DOGGING

MASTER TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. PURPOSE................................................................................................................................7
2. OBJECTIVES...........................................................................................................................7
2.1 SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES ................................................................................................................. 7
3. COMPETENCY STANDARDS.................................................................................................8
3.1 DEFINITION OF TERMS ................................................................................................................. 8
3.2 COMPETENCY ELEMENTS AND PERFORMANCE CRITERIA ..................................................... 8
3.3 RANGE OF VARIABLES................................................................................................................. 8
4. INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................9
4.1.1 WHAT IS DOGGING? .................................................................................................................................. 9
4.2 TYPES AND USES OF EQUIPMENT INTRODUCTION .................................................................. 9
5. PART 1 - SELECTION AND USE OF MOBILE CRANES .....................................................11
5.1 INTRODUCTION TO MOBILE CRANES ....................................................................................... 11
5.2 MOBILING ..................................................................................................................................... 11
5.2.1 GENERAL RULES FOR MOBILING UP AND DOWN SLOPES ................................................................ 12
5.3 CRANE SAFETY ........................................................................................................................... 13
5.4 ELECTRICAL HAZARDS .............................................................................................................. 15
5.4.1 ALL TYPES OF CRANE MUST NOT APPROACH CLOSER THAN: ........................................................ 15
5.5 OUTRIGGERS ............................................................................................................................... 18
5.6 LOCOMOTIVE CRANES ............................................................................................................... 20
6. PART 2: NATURAL FIBRE ROPE AND SLINGS .................................................................22
6.1 FIBRE ROPE ................................................................................................................................. 22
6.1.1 HAWSER LAID ROPE ................................................................................................................................ 22
6.1.2 MAINTENANCE .......................................................................................................................................... 24
6.1.3 HANDLING ................................................................................................................................................. 24
6.2 WHIPPING..................................................................................................................................... 25
6.2.1 TYPES OF WHIPPING ............................................................................................................................... 25
6.3 SPLICING ...................................................................................................................................... 26
6.3.1 TYPES OF SPLICES .................................................................................................................................. 26
6.4 FIBRE ROPE SLINGS ................................................................................................................... 27
6.4.1 GROMMETS ............................................................................................................................................... 27
6.4.2 STROPS ..................................................................................................................................................... 27
6.4.3 SNOTTERS ................................................................................................................................................ 27
7. PART 3 :FLEXIBLE STEEL WIRE ROPE .............................................................................28
7.1 INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................................ 28
7.2 FLEXIBLE STEEL WIRE ROPE - LAYS AND CONSTRUCTION .................................................. 28
7.3 PRE- AND POST-FORMING ......................................................................................................... 30

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 7.3.1 LANG’S LAY FSWR ................................................................................................................................................ 30
7.3.2 ORDINARY LAY FSWR.............................................................................................................................. 31
7.3.3 LEFT HAND LAY FSWR............................................................................................................................. 31
7.3.4 NON-ROTATING ROPES .......................................................................................................................... 31
7.3.5 CORE SLIPPAGE ....................................................................................................................................... 31
7.3.6 HANDLING ................................................................................................................................................. 31
7.3.7 INSTALLATION .......................................................................................................................................... 32
7.4 NON-ROTATING CONSTRUCTIONS............................................................................................ 33
7.5 ROPE CONSTRUCTION TYPES ................................................................................................... 34
7.6 ROPE INSPECTION ...................................................................................................................... 37
7.6.1 BROKEN WIRES ........................................................................................................................................ 38
7.6.2 REDUCTION IN DIAMETER ...................................................................................................................... 38
7.7 HANDLING NEW ROPE ................................................................................................................ 40
7.7.1 LAYING ONTO A DRUM ............................................................................................................................ 40
7.7.2 MANUAL UNCOILING ................................................................................................................................ 41
7.8 HAND SPLICING ........................................................................................................................... 41
7.8.1 MAKING A SPLICE .................................................................................................................................... 42
7.8.2 SIX STRAND ROPE — FIVE TUCK SPLICE ............................................................................................. 43
7.8.3 SERVING .................................................................................................................................................... 45
7.8.4 SLINGS AND STANDING ROPES ............................................................................................................. 45
7.8.5 CRANE ROPES .......................................................................................................................................... 45
7.8.6 LANG’S LAY ............................................................................................................................................................. 45
8. PART 4:FLEXIBLE STEEL WIRE ROPE WINCHES, SHEAVES AND PURCHASES .........46
8.1 SHEAVES...................................................................................................................................... 46
8.1.1 FLARE ANGLE AND GROOVE DEPTH..................................................................................................... 46
8.1.2 SHEAVE DIAMETERS ............................................................................................................................... 46
8.1.3 REEVING .................................................................................................................................................... 47
8.1.4 INSPECTION .............................................................................................................................................. 49
8.2 DRUMS ......................................................................................................................................... 50
8.2.1 FLEET ANGLES ......................................................................................................................................... 51
8.3 SAFE LOADS ON WIRE ROPE PURCHASES ............................................................................. 53
8.4 PURCHASES ................................................................................................................................ 54
8.4.1 SNATCH BLOCKS ..................................................................................................................................... 54
8.4.2 SHEAVE BLOCKS ...................................................................................................................................... 54
8.4.3 HOW TO WORK OUT THE LOAD IN A SINGLE PART OF A PURCHASE .............................................. 54
8.4.4 Reverse Bends ........................................................................................................................................... 55
8.4.5 Multiple Layers on Drums ........................................................................................................................... 55
8.4.6 THE CAPACITY OF DRUMS AND STORAGE REELS ............................................................................. 56
8.4.7 LENGTH OF ROPE THAT CAN BE STORED ON A DRUM...................................................................... 56
8.4.8 PURCHASE OR TACKLE BLOCK? ........................................................................................................... 56
8.5 CABLE PULLING STOCKINGS .................................................................................................... 57
8.5.1 METHOD FOR REPLACING AN OLD ROPE ............................................................................................ 57
9. PART 5:CHAINS....................................................................................................................58
9.1 5.1INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................... 58
9.2 TYPES OF LIFTING CHAIN .......................................................................................................... 59

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 9.3 OTHER TYPES OF CHAIN ............................................................................................................ 60
9.4 INSPECTION OF CHAIN ............................................................................................................... 61
9.4.1 INSPECTIONS OF CHAIN MUST BE CARRIED OUT AND MAY REVEAL THE FOLLOWING ............... 61
9.5 CARE AND MAINTENANCE OF CHAIN ....................................................................................... 62
9.6 CHAIN SLING ASSEMBLY ........................................................................................................... 63
9.7 RINGS ........................................................................................................................................... 64
10. PART 6:SYNTHETIC FIBRE ROPE AND SLINGS ...............................................................65
10.1 1INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................................................... 65
10.2 TYPES OF SYNTHETIC FIBRE ROPE .......................................................................................... 65
10.2.1 NYLON (POLYAMIDE FILAMENT) ............................................................................................................ 65
10.2.2 DACRON — TERYLENE (POLYESTER FILAMENT) ................................................................................ 65
10.2.3 TANIKLON (POLYETHYLENE FILAMENT) ............................................................................................... 65
10.2.4 KURALON (POLYVINYL ALCOHOL) ......................................................................................................... 65
10.2.5 SILVER ROPE (FLAT SPIN TANIKLON FIBRE) ....................................................................................... 65
10.2.6 POLYPROPYLENE (LAID SHATTERED FILM TYPE) .............................................................................. 65
10.3 ADVANTAGES OF SYNTHETIC FIBRE ROPE ............................................................................. 66
11. INSPECTION .........................................................................................................................67
11.1.1 CONDITIONS AND TOOLS FOR INSPECTING ROPE PROPERLY INCLUDE ....................................... 67
11.2 SYNTHETIC FIBRE ROPES AND CHEMICALS ........................................................................... 68
11.2.1 POLYAMIDE ............................................................................................................................................... 68
11.2.2 POLYESTER .............................................................................................................................................. 68
11.2.3 POLYETHYLENE ....................................................................................................................................... 68
11.2.4 POLYPROPYLENE .................................................................................................................................... 68
11.3 FLAT WEBBING AND ROUND SYNTHETIC SLINGS .................................................................. 69
11.3.1 INSPECTION .............................................................................................................................................. 69
12. PART 7 SLINGING AND WORKING LOADS........................................................................72
12.1 INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................................ 72
12.2 WORKING LIMIT ........................................................................................................................... 72
12.2.1 WORKING LOAD LIMIT OF NATURAL FIBRE ROPE............................................................................... 72
12.2.2 WORKING LOAD LIMIT OF FLEXIBLE STEEL WIRE ROPE (FSWR) ..................................................... 73
12.2.3 WORKING LOAD LIMIT OF CHAIN ........................................................................................................... 73
12.2.4 WORKING LOAD LIMIT OF FLAT WEBBING AND ROUND SYNTHETIC SLINGS ................................. 74
12.3 LOAD FACTORS AND SLINGING ................................................................................................ 75
12.3.1 COMMON SLING ARRANGEMENTS ........................................................................................................ 77
12.4 SAMPLE CALCULATIONS ........................................................................................................... 78
12.4.1 MAXIMUM WEIGHT LOAD ........................................................................................................................ 78
12.4.2 WLL OF MULTI LEGGED SLINGS ............................................................................................................ 78
12.4.3 WLL OF A SLING NEEDED TO LIFT A LOAD........................................................................................... 79
12.4.4 TO CALCULATE THE OF THE SLING NEEDED TO LIFT A LOAD .......................................................... 79
12.4.5 CALCULATE DIAMETER(D) IN MILLIMETRES OF FSWR NEEDED TO LIFT A LOAD OF 5 TONS ...... 80
12.5 LOAD INFORMATION ................................................................................................................... 81
12.5.1 WEIGHT OF THE LOAD............................................................................................................................. 81
12.5.2 DIRECT LIFTING ........................................................................................................................................ 81

