ it5,<ul ~ ~ (f.Uf xl ~ fcpm 7l<ITt fc\; \ijcp ~ ~
et> ~ 3TTUT tI
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\3~It5,<un ~ ,~, cf.m '~' et> ~ ~ cnW"ffil ~ ~ I ~tlR>1C! ~ Plfl41~
(lc$qICfll ~ ~ I

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48
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50
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51
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~ ~'I Pl'(tj41~ dc6QICflll ~. 3lQ<'l1Cf)'1 cfi ~ :rr ~ lll?IT 1f&::Cf>lOI 3lfct
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52
 iIlq ~ 1

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~) ~ cf> 3Rl-B ~ ~ ~ x13l"4"l ~ cm ~ ~ I

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4.7 ~1\(i~1

- t1l$ellCfll ~ \3q1Cffi ~ -B ~ ~ fcp "CITCflIT cnT ~ ~ ~ ~~

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6) f?rf.Wf"ClTCfllT cnT "fmlRUf "CITCflIT -B ~ \JfFn ~ mfcp ~ x1 t1I$q 1Cfll

cm ~ fcl:im \iiT ~ I

7) t1cfiq ICfll ~ 1IT?1T <m ~ ~ x1 ~ \JfFn ~ I

4.8 ~«lTiG

atq:q~'1/~ (Reduction) G~l'i*tll~:;;r if 3lQ:q1l'i Cffi .~ ~ ~

~ ~ ~ TT, 3lCftrn'UIT, ftr.ah;
-~ cnT fclRfr 3Rl (3lCfClRUTT~ 311ft)
cf> '4"af-B ~: flJiI~("j _q)X ftm \iiTdT ~ I
 ~ ~ (De dicto) ~ ~~'ffil!fT~~~1 ~~3fR it'?
~ ~ (De re) ~ qQffi 3fR \jfTfCf er> ~ 1) ~ qm;;
qft GT ~q~d ~ ~ ~~'CF11 ~ cm
~G~id cp«f ~I \Rf. ~ ~ GT I qCfffi er>
1~<t>101 ~ ~ CJ1Cf<J er> GT ~ m~ ~ I
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~ ~ 3mfu ~ ~I ~.1), qQffi
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?I

m, ~ ~.~ ~, ~., $1;~\5#N ~ &'fRitCfJ,~ ~, ~-~

affq; ..~fTJ;Slll ~ R1~re;s, 1997.,
fcprr, ~ ~ ~, ~, e ;$fifflZfjf.s qifJqPNPf ~ !ilJC1/fl/qf), 311Cffi4>1;s,311.
~~., 1995.

~ ~, ~, ~ FP Jifrff JosfiIeq c1fR;t?f}, 4>~~c, ~. ~. ,(1'<4>I,<~

mx:r ~ R1~e.;s,1984.

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qft ~ ~ ~ 3fR ~ ~ Pt~~d ~
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dc6qlCfll cpr ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ CJ1Cf<J cpr ~
~ ~ ClII4>,<Ji'l4>~ ~ I

2) 3R«l"' dc6QICfll cm 'qR ~Cf)I~t(i 1) q4fiCfld fc}mr ~ I ~ ~?f)L~lfi ~ :

1) fI&ClIltfI flcpl,<lfticp (A dc6QICfll)

2) fl4ClHtfI '9Cf)I'<ltitcp (E d~QICfll)

3) ai~IClIltfI flCf)I,<lfti4> (I dc6QICfll)

4) 3i~IClIltfI '9Ct>I'<lfti4>(0 d~qlCfll)

54
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