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 12.5.3 GENERAL SLINGING................................................................................................................................. 81
12.5.4 STRUCTURAL STEEL ............................................................................................................................... 83
12.5.5 LOOSE ITEMS ........................................................................................................................................... 83
12.5.6 RUBBISH BINS .......................................................................................................................................... 83
12.6 HANDLING STEEL PLATE ........................................................................................................... 84
12.6.1 STEEL PLATE CAN BE LIFTED VERTICALLY OR HORIZONTALLY. ..................................................... 84
12.7 LIFTING PALLETS ........................................................................................................................ 85
12.8 LOADING FORMWORK ................................................................................................................ 86
12.9 TURNING OVER LOADS .............................................................................................................. 86
13. PART8 ANCHORAGES AND FITTINGS ...............................................................................87
13.1 INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................................ 87
13.2 WEDGE ROPE SOCKETS ............................................................................................................ 87
13.3 THIMBLES .................................................................................................................................... 88
13.4 SOCKETED TERMINAL FITTINGS ............................................................................................... 89
13.5 WIRE ROPE GRIPS & CLAMPS ................................................................................................... 90
13.5.1 DOUBLE OR SINGLE BASE CLAMPS (OR SADDLE GRIPS) ................................................................. 91
13.5.2 BORDEAUX CONNECTIONS .................................................................................................................... 91
13.5.3 TURN BUCKLES OR RIGGING SCREWS ................................................................................................ 91
13.6 HOOKS AND SHACKLES............................................................................................................. 93
13.6.1 HOOKS ....................................................................................................................................................... 93
13.6.2 INSPECTION AND USE ............................................................................................................................. 93
13.6.3 SHACKLES ................................................................................................................................................. 94
13.6.4 EYEBOLTS ................................................................................................................................................. 95
14. PART 9:GENERAL DOGGING / RIGGING APPLIANCES ...................................................97
14.1 CHAIN BLOCKS ........................................................................................................................... 97
14.1.1 MAINTENANCE .......................................................................................................................................... 98
14.2 PULL LIFTS .................................................................................................................................. 99
14.2.1 OPERATION ............................................................................................................................................. 100
14.2.2 SPREADER BEAMS ................................................................................................................................ 100
14.3 EQUALISING GEAR ....................................................................................................................101
14.4 JACKS..........................................................................................................................................102
14.4.1 PREPARATION ........................................................................................................................................ 102
14.4.2 LIFTING .................................................................................................................................................... 103
14.4.3 HYDRAULIC JACKS ................................................................................................................................ 104
14.5 FIXED CANTILEVERED BEAMS .................................................................................................105
15. PART 10:PACKING, SECURING & MOVING LOADS ........................................................ 107
15.1 10.1PACKING ..............................................................................................................................107
15.2 PIGSTIES OR CRIBBING.............................................................................................................107
15.3 PARBUCKLING ...........................................................................................................................108
15.4 ROLLING OBJECTS ....................................................................................................................109
15.5 SKIDDING ....................................................................................................................................110

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 15.6 STEEL WEDGES .........................................................................................................................111
15.7 SKATES .......................................................................................................................................111
16. REVISION QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES ........................................................................ 112
17. APPENDICES ...................................................................................................................... 125
17.1 PERSONAL SAFETY EQUIPMENT AND FIRST AID ..................................................................125
17.2 SAFETY HELMETS ......................................................................................................................125
17.3 GLOVES.......................................................................................................................................125
17.4 EYE PROTECTION ......................................................................................................................125
17.5 RESPIRATORY PROTECTION ....................................................................................................125
17.6 HEARING PROTECTION .............................................................................................................125
17.7 FOOTWEAR .................................................................................................................................126
17.8 SUN PROTECTION ......................................................................................................................126
17.9 FIRST AID ....................................................................................................................................126
17.10 COMMUNICATION AND SIGNALS..............................................................................................126
17.10.1 TWO-WAY RADIOS ................................................................................................................................. 126
17.11 DIRECTIONS FOR CRANE OR HOIST OPERATORS .................................................................127
18. AREAS AND VOLUMES ..................................................................................................... 131
19. TABLE OF MASSES ........................................................................................................... 134
20. Glossary:............................................................................................................................. 138
21. SAMPLE ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS ............................................................................... 161
21.1 INTRODUCTION...........................................................................................................................161

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1. PURPOSE
The contents of this course are designed for the learner on the completion of the course, to have the knowledge to
successfully be assessed satisfactory after sitting a theory examination.

2. OBJECTIVES
At the completion of this training module, the learner should be able to carry out dogging safely and productively to the
standard.

2.1 SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES

# OBJECTIVE

1. Construct a lift plan relevant to the task.

2. Implement the lift plan in accordance with any relevant standard, regulation and other procedures.

3. Select the correct mechanical load-shifting equipment and associated gear for the task.

4. Conduct safety inspections on lifting equipment and associated equipment.

5. Identify and if necessary discard any faulty or unsafe lifting equipment;

6. Sling and move loads in a safe and efficient manner.;

7. Communicate with crane operators by two way radios, hand and whistle signals;

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3. COMPETENCY STANDARDS
3.1 DEFINITION OF TERMS

# TERM DEFINITION

8. ELEMENT The logical sub-groups of actions that form part of a unit

9. PERFORMANCE Evaluative statements that specify the required level of performance.

CRITERIA
They indicate what will be in evidence if the competency is correctly exercised

10. RANGE OF The contexts and conditions to which performance criteria apply.
VARIABLES
They allow the trainer/assessor to specify such individual contexts such as sites,
procedures, legislation, personnel and equipment

3.2 COMPETENCY ELEMENTS AND PERFORMANCE CRITERIA

# ELEMENT PERFORMANCE CRITERIA

1. CONSTRUCT A LIFT Documented lift plan is correct for the task.

PLAN RELEVANT TO
THE TASK.

2. IMPLEMENT THE LIFT Correct equipment and gear is available in accordance with the lift plan.
PLAN

3. SELECT THE CORRECT Safety inspections are conducted and action is taken on hazards associated with
EQUIPMENT AND lift.
ASSOCIATED GEAR

4. CONDUCT SAFETY Carry out pre-operational and operational checks

INSPECTIONS.

5. . IDENTIFY ANY Faulty or unsafe lifting equipment is correctly identified.

FAULTY OR UNSAFE
LIFTING EQUIPMENT.

6. 6. DISCARD ANY Faulty or unsafe lifting equipment is discarded and replaced with safe equipment.
FAULTY OR UNSAFE
LIFTING EQUIPMENT.

7. 7. SLING AND MOVE Loads are slung and moved in accordance with correct lift plan.
LOADS SAFELY AND
EFFICIENTLY.

8. 8. COMMUNICATE Correct radio, hand and whistle signals are used to communicate with crane
EFFECTIVELY WITH operators
CRANE OPERATORS.

3.3 RANGE OF VARIABLES

# VARIABLE

9. Standards, regulations and other procedures that are in place at the BTL plant.

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10. Manufacturer’s specifications and recommendations.

11. Safe Work Procedures.

4. INTRODUCTION
This chapter provides you with a description of dogging work, the equipment used and the general terms associated
with this type of work.
Appendix B contains a list of terms and words that you will need to know, for the purposes of doing dogging work. You
will find this a helpful reference as you work through each of the tasks that you must undertake.

4.1.1 WHAT IS DOGGING?

For the purposes of certification "dogging" is defined as:
The term used to describe the application of slinging techniques, including the selection and/or inspection of lifting
gear, or the directing of a crane/hoist in the movement of a load when the load is out of the operators view.
At its simplest dogging involves binding or strapping loads with slings and directing the crane or hoist operator to
move the load.
The dogging function is a critical safety function because moving loads presents a risk to people and/or property if this
is not done safely. Lifting loads over buildings or people creates a risk of serious injuries or fatalities if the load
becomes loose and falls, or the equipment fails.
Because of these dangers people rely on a person skilled in dogging techniques to correctly attach slings to a load,
and to assist in the safe movement of the load. For this reason a dogging certificate is an essential qualification for a
person who is involved in this type of work.
All States and Territories throughout Australia, require people, who do this type of work to hold a certificate of
competency issued by the government agency responsible for workplace health and safety. This Guide assists in this
process by outlining the learning needs of a person doing dogging work.
A qualified dogging person must know how to:
 use the various types of ropes, slings, chains and accessories;
 calculate the safe working load (SWL) of any rope, sling or chain to be used for lifting;
 assess the weight of loads to be lifted;
 safely sling loads of different weights and sizes;
 use hand and/or whistle signals to direct a crane or hoist operator in the movement of a load when the load is out
of the operators view.

4.2 TYPES AND USES OF EQUIPMENT INTRODUCTION

This part is divided into two parts. The first part describes the four major crane types and the second part explains the
terminology used to describe their parts.
As a learner in this program you must first of all have an understanding of the four major types of cranes covered in
the course and the terminology used to describe their parts. This will allow you to follow references which will be made
throughout this course. As there are many crane manufacturers, we can expect to find many different models within
each crane type.
To assist you, we will give you a view of a typical crane type with each description. A person doing dogging work must
be familiar with the equipment used for lifting loads. A dogging tool kit consists of a range of different items of
equipment. These include: ropes, slings, attachments, and lifting devices such as cranes. Because it is most important
that you know about the equipment, the starting point for this Guide is to examine the types of equipment used in
dogging work and how that equipment is to be used.
In doing dogging work you must identify and use the right equipment for all of the jobs involved in lifting and shifting
loads. This requires selective judgement to make sure that the job is not only done safely but is done correctly.

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For example:
Some shackles may be big enough, but they may not be strong enough. Others may be strong enough but are too
small.
Where a chain sling may be strong enough, it may damage a painted surface and should not be selected in this case.
Where a synthetic sling may be strong enough, it may be damaged on sharp edges so an alternative sling needs to be
considered.
You can see that knowing the right equipment to use is a critical part of dogging work.
The following parts of the information package will consider the types and uses of equipment used or involved in
dogging work. These include:
 ropes
 slings
 fittings
 attachments
 cranes

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5. PART 1 - SELECTION AND USE OF MOBILE CRANES

5.1 INTRODUCTION TO MOBILE CRANES

Before commencing a job with a mobile crane, go to the work site with the supervisor and the crane operator and
assess the crane suitability for the whole job. Assess access, room, soil, lift capacity and lifting equipment.
Decide where to set up and how to set up.

5.2 MOBILING
Some mobile cranes are better suited than others to travel over rough surfaces. Always check the load chart and the
manufacturer’s recommendations before mobiling.
Cranes are more likely to overturn ‘off road’. Before leaving the road check: for potholes and soft or rough ground; for
overhead obstructions; for power lines; for personnel working in the area; blind corners; traffic flow; underground
services. Always check grassy surfaces for potholes hidden by long grass. Walk over the whole area before guiding a
crane across. Make sure spring lockouts (where fitted) are set before mobiling a load. Do not direct the operator to
slew unless the surface is firm and level. Booms are not made to withstand sideways forces.
Slewing can be very dangerous if the crane is attached in any way to another crane or tackle. (The whole operation
must be under the control of one person).
The load should be connected to the crane by a tail rope to prevent sway that could cause the crane to overturn. Do
not mobile heavy loads with crawler cranes unless the ground is firm and level.
Take extreme caution walking a load into position with the load high and close to the boom. The load can swing back
and hit the boom causing it to collapse as the crane moves forward. When a crane is used as a winch make sure that
the crane is secured in position and immobile.
All mobile cranes with wire rope luffing gear must have a luffing over winding limit device.
The load must be secured in a fore-and-aft position unless the load is too long. Long loads must be secured in a
diagonal position with the boom fore and aft.
Warning lights (where fitted) must be turned on when the crane is moving.
Travel slowly to prevent excessive swing. Always carry the load as close to the ground as possible.
Do not direct the load higher until it is almost in position.
Avoid travelling the crane over potholes, depressions, soft ground or across a slope, road cambers or shoulders, rail
tracks, or any objects or dunnage wood, which could destabilize the crane or load.

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Take the wind pressure into account when working at near maximum capacity. Observe traffic rules, watch
intersections, and avoid pedestrians. Instruct the operator to use the warning horn or whistle when approaching
pedestrians or workers.
Warn everyone in the area of your intention before moving the load. A person can be easily knocked from a structure
or crushed by a moving load.

5.2.1 GENERAL RULES FOR MOBILING UP AND DOWN SLOPES:

Take the slope and angle of the boom into account when moving up or down a slope; The load must face uphill;
When on a slope with the boom facing uphill ensure that the boom angle does not become too close to vertical. This is
to prevent the boom toppling over backwards; Do not travel across a slope with a load;
Crawler cranes are very dangerous on sloping ground. Direct the operator to boom down before mobiling a crawler
crane up a slope. Once the crane reaches the top the operator must boom up to compensate;
Where necessary use another crane to steady heavy crawler cranes when they are travelling downhill:

The load must always face uphill as close to the ground as possible

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5.3 CRANE SAFETY
Make sure that the WLL of the hook is at least equal to the maximum load that can be safely lifted by the crane at the
given radius and boom position.
Check the hook block for corrosion in the shank and for distortion, cracks and wear in the hook.
Make sure that the hoist rope is completely without twists and turns before lifting where the hook block is supported
with multiple falls of rope.
Keep well clear of the lower hoist block sheaves to prevent fingers or hands from jamming in the sheaves.
Make sure that all tyres are inflated to the correct air pressure. When lifting heavy loads the boom will pull down as it
takes the weight thus putting a forward swing into the load when it is raised. To allow for this, take the strain then
boom up or alternatively position the hook slightly closer to the crane.

Make sure that when lifting broadside with a mobile crane on a slope, the downside wheels are raised by solid packing
so that the crane chassis is level.
Always stand clear of loads being lifted or handled. Make sure that slewing cranes are clear of all obstacles, loads and
people. Bystanders can become jammed between cab, counterweight and chassis.
For cranes of less than 5 ton capacity, the lower hoist block must be safeguarded to prevent injuries to hands or
fingers.
When lifting a load on a floating vessel carry out the operations quickly and cleanly. When placing a load onto a
floating vessel ‘inch’ the load slowly into place to prevent the vessel surging. Crane hoist falls must not be secured to
floating vessels for towing or mooring purposes.

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5.4 ELECTRICAL HAZARDS
Always maintain a safe distance from electrical wires when travelling with the boom raised.

The head of a long boom will spring up when the load is released. Make sure there is a safe distance from any
electrical conductors or other obstructions before releasing the load. Do not set cranes up close to any electrified
equipment or apparatus unless there are safeguards to ensure the safety of persons using the crane.

5.4.1 ALL TYPES OF CRANE MUST NOT APPROACH CLOSER THAN:

 2 metres from distribution lines on poles.
 6 metres from transmission lines on towers.
o Caution: In some cases transmission lines can be found on poles.
Keep a look out for possible contact with electrical equipment at all times while operating or travelling the crane. If the
crane could come within any of the above distances to electrical apparatus during operation, an observer must be
appointed to keep watch and if necessary to warn the dogman.
Advise the crane operator if the crane is in close proximity to electrical equipment. If unsure about the voltage
maintain a distance of 6 metres from wires.
Where possible de-energise electrical equipment or use buffers or stops to prevent any part of the crane from coming
close to electrical equipment.
Always use a 16 mm dry natural fibre rope as a tag line. Some synthetic fibre rope can conduct electricity in some
circumstances.

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 Use DRY natural fibre rope tag lines to control a load near to power lines

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VERSION: 2.0 PAGE 17 OF 161
5.5 OUTRIGGERS
Outriggers are hinged or sliding beams that are usually secured with locking pins or check valves. They must be
secured when they are retracted. Outriggers should be packed to keep the crane level and stable when in use.
General rules for packing under outriggers:
 Outriggers should be fully extended wherever possible;
 Make sure that the ground under the packing is firm and can bear the load;
 The packing must cover as much area as possible to distribute the load;
 The base layer of packing should be laid closely together and be at least 75 mm thick;
 The top layer of packing must be at right angles to the direction of the outrigger beam and at least 200 mm wide;
 The packing should be hardwood free from defects. Where oregon is used, beware of cracks;
 The packing must be ‘pigstyed’ (each layer at right angles to the next);
 Check the condition of the jacks and packing regularly during crane operation. Packing will often loosen up during
initial use as the ground settles.
Consult the load radius (or boom angle) indicator and load chart to find the maximum load that can be lifted:
 when the crane is on outriggers; and
 when it is not on outriggers.

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The load chart on the crane must display the maximum load that can be lifted in all areas of operation. These may
typically include:
 the working zones of slewing cranes;
o with any length of boom or jib;
o at any radius of the load from the centre of the crane;
o with no packed outriggers at the ends;
o with no packed outriggers at the sides;
o with the crane stationary on outriggers;
o during mobiling.
To tighten packing under non-hydraulic outriggers, raise the boom high and slew the boom broadside, then tighten the
packing under the boom. Repeat for the other side.
Slewing must be carried out slowly. Slewing places great strain on the boom, clutch, pinion and races. The strain is
greater still if the load develops excessive swing.
It is important that the area of the base of the outrigger packing is large enough to safely take the load. To make an
estimate of the area needed use the formula below.
The formula for calculating the area of each outrigger base of lattice boom cranes in square metres:

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Use the table below for estimating the load bearing pressure (V) of different soil types.
SOIL TYPE Pressure (V) Tonnes per sq metre
Soft clay or loam 10
Ordinary clay and dry sandmixed with clay 20
Dry sand and dry clay 30
Hard clay and firm coarse sand 40
Firm coarse sand and gravel 50
Shale rock and sandstone 80
Hard rock 200

For example:
A load of 10 tonnes on a 2 tonne boom is to be lifted 7 metres from the back wheel support. There are two outriggers
four metres from the support. The soil type is soft clay.

or
11 x 7 ÷ 4 ÷ 2 ÷ 10 = 0.96 sq m
NB: Where the boom is used over one outrigger the area of the packing must be increased by 40%.

5.6 LOCOMOTIVE CRANES

Always chock the wheels and apply the travelling brake when operating locomotive cranes on a slope, however slight.
Make sure that the outriggers are fully extended and properly packed before lifting.
Use running lights and warning flags.
Fit a derailing stop at the front and back of the crane, or open any suitably located switch points to divert run-away
trucks.
Make sure that the crane is as level as possible. If necessary, the crane outriggers (where fitted) should be packed.
Watch out for indications of possible derailment.
Do not use the crane boom to assist re-railment in the event of a derailment. Severe overloading may result. Instead
use mechanical or hydraulic jacks and packing, or another crane of suitable capacity.
Do not use rail clamps in place of outriggers to prevent the crane overturning, as they are only suitable for preventing
the crane from moving along the track. If the crane overturns the rails and sleepers may also overturn if rail clamps
are used.

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PAGE 21 OF 161
6. PART 2: NATURAL FIBRE ROPE AND SLINGS
6.1 FIBRE ROPE
Fibre rope, also known as cordage is used extensively for taglines, whips, tackles, lashings, and snotters for general
lifting. Natural or vegetable fibre ropes are grouped into those made from hard fibres and those made from soft fibres.
Hard fibre ropes are manila, sisal, coir and phormium tenax. Manila and sisal ropes are the main vegetable fibre ropes
used for lifting in Australia. Coir is used where flotation is required and so is mainly used for boating.
Soft fibre ropes are jute, flax, hemp, and cotton. The fibres in these ropes are finer and very flexible and are used for
ornamental purposes. They are often spun into twines or string for shop or household purposes.
The sequence of rope construction:Fibres are combed into slivers; Slivers are twisted into yarns; Yarns are twisted
into strands; Strands are twisted into the finished rope.

6.1.1 HAWSER LAID ROPE

Plain or hawser laid rope is the rope used for most general purposes including lifting.
For right hand lay hawser rope a number of fibres are twisted into a right hand lay, or spiral (helix)
into a yarn. A number of yarns are twisted in a left hand spiral into a strand. Three strands are
then twisted in a right spiral into a right hand lay hawser laid rope. Left hand lay rope is laid up
exactly the opposite.
The thickness of the rope depends on the number of fibres that are laid up into the yarn and then the number of yarns
laid up into the strand. The opposite lay is put in to stop the rope from unlaying and pulling apart.
Marline
Marline is used extensively in rigging for seizings. Three or four yarns are spun together in an opposite spiral and
tarred.

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Shroud laid rope
Shroud laid rope is a four strand rope with a centre fibre rope heart. It is used for the manufacture of cargo, safety or
scrambling nets, and rope ladders where there would be two strands either side of the tuck. The sectional area of four
strand rope is less than three strand rope of the same diameter and the centre heart has a smaller spiral than the
outer strands.
Shroud laid rope is therefore much weaker than hawser laid rope of the same diameter and should not be used for
load lifting.
Cable laid rope
Cable laid rope is three hawser laid ropes laid up in an opposite spiral. They are used where great stretch is needed.
They were used extensively in the shipping industry as mooring lines.
Inspection: Natural fibre rope is made from dried vegetable fibres and is subject to many deteriorating factors.
The whole rope should be inspected in a good light. Look at and feel the rope along the entire length. Open and
inspect the lay and the interior every metre.
Look for the following defects:

DEFECT DESCRIPTION

THE EFFECTS OF HEAT If the rope has been exposed to more than 65°C the rope could be brittle,
charred, powdery or brown on the outside.

SUN-ROT. The natural colour of the rope will turn to a dirty grey, the outside fibres will turn
very brittle and the rope will be much lighter than normal.
MILDEW. Open the lay and smell the inside of the rope and examine it. A musty smell is a
sign of mould/mildew. There may be no outside signs of mildew.

EFFECTS OF ACID AND OTHER The outside will be faded yellow to brown colour and powdery.
CORROSIVES

OVERLOADING The fibres will be shorter, the diameter will decrease and the lay will increase in
length.

OVERWORKED OVER When the lay is opened there will be fine powder in the centre of the rope. The
SHEAVES. powder is fine particles of the inside fibres worn and abraded away and locked
inside.

HIGH STRANDING One strand standing out above the others. It can be caused by faulty splicing or
whipping

KINKS. Fibre rope will kink especially if it is wet. The outer fibres will be broken in one
spot. This defect can be very hard to detect.

CUTS. Fibre rope snotters should not be reeved around loads with sharp edges. Cuts
are easy to detect but can be avoided by packing sharp edges

DEFECTIVE SPLICE. The eye splice in snotters should be carefully inspected. There should be three
full tucks against the lay. The inside of the splice should be checked to ensure
that there is no wear or broken fibres. Fibre ropes which have defects should
either be destroyed or if the defect is localised such as a cut, the rope should be
severed at that point.

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6.1.2 MAINTENANCE
To maintain ropes in good condition free from attacks by mould and bacteria: Store new coils on dunnage in a well-
ventilated area;
Coil hand lines and snotters and store on large wooden pegs above the ground; Keep rope dry and stored out of direct
sunlight and never in an airtight box;
Store away from any heat source, such as steam pipes, flame, sparks from welding or oxy cutting etc.
Store away from acids or other corrosives, such as ashes, clinker, coke, oils, grease, steam, batteries etc.
Protect from falling or sharp objects;
Keep vermin away from ropes. Natural fibre ropes are prone to attack from insects which thrive on cellulose. The most
common are clothes moths, beetles, ants, termites, silverfish and cockroaches. A trapped rat will gnaw through a rope
to escape but in general rats are not attracted to rope for food or for bedding;
Store ropes away from grit, rust, sand, dirt or other abrasive substances; and
Protect from adverse effects of weather such as sunlight, (sun-rot) and mildew, caused by storing wet rope away in a
toolbox or other area where there is no breeze to dry it out.

6.1.3 HANDLING
When a new coil of rope is delivered to the site it is covered with hessian bagging. Do not remove the cover. The coil
is also tied with twine to keep it together.
If there is a turntable to uncoil the rope it can be unwrapped and lengths cut as required.
Do not remove the hessian covering if there is no turntable. The best way to uncoil the rope is from the inside. Turn
the coil so that the loose end is on the bottom. Cut the inside holding twine and pull the loose end out through the top
of the coil. The rope will then be uncoiled left handed.
A rope that is uncoiled right handed will uncoil full of kinks and twists. If this happens, turn the coil over and push the
loose end back through the Centre and start again.
To remove kinks and twists re-coil the rope left handed or anti-clockwise on a piece of dunnage dipping the end
through and under the coil and then re-coil. This may have to be repeated two or three times before all twists are
removed (reverse for a left hand lay rope).
Do not disturb frozen rope until it has completely thawed because frozen fibres can be easily damaged when handled.
Factors for Assessing the Capacity of Fibre Rope
For safe use as lifelines, slinging and general lifting gear in factories and workshops where not subject to rough
usage, the working load limit (WLL) is the guaranteed breaking strain (GBS) divided by six.
 Do not use fibre rope of less than 12 mm diameter for load carrying purposes.
 Fibre rope hauled by hand under load must not be less than 16 mm diameter.
 Fibre rope must not be subject to heat greater than 65°C.
 Rope which has been shock or impact loaded or stretched by overloading must not be used for load carrying
purposes.
 The included angle between the legs of a sling attachment should not exceed 1200.

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6.2 WHIPPING
Whippings are put on the end of a rope to prevent the rope from unlaying. They are made by using waxed twine or
rope yarn. The length of the whipping should be at least equal to the diameter of the rope.
Whippings are preferable to back splicing on the ends of tackle falls because they will pass through the blocks when
reeving the tackle. A second whipping should be applied nine rope diameters from the end for permanent whippings.

6.2.1 TYPES OF WHIPPING

The “Common” whipping is used to prevent the rope unlaying while measuring or splicing.
The “West Countryman’s” whipping and “American” whipping are alternatives to the “Common”.
The “Palm and Needle” whipping is difficult to apply and is usually only made when a permanent whipping is required.

A West Countryman’s whipping

B American whipping
C Palm Needle whipping
D Common whipping

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6.3 SPLICING

6.3.1 TYPES OF SPLICES:

DEFECT DESCRIPTION

1. Eye splice Can be either bald or with a thimble inserted. A fibre rope with an eye spliced
either end for use in slinging is called a snotter.

2. Cut splice For joining two ropes, or for joining two ends of a rope to make an endless rope
strop.
3. Short splice For joining two ropes, or for joining two ends of a rope to make an endless rope
strop.
For preventing the end of a rope from Unlaying. Back splicing is used when
4. Back splice
whipping twine cannot be found. Do not use if the rope has to be reeved into a
tackle because the splice is too thick to pass through the sheaves. It is made by
tying a crown knot then two or three tucks against the lay.
The short, cut, and eye splices can be used for suspending loads or people, but cannot pass through the sheave
cheek plates. They should have at least three full tucks against the lay. After the three full tucks the ends of the
strands can be reduced and tapered and the splice served.
However when a load is applied to the rope and the splice stretches, the serving will become loose. It is better,
stronger, and safer to dog knot half the strands with a neat seizing after completing the splice.
Thimbles
A thimble should be spliced into the eye of the standing or becket eye of a tackle. Thimbles are solid round, split round
or pear shaped split. They are split to enable them to be opened and fitted to the anchorage and then closed before
splicing.
There should be no points on the throat of the thimble that could bite into the rope. Thimbles should be large enough
to allow the rope to seat well into the score with the rope supported for half of its circumference without the groove
edges biting into the rope. A small thimble can cut the rope and do more damage than ordinary wear and abrasion.

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6.4 FIBRE ROPE SLINGS

6.4.1 GROMMETS
A grommet is an endless loop of fibre rope similar to a strop. It is formed by laying up a single strand. The length of
the strand needed must be at least three and a half times the circumference of the finished grommet. The strand must
be married at the required diameter then laid up until it is a three stranded loop. The ends are then halved, overhand
knotted, tucked and then reduced.

6.4.2 STROPS
A strop is where the two ends of a piece of rope are spliced with a short splice making an endless sling. They are
called strops whether they are made of FSWR or fibre rope.
They are used as tackles, whips, lashings, snotters. and general lifting gear where the rope is liable to rough usage.
The WLL is the GBS divided by seven.

6.4.3 SNOTTERS
A snotter is a fibre rope sling with eyes spliced into each end. The eyes of snotters should be properly spliced by a
competent person with three full tucks against the lay. Snotters should not be reeved or choke hitched around sharp
edges unless proper packing is used to protect the fibre rope.
Snotters are used where FSWR slings or chains would damage a load or where the use of metal slings could be
dangerous. They are seldom used on construction sites and should not be used where the loads are lifted overhead.

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7. PART 3 :FLEXIBLE STEEL WIRE ROPE
7.1 INTRODUCTION
Flexible steel wire rope (FSWR) is the link between the crane and the load.
The hoist drum of the crane is the pulling mechanism which rotates, hauls in and stores surplus wire. The braking
mechanism is connected to either the drum or the gearing which is joined to the drive mechanism.
The wire passes over the head sheave of the crane and then down to the load.
There are many different types of lays and construction of FSWR to combat fatigue and abrasion, the two destructive
forces which occur whenever FSWR is bent over a system of sheaves.
Wire flexes as it bends over sheaves and drums. As the wire bends over the sheave fatigue takes place. The outer
wires are stretched and the inner wires are crushed against the sheave groove or drum.

Wire never lays straight into the groove of a sheave because the load swings slightly or the rope vibrates. This causes
friction or abrasion between the side of the sheave and the wire, wearing the outer wires of the strands.

7.2 FLEXIBLE STEEL WIRE ROPE - LAYS AND CONSTRUCTION

FSWR is constructed of wires and strands laid around a central core. In the illustration below there are 19 wires to the
strand and 6 strands around the core making up the rope.
It is important not to confuse wires and strands. If a strand is broken, the rope is unusable. A single broken wire in a
sling is not as important unless broken immediately below a metal fitting or anchorage.

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The tensile strength of wire ranges from 1220 mega Pascals (MPa) to 2250 MPa. The most commonly used tensile
strengths are 1770 MPa and 1570 MPa.
A 6/19 (six strands of 19 wires each) is the minimum FSWR construction that can be used for slings.
The size of a rope is determined by its diameter. The smallest diameter FSWR that can be used for lifting is 5 mm.
Lay is the direction the wires are formed into strands and the strands are formed into the finished rope.
The strands can be laid either left or right around the core. In left hand lay the strands are laid anti-clockwise and in
right hand lay they are laid clockwise.
Ordinary Lay is where the wires are laid in the opposite direction to the strands.
Lang’s Lay is where the wires are laid in the same direction as the strands. There is therefore:

Right hand ordinary lay — RHOL

Left hand ordinary lay — LHOL
Right hand Lang’s lay — RHLL
Left hand Lang’s lay — LHLL

PAGE 29 OF 161
Lay does not affect the working load limit of the rope but it does determine characteristics such as the spin of the rope.
Lang’s Lay is used where both ends are fixed to prevent rotation such as for luffing. It must not be used for lifting.
(Inspection for bird caging at the anchorage point must be done regularly).
Most general purpose ropes are right hand ordinary lay.

7.3 PRE- AND POST-FORMING

Flexible steel wire ropes that are used as crane rope and for slinging are either pre- or post-formed.
Pre-formed ropes have the spiral (helix) put in the individual wires before the wire is laid into the strand.
Post-formed ropes are put through a series of off-set sheaves to bend the spiral into the individual wires after the rope
is laid into the strand.
Both pre-formed and post-formed ordinary lay ropes are more resistant than unformed or Lang’s Lay to unlaying when
cut.

7.3.1 LANG’S LAY FSWR

Lang’s lay is more flexible and harder wearing than ordinary lay ropes. It is used as excavator, dragline, and pile
driving ropes where severe abrasion occurs. It is harder wearing because more of the individual wires are exposed to
the sheaves.
Lang’s lay has a tendency to unlay if it is used as a single fall crane rope because both wires and strands are laid up
in the same direction into the rope. Pre- and post-forming make the rope easier to handle but it will still unlay under
load.

PAGE 30 OF 161
7.3.2 ORDINARY LAY FSWR
Ordinary lay ropes are used extensively for slinging.
They are more resistant to unlaying and have less wire exposed to sheaves because of the opposite spiral. They are
also more resistant to crushing and kinking because of the very short length of exposed wires.
Ordinary lay ropes are less resistant to abrasion than Lang’s lay.

7.3.3 LEFT HAND LAY FSWR

A manufacturer may make up a FSWR with left hand lay strands on request. Left hand lay ropes are usually made for
a special purpose. They will kink and twist when laying up into a purchase or system of sheaves if they are not laid up
in the opposite direction to right handed lay.

7.3.4 NON-ROTATING ROPES

Under load all FSWRs have a tendency to unlay including pre- or post-formed ropes and ordinary or Lang’s lay.
To prevent unlaying a left hand lay rope is layed inside a right hand lay rope. This is called a non-rotating ordinary lay
rope and is usually used as crane rope. Under strain the opposite spiral in both the inner and outer layers are counter
balanced and the rope does not twist.

7.3.5 CORE SLIPPAGE

Non-rotating ropes require careful handling. If the outer strands slip or unlay slightly the core will protrude from the end
of the rope. This is called core slippage.
Core slippage can occur if the ends of the rope are not properly whipped before making a cut. Whippings of annealed
wire must be put on either side of where the cut is to be made.

The whippings should be put on with a serving mallet very tightly for a distance of at least 1 to 2 times the rope
diameter each side of the cut for ropes to 24mm diameter and 4 times for ropes over 24mm diameter.
Core slippage can occur as a wire is rope around a thimble for splicing. The outer wires may ‘birdcage’ or open up as
the rope is bent around the small diameter thimble. It is preferable to use large diameter thimbles.
The rope should be tightly served (bound) with marlin or spun yarn for the distance of the length around the thimble,
plus twice the length of the annealed wire flat throat seizing.
The seizing should be put on both parts of the rope immediately after securing the thimble into the served eye of the
rope. The length of the throat seizing should be equal to at least 3 times the rope diameter.
Severe core slippage can occur when bending non-rotating ropes into wedge socket anchorages due to the small
radius of the wedge.
If a wedge socket is used on a non-rotating hoist fall the rope should be frequently inspected.

7.3.6 HANDLING
Non-rotating ropes are counter balanced to stop the tendency to twist or spin either way. However they are very
pliable and bad handling can put turns into the rope.
As turns are put into a rope the outer strands become shorter and the inner core slips along and protrudes from the
end and the outer strands bulge into birdcaging. The inner core therefore takes the entire load and may break.
Non-rotating ropes can be used successfully as single and multi-fall crane hoist ropes. However birdcaging at the
anchorage is a common fault when they are reeved up as luffing ropes.

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7.3.7 INSTALLATION
There is a danger of kinking or putting turns into the uncoiled rope when uncoiling it from the manufacturer’s spool or
reel.

If a loop forms in the slack rope a kink will form as the rope is drawn tight, or wound on to a drum. Therefore this
section of the rope should be discarded.
Mount reels or spools onto a shaft so that the reel will revolve when the rope is pulled off. Care should be taken to
brake the spool to keep tension on the rope as it is removed.

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7.4 NON-ROTATING CONSTRUCTIONS
Three common multiple strand, non-rotating ropes are:
17 x 7 N.R — 11 (strands) of (6/1) over 6 (strands) of (6/1) over hemp core.
18 x 7 N.R —12 (strands) of (6/1) over 6 (strands) of (6/1) over hemp core.
34 x 7 N.R — 17 (strands) of (6/1) over 11 over 6 of (6/1) over hemp core.
Non-rotating ropes prevent spin in nearly all circumstances.

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7.5 ROPE CONSTRUCTION TYPES
Traditionally, round strand Lang’s and ordinary lay FSWR have been constructed of:
 6 strands of 19 wires (6 X 19)
 6 strands of 24 wires (6 X 24)
 6 strands of 37 wires (6 X 37)
Four strand ropes are also being used in newer cranes and hoists which have the same number of wires as six and
eight strand ropes.
Most FSWR are parallel or equal laid with the inner wires in the strand laid in a longer spiral so that the top wires do
not cross the inner wires.
To prevent a different spiral in the inner and outer wires of strands and to obtain parallel lay, different size wires are
laid into the same strand. The standard constructions which use this method are:
Seale
Large diameter wires are laid up on the outside and smaller wires are laid up on the inside over a central core wire.
The large wires resist abrasion and the small wires give flexibility.
Warrington
Alternative large and small wires are laid up on the outside of the strand combining flexibility and resistance to
abrasion.
Filler
A number of wires are laid over a central wire and an equal number of very small wires are laid in the valleys of these
wires. Larger wires are then laid in the valleys between the large and small wires.
Seale and Warrington, and Filler and Seale have been combined to make ‘Warriflex’ and ‘Seale-Filler’ which both
have greater flexibility combined with resistance to abrasion.

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7.6 ROPE INSPECTION
When inspecting ropes inspect the whole system not just the FSWR. Ropes can be affected by:
 Physical and mechanical factors such as abrasion, fatigue, reverse bends and so on.
 Environmental conditions such as the weather, salt air, freezing conditions, extreme heat, steam, acid vapours,
dust and so on.

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7.6.1 BROKEN WIRES
As the rope lays into a sheave friction occurs and the outside of the wires wear and become flat. Langs lay ropes are
much less prone to outer wire wear than ordinary lay.
As outer wires wear and the wire rope is bent over sheaves the fatigue will start to break them.
The maximum number of broken wires allowed in a FSWR is 10% of the total number of wires over a length 8 times
the diameter of the rope.
For example: 25 mm diameter / 6 x 19 Seale.
Diameter = 25 mm
25 x 8 = 200 mm length
Total wires in 6 x lg = 114 wires
10% of 114 = 11.4 wires

Maximum number of broken wires allowed in a length of 200mm = 11

Condemn any FSWR showing broken wires in the valleys between the strands (an indication of extreme fatigue).
Condemn a FSWR where there is one broken wire at the start of any anchorage. This is a sign of localised fatigue.
Crane or luffing pendant ropes should be checked for broken wires. Although they do not pass over sheaves they are
subject to fatigue due to vibration.
If there are three or more broken wires in eight rope diameters the pendant should be inspected by a rope expert.

7.6.2 REDUCTION IN DIAMETER

External wear on the individual wires is caused by friction on drums and sheaves.
Where the rope diameter has reduced to 85% or less of the original diameter, the rope should be discarded even if
there are no broken wires.
Fibre rope cores can be crushed and broken if the rope is bent over sheaves while the core is frozen. Under these
conditions the FSWR can eventually lose its shape with serious internal corrosion.

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When first reeved up and put to work a wire will show considerable wear because it is “bedding in” to the sheave and
drum grooves. After bedding in the outer wires will slowly continue to wear and the wearing surface will increase,
although on crane ropes the rate of wear will slow down. Consider condemning FSWR when wear on the individual
wires starts to exceed one third of their original diameter.
Before re-roping a thorough inspection should be made of the whole sheave system with special attention given to the
sheave and drum grooves. A sheave that has been damaged by a previous rope will seriously damage a new rope.
The anchorage should be inspected. One broken wire at an anchorage condemns the rope at that point.
Also check for:
 cracks;
 chafing of wires;
 worn pins;
 worn devises;
 worn thimbles;
 corrosion — rust;
 crushed or jammed strands especially where the rope may have jumped off the sheave and jammed between the
sheave and cheek plate;
 wear on the outside wires when the individual outside wires are worn to more than one third of the original
diameter;
 bird caging in Lang’s lay or non-rotating ropes especially at the anchorage; and
 over-loading which can usually be seen by the elongation of the lay. (A normal lay takes approximately 8
diameters for a complete spiral).

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7.7 HANDLING NEW ROPE
When a new rope is ordered it is essential that the manufacturer’s recommendations regarding length, lay,
construction and diameter are followed. If this is not done the life of the rope can be severely reduced

7.7.1 LAYING ONTO A DRUM

The new rope should be delivered on a spool. Set up a spool so that the rope runs from the top of the spool to the top
of the drum, or from the bottom of the spool to the bottom of the drum.
If a new rope is delivered in a coil, a turntable should be rigged up to run the rope onto the drum. A coil of rope must
not be laid on the ground and wound straight onto the drum otherwise there will be severe twisting and kinking of the
rope.
Do not take rope off one side of a reel laid flat on the ground as a loop because a kink may be produced from each
wrap of the rope taken.
The whole cross section of the rope must be held solid when bolting or securing hoist or luff ropes to winch drum
anchorages. If a rope is not completely secured the inner strands can pull out leaving only the outer strands secured
at the anchorage.
It is preferable to make some form of gripping mechanism to keep the rope tight as it is wound onto the drum. Two
pieces of 100mm x 50mm timber bolted either side of the rope and secured to the head of the boom can be used. The
bottom layers of the rope must be tightly and neatly laid onto the drum.
The bottom layers on multiple layered drums must be laid on correctly. If they are not, the lead rope will jam in
between lower layers under a heavy load causing condemnable defects in a new rope.
When laying the rope onto an un-grooved drum, use a mallet or a piece of timber (to prevent damage to FSWR) to tap
the turns together as they wind onto the drum to ensure that there are no gaps between the lays.

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7.7.2 MANUAL UNCOILING
If it is not possible to remove the rope from the reel by using jacks, stands, a turntable or by rolling the reel use the
following procedure:
1. With the reel resting on its flanges, unwind several wraps of rope to accumulate sufficient slack.
2. Back-up the rope to make a loose loop on the spool, slip one loop off the right flange and lie this loop on the floor.
3. Slip a similar loop off the left flange and also lie it on the floor. The rope on the floor will then be in the form of a
figure eight.
4. Repeat this procedure first on the right, then on the left, until the required length has been unreeled.
5. Roll the reel back off the accumulation of rope on the floor, and pull away the end of the rope. Watch out for any
loops thrown out to prevent kinking.
Where the same situation exists with a coil of rope (e.g. where there is no turntable), the coil should be stood on edge
and unrolled as previously described.
If as a last resort the rope must be laid on the ground and uncoiled, extra precautions must be taken to prevent
kinking:
1. The coil should be laid down so that the outside end of the rope finishes or spirals clockwise for right hand lay or
anti-clockwise for left hand lay.
2. The stops or ties securing the coil may then be removed and the outside end carried along in a straight line,
allowing the rope to revolve in the hands as the turns or loops are lifted carefully from the coil by another person
and thrown or straightened out immediately as the rope is stretched along.
Rope that has been coiled with under-turns by an experienced rigger will pull away without kinking. At all times care
should be taken to prevent wire rope from running in sand, ashes, clinker, earth, mud and so on.

7.8 HAND SPLICING

A splice is a join in a rope or on to another rope by the interweaving of the separated strands of one part into another
part, or into those of another rope.
For an eye splice made on the end of a rope, a short end of the rope is bent back on its own part to form the eye. The
strands in the short end are separated, then secured into the main part of the rope by interweaving the strands into
those of the main part.
Eye splices, short splices, and cut splices must be made by passing the strands over and under against the lay of the
rope. Splices must be tightly drawn and neatly made.
Where a thimble or dead eye is inserted in an eye it must be a tight fit. To achieve a tight fit use a mild steel annealed
strand “flat” or “round” seizing applied at the throat of the splice before beginning the splice.
Thimbles must be used where ropes are spliced to hooks, shackles, rings, swivels, pins, eyes, and similar fittings.
Hand splicing can only be learned under experienced supervision and with the correct materials. This section is
designed to be referred to by those learning to hand splice.
Tools Used For Hand Splicing
1. At least two marlin spikes, sufficiently large for the rope being spliced, (one may be smaller than the main spike).
They should have a knob at the butt end to grasp, be round for two thirds of the length before tapering gradually to
a slightly oval section, and finish with a blunt chisel point at the tip.
The use of flat spikes with a flat T handle is not recommended as they can jar fingers or wrists if they slip after
being turned at right angles. The chisel point and oval section of the spike described permit easier insertion, while
the rounded section opens strands enough to tuck.
2. Wooden mallet or copper hammer.
3. Wire cutters and pliers.
4. Vice fixed to bench, preferably having grooved jaws.
5. Rope cutting machine, or cold chisel and a large hammer.

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6. A press for larger sized ropes instead of a vice. These have a right and left handed screw thread attached to brass
jaws and are operated by a wheel. Jaws should be pointed for breaking thimbles into a rope and have flat caps to
fit over when required for squeezing and seizing of ropes together.

7.8.1 MAKING A SPLICE

Before commencing an eye splice whip the rope at the point where the splicing allowance of 1 m for each 24 mm has
been made. Position the whipping level with the throat of the thimble and apply rope yarn or marline seizing to secure
the rope to the thimble.
Bend the rope around the thimble and place it in a vice with the throat of the thimble above or at the end of the jaws.
Screw the vice tight being careful not to damage the rope (on small ropes lash a folded strip of canvas to the vice
jaws).
Then drive a spike between the two parts of rope at the throat of the thimble. This drives the thimble up and seats it
tightly in the rope. Apply seizings to the throat and to the crown of the thimble (for large wires, use seizing wire).
If a flat throat seizing has to be applied, the rope around the thimble and for 12mm beyond the length of the seizing
should have been served with tarred marline. The seizing is now put on by neatly seizing tapping a thimble held in a
vice.
Grip the rope in the vice ready to commence splicing. (Some splicers prefer to have the rope vertical and others prefer
horizontal). The rope is now ready for splicing.
Remove the end-binding and unlay the short end of the rope to provide the tails for splicing, and remove the crutch
seizing.

Throat Seizing
The fibre main core is tucked with tail No.1 for the first tuck. It is then cut off where it emerges from the main part.
Wire cores must never be cut from the rope. The core must be split up and the wires or strands distributed among the
tucking tails then tucked with them for at least three tucks.
If the rope is not pre-formed it is advisable to whip the ends of each tail separately.
In all splices the spike must be entered as near as possible to the thimble or end fitting, and the tucking tail must enter
into the portion of loop which is nearest the thimble or end fitting, i.e. under the spike. All tucks must be pulled down
hard.
To “break out” wires when reducing the number of wires per strand, take each wire separately, snatch back to the
point where it emerges from the rope and then twist the wire (handle fashion) reversing direction if necessary and the
wire should part at the gusset.

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7.8.2 SIX STRAND ROPE — FIVE TUCK SPLICE
The inexperienced splicer should only learn first-hand from the expert splicer and use the description above as a
guide. Only an experienced person can teach a novice the art of holding a spike, of taking a half a turn out of the
strand end before inserting, the dipping of a tucked strand around the spike and so on.
The method described here is just one standard method of splicing. It is not possible here to describe all the splices,
seizings and so on that are used. Use the steps below as a guide:
1. Thimble in vice. Rope vertical. Main part of rope on right hand. Tail strands on left hand.
2. Thimble seized at crown and both flanks.
3. The strands separated and the tails whipped at the ends.
4. Length of tails 100 mm for each 3 mm diameter of rope.
5. For the first series of tucks a fibre main core should be tucked with Tail No. 1 and then cut off. A wire main core
must be split up, distributed among the tails, and tucked with them for at least three series.
6. After the third series, the wires of a wire main core may be “broken off” and the number of wires in each of the
main tails reduced to half of the original number, preferably by “breaking out”. The remaining wires must be
twisted to a rough strand formation, and at the same time enclosing cut ends in the centre.
7. Remove the splice from the vice and hammer down the taper, starting from the eye end and working down the
taper. This is to tighten up the tucks and to round up the taper. Remove the protruding wire ends, preferably by
breaking them out, and again round up over the broken-off ends. The taper or at least that portion containing the
wire ends of the tails should be served with wire strand or spun yarn to give protection to the user when handling.
8. in line with the Each strand must be pulled down as tightly as possible. The tails should be pulled down centre of
the thimble.
9. To get the tuck tight and short, it should be beaten with a mallet or hammer. One object is to get the tuck as near
as possible at right angles to the axis of the rope. Working the tucks with a mallet or hammer forces any slackness
out of the tucking tails through the loop, and the beating should start on the position of the tail before its entry into
the rope, and continue on the tuck itself. The strands of the main rope where they had lifted are beaten down to
hold the tuck in place.
First Series
Tail No In at Out at

1 B A
6 B
C
C
2 B D
3 C F
D E
5 D
4

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Second Series Third Series
Tail No In at Out at Tail No In at Out at

1 B C 1 D E
6 C D 6 C B
D E F A
2 E F 2 A B
3 F A 3 B C
A B C D
4 5
5 4

Fourth Series Fifth Series

Tail No In at Out at Tail No In at Out at
1 F A 1 B C
6 A B 6 C D
B C D E
2 C D 2 E F
3 D E 3 F A
E F A B
4 5
5 4

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7.8.3 SERVING
Splices in multiple strand ropes subject to constant handling should be properly parcelled and served with marline,
spun yarn or annealed strand seizing wire, preferably for the full length of the splice, to the throat seizing to prevent
laceration injuries.

7.8.4 SLINGS AND STANDING ROPES

Slings and standing rigging ropes, up to 24mm diameter, must have at least three full tucks with each whole strand of
rope and two alternative tucks, made by tucking alternative strands twice.
Over 24 mm diameter and up to 32 mm diameter there must be at least four tucks and two alternative tucks.
Ropes over 32 mm diameter must have at least four full tucks and two split, reduced, or tapered tucks made with all
strands, with one half of the wires in the fifth tuck and one quarter of the wires in the sixth or final tuck.

7.8.5 CRANE ROPES

Crane ropes up to 24mm diameter must have at least four full tucks with each whole strand of rope, and two
alternative tucks, made by tucking alternate strands twice.
Over 24 mm diameter, there must be at least four full tucks and two split, reduced, or tapered tucks, with all strands,
with one half of the wires in the fifth tuck and one quarter of the wires in the sixth or final tuck.

7.8.6 LANG’S LAY

Lang’s lay ropes of all sizes must have at least six full tucks with each whole strand of rope and two split, reduced, or
tapered tucks with all strands.

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8. PART 4:FLEXIBLE STEEL WIRE ROPE WINCHES, SHEAVES AND
PURCHASES
8.1 SHEAVES
Sheaves lead the rope over the head of cranes and hoists and are used in pulley systems to gain a mechanical
advantage.

8.1.1 FLARE ANGLE AND GROOVE DEPTH

The groove depth of a sheave should not be less than 1.5 times the rope diameter. However if the rope is positively
prevented from leaving the groove the minimum depth of the groove can be equal to the rope diameter.

The sheave groove sides should have a flare angle of a minimum of 42° and a maximum of 52°.
The grooves should be slightly larger than the nominal diameter of the rope. Grooves that are too large will flatten the
rope. Grooves too small will pinch the rope and the extra friction can cut it to pieces.
Sheaves should have a smooth finish with flared edges which are rounded-off.

8.1.2 SHEAVE DIAMETERS

The table below gives sheave diameters and safety factors for types of work:

Caution
Modern cranes and hoists are complex engineering equipment, and many have special construction luff and hoist
ropes. It is essential that the sheaves which were designed for a particular crane or hoist are used for that purpose.
It is also essential that when a rope is replaced, the replacement is the same diameter and construction and that the
sheave system is thoroughly checked to ensure that any damaged or worn grooves likely to ruin the new rope are
repaired or replaced.

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8.1.3 REEVING
Large capacity cranes have several parts to the main hoist fall making the main hook very slow.
When reducing the number of parts to give a faster hook ensure that the falls are not reduced from one side of the
boom head sheaves and the main hoist block.

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Otherwise rotational torque can develop on the boom head exerting side pull on the main hoist block. When reducing
parts the rope must be reeved again to ensure that there are an equal number of parts either side of the boom head
and the main hoist block.
The number of parts must be capable of supporting the load to be lifted. A fast hook must still be a safe hook.

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8.1.4 INSPECTION
Sheaves should be inspected regularly. Pay particular attention to the sheave groove and flange. Any cracks or chips
on the flange can cut the rope as it lays into the groove.
The groove should be checked for wear which will result in the reduction of the groove diameter and give an uneven
bearing surface for the rope.
All sheaves should be checked for lubrication. Badly lubricated sheaves cause extra friction in the system and wear on
the sheave pin and bearing.
The pin should be prevented from rotating with the sheave. Some sheave pins only have a small cotter pin which fits
into a recess on the cheek plate. The cotter pin sometimes shears and allows the pin to turn with the sheave. Rotating
pins are dangerous as they turn and can cut through the cheek plate.
A ‘jockey sheave’ is sometimes used as the first diverting sheave to reduce the fleet angle.
This sheave fits on an extended pin to allow it to slip from side to side reducing the fleet angle. The jockey sheave pin
should be kept well greased and free from grit and dirt to allow the sheave to slide across the pin.

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8.2 DRUMS
Drums are the pulling mechanism which rotates, hauls in and stores surplus wire. The braking mechanism is
connected to either the drum or the gearing which is joined to the drive mechanism.
Drums are measured from the centre to the inside of the flange. A drum which measures 1m from flange to flange is
therefore a 0.5 m drum.
The rope should lay neatly on the drum and not be bunched up. There should be a minimum of two full turns on the
drum at all times.
The rope must be anchored to the drum with a fixed mechanical anchorage. Be aware of the danger of not properly
tightening an anchorage. Do not rely on the frictional grip relayed by the two turns on the drum.
Comply with the crane manufacturer’s recommendation about whether drums are overwound or underwound. If a
drum is wound up incorrectly it can affect the anchorage, brake and drive mechanism to the drum, resulting in
mechanical failure.
The lay of the rope and whether the drum is overwound or underwound determines where the rope is to be anchored.

Be especially careful when raising very heavy loads to a great height such as with long boom mobile cranes. The
amount of turns on the drum determine the drum diameter. As the diameter increases the torque to the drive
mechanism and brake increases. As a result the higher the load is raised the faster it is raised, and the more difficult
the load is to control.

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Operators should ensure that the hoist brake is adjusted to take the extra torque when the load is raised to its
maximum height. A brake which holds the load near the ground may fail when the load is high.
The top layer on a multi-layered drum must not be closer than two rope diameters to the top of the flange when the
drum is full.

8.2.1 FLEET ANGLES

The maximum fleet angle is measured from the centre of the drum to the centre of the first diverting sheave then back
to the inside flange at the middle of the drum.
The maximum fleet angle for a grooved drum is 5° and for an ungrooved drum is 3°. To achieve these angles the
distance from the drum to the first diverting sheave must be a minimum of:
 19 times half the width of the drum for an ungrooved drum.
 12 times half the width of the drum for a grooved drum.

Example 1:
Width of the grooved drum = 1 metre
12 x l x 0.5 = 6
Therefore the sheave must be 6 metres from the drum.

Example 2:
Width of the ungrooved drum = 1 metre
19 x l x 0.5 = 9.5
Therefore the sheave must be 9.5 metres from the drum.

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If the fleet angle is too large or the distance between the drum and the first lead or diverting sheave is too short, the
rope will not lay neatly on the drum and will create severe wear on the rope and the sheave flange.

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8.3 SAFE LOADS ON WIRE ROPE PURCHASES

Use the above in connection with works of a temporary nature.

Note:
The above masses must not exceed those marked on the blocks as being the safe mass that may be lifted. Most
blocks are limited by the size of hooks and other components and not the number of falls of rope. A factor for friction
has been added.
1. The safe masses shown in this table are for rope of 6 x 24 construction.
2. The working load limit together with any conditions of loading deemed necessary for safe use is to be stamped or
otherwise marked on each block.
3. Sheave diameters measured at the bottom of the groove may be as follows (temporary use only):
o For power operated blocks: 15 x rope diameter
o For hand operated blocks: 10 x rope diameter
4. The beckets of blocks should be steel, preferably of drop forged or wrought construction. If welded they should be
to an engineered design and strongly made.
5. The locking pins of hook nuts, where used, should be closely adjacent to the nut top surface.
6. Hook shank collars should not be welded without an engineered design.
7. Snatch blocks should incorporate a locking pin of positive type not requiring the use of any toot for its effective
positioning. A drop nose pin used as a hinge pin is recommended and the locking device must be strongly made
and suitable for the intended use of the block.

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8.4 PURCHASES
A wire rope reeved through sheaves to obtain a mechanical advantage is known in rigging as a ‘purchase’.
Purchase and lead blocks should have the close fitting cheeks pattern, or be the dished type where the sheave is
recessed into cheeks.
Self-lubricating sheaves are recommended, but if reservoirs are used they should be filled periodically, and leathers
and set screw washers checked for tightness.

8.4.1 SNATCH BLOCKS

Snatch blocks can be dangerous and should always be carefully watched. The gate must be properly closed and the
split pin inserted and split open.
As the winch takes the weight, lead blocks stand up and lay into the strain. As snatch blocks stand up the split pin
must be facing down and must be spread. There have been many fatal accidents because the split pin has been
inserted face up and then dropped out, the gate opening allowing the hoist rope to drop out of the sheave.
The eyebolt and shackle-type of block is preferable to the hook type. If the hook type is used it is important that the
hook is placed into the sling with the hook facing down. If the hook faces up, it can drop out of the eye of the sling as
the winch takes the strain. The hook must be properly moused to the sling.

8.4.2 SHEAVE BLOCKS

Sheave blocks should be pulled apart, inspected and greased before each new set-up with particular attention given
to the pin. If sheaves are not properly greased, friction increases dramatically through the system as the load is raised.
This can overload the hoist rope at the winch.
Ensure that all cotters, nuts and bolts are tight. Lead blocks should be supported at the becket to prevent the block
from twisting. Twisting would cause the rope to jam or ride on the rim of the sheave, and slip between the sheave and
the cheek plate, jamming and destroying the rope.
The anchorage at the standing part of a purchase must be made at the becket at the bottom of the top block. If the
becket is defective the eye of the standing part should be shackled to the head sling of the top block. Do not secure
the end to the upper eye or shackle of the top block because the rope may cut where it passes over the cheek plate.
The screw pins of “D” or bow shackles should be moused when used on standing rigging, and running rigging where
the pin can become unscrewed, causing a serious accident. When lifting loads by bridle or cock billing, make sure that
lifting slings are “stopped” and packing and lagging is lashed on. Head slings must not render or slip during fleeting
operations.
The lead from the head block of any purchase must not foul its own block or any part of a structure. Head slings must
be prevented from slipping by a “stopper” lashing. Prevention from slipping must be against the pull from the load in
the lead or from any fleeting action.
Where any fleeting action takes place the load must be kept as low as possible to the ground or any supporting
structure.
During fleeting do not stand in the line of pull from either set of blocks. Many people have been seriously injured
because they were in the way of a surging load.
Timber packing or dunnage should be used if slings are likely to jam when landing a load.

8.4.3 HOW TO WORK OUT THE LOAD IN A SINGLE PART OF A PURCHASE

The greatest load on any rope in a purchase is the load in the lead rope to the winch. This is due to the friction
between the rope in the groove of the sheave and the sheave pin. Friction is estimated at about 5% per sheave (i.e.
one twentieth of the rope load that would occur if there was no friction).
The effects of friction, acceleration or deceleration are not usually included when dealing with work of a temporary
nature unless a number of falls are used or unless the rope velocity is high,
ie. 0.6m sec.
When a load is at rest, suspended from the lower block, the becket load (the load in each part of the rope purchase) is
found as follows:

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Becket load = Total load on lower block ÷ No. of parts of rope supporting load.
Note:
The total load on the lower block includes the load to be lifted plus packings, slings, shackles, blocks etc.
For example — (including frictional effects)
Total load on the lower block = 10 t including gear
Number of parts of rope = 5 supporting the moving block
Becket load (BL) =1O ÷ 5 = 2t
However as lifting commences friction causes the load in the rope falls to increase by 5% for each sheave the rope
passes over, including lead sheaves (if any).
The load in the lead to the winch may be calculated as follows:
Load in lead to winch = BL + (BL x number of sheaves x 5%)
= BL ÷ (BL x number of sheaves x 5 ÷ 100)
= BL ÷ (BL x number of sheaves x 5 ÷ 20
For example:
No of sheaves in purchase = 5 (3 top block + 2 bottom block)
Number of parts of rope = 5 supporting lower block
Number of lead blocks = 2 (7 sheaves in total)
Total load on lower block = 10 t
Becket load = 10 ÷ 5 = 2 t
Load in lead rope to winch = 2 + (2 x 7 ÷ 20)
= 2 + (14 ÷ 20)
= 2.7 t
The above calculation does not allow for sudden impact, acceleration and deceleration which can cause very high
loads in the rope. These should all be avoided.
Where the angle in a lead rope is less than 90 degrees, the strain on the lead block is double the strain on the lead
rope.
If the lead block is shackled to, or hooked into a sling which is reeved, the sling has to have a capacity which is four
times the load in the lead rope.

8.4.4 REVERSE BENDS

Avoid reverse bends because they cause much greater fatigue than if all bends were made in the one direction.
A rope running in one direction over one sheave and then in a reverse direction (i.e. “5” fashion) over another sheave
will suffer early fatigue and deterioration. As the rope passes over a sheave it is bent, and as it leaves the sheave it is
straightened, two distinct actions causing fatigue. This is made worse if the rope after being bent in one direction is
then straightened, and again bent in an entirely opposite direction over another sheave after which it is again
straightened.

8.4.5 MULTIPLE LAYERS ON DRUMS

If a load is to be lifted to a height where multiple layers must be layed onto a drum, there are several safety
precautions that should be taken.
Independent steel wire cored ropes should be used to prevent crushing. Do not use 6/37 construction ropes because
the small wires will suffer badly from crushing.
The drum must have the capacity to take the amount of rope. The bottom layers must be tightly and neatly laid onto
the drum.
In the absence of any test certificate it must be assumed that the rope is made from 1570 MPa and the safe working
load should be calculated accordingly.

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8.4.6 THE CAPACITY OF DRUMS AND STORAGE REELS
There is a rule of thumb formula for determining the amount of rope that can be stored on a storage reel. This formula
can be used when determining whether the winch drum has sufficient capacity to take the amount of rope needed in a
purchase.

8.4.7 LENGTH OF ROPE THAT CAN BE STORED ON A DRUM.

While a storage reel can be filled to the top of the flange a drum must not. 2 x rope diameters must be left from the top
layer of rope to the top of the flange.
For drums A Depth of reel flange in mm - 2 Rope dia.

8.4.8 PURCHASE OR TACKLE BLOCK?

Doggers must know the difference between wire rope purchase blocks and fibre rope tackle blocks. A fibre rope may
be used in a purchase block but a wire rope must not be used in a tackle block.
A fibre rope tackle block would be greatly overloaded if used for the WLL of a wire rope of the same size. The
difference between the two types of blocks is:
 The depth of the groove in a fibre rope tackle block should be not less than half the diameter of the rope used.
 The depth of the groove in a wire rope purchase block must not be less than 1.5 times the diameter of the rope
used.
 The diameter of a fibre rope block is much less than that of a wire rope block for the same size rope.
 Pins and brackets are heavier and stronger in wire rope blocks.

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8.5 CABLE PULLING STOCKINGS
Cable pulling stockings are used for reeving wire ropes through purchases and for fitting cables in various places
where the opening or access is restricted.

They are especially useful where the boom head, luff drum, and hoist winch of tower cranes are high above the
ground.
A fibre rope is reeved and attached to the drum, and then is attached to the rope which is fitted with a cable pulling
stocking. The rope is then pulled through the system by the fibre rope. Cable pulling stockings must not be used for
load lifting purposes.

8.5.1 METHOD FOR REPLACING AN OLD ROPE

1. Cut the eye splice or metal clamp from the end of the old wire rope in the crane.
2. Remove grease from the cut end of the old wire rope for a distance of approximately one metre. Also remove
grease from the new wire rope for a similar distance.
3. Slide one cable pulling stocking on to the end of the crane wire rope. Place a short seizing on the wire rope (using
a mallet) so that it is under the cable pulling stocking about 50mm from the stocking end caps. Place a second
secure seizing, using a stout cord or copper strand around the end of the stocking between the first seizing and
the stocking end caps.
4. Repeat step three with the second cable pulling stocking on the end of the new wire rope.
5. Join the eyes of both cable pulling stockings with a sufficient number of turns of nylon cord which is then securely
tied. The use of nylon lacing to connect the two stockings lessens the likelihood of snagging at sheaves and other
points where clearance is at a minimum.
6. The winch of the crane then hauls the new wire rope into the crane. When the join of the new and old rope
reaches the winding drum, the new rope is disconnected from the old rope and anchored temporarily to a suitable
part of the adjacent structure. The old rope is then removed from the drum and then the new rope is anchored to
the drum and wound on. Cable pulling stockings allow the rope joint to pass smoothly around the sheaves.

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9. PART 5:CHAINS
9.1 5.1INTRODUCTION
Doggers must have the knowledge and skills to recognise the types of chain used to safely lift loads and those which
are not.
Lifting chain is uncalibrated, proof tested, short link chain. The barrel of short link chain requires a greater force to
bend, provides greater strength, reduces the tendency to twist and provides better reeving performance.
The outside length of the link does not exceed five times the diameter (of the link material) and the outside width does
not exceed 3.5 times the diameter.
Lifting chain is produced on a special purpose automatic chain making machine to ensure uniformity and
homogeneous welds. A continuous coil of carbon steel or alloy steel rod is fed into the machine which cuts and bends
the link around dies, then electrically welds the specially prepared join in the formed link. The weld is then trimmed by
two methods:
 The welding flash is removed from the outside of the material leaving a tit of weld on the inside of the link.
 The welding flash is completely trimmed from all round the weld area.

Chain Sling Assembly

Grade designation is then stamped or embossed on the chain. In some cases every link is marked, but all lifting chain
must show grade marking at least every metre or every 20 links, whichever is less.
Short link chain can also be calibrated to ensure uniform link pitch for running over a pocket sheave which is
sometimes called a “gypsy”. Calibrated chain gives a constant and uniform pitch throughout the length of the chain
and improves its lay (it does not twist as much as un-calibrated chain).
Gypsies are used to raise or lower the chain in a chain block. They can be driven by hand, pneumatically or
electrically. Although most manufacturers today produce chain for chain blocks of similar size and shape, it is
important to obtain replacement chain from the manufacturer of the chain block to ensure correct fit.
If the chain does not fit neatly into the gypsy it will jam, ride out of the wheel pockets, or suffer wear or link damage. If
this occurs it could lead to premature failure of the chain, damage to the gypsy pockets and possible accidents from
the chain riding out of the pockets under load.

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Un-pocketed sheaves and drums designed to take chain must be at least 24 times the diameter of the chain. Link
length should not exceed 6 times the diameter and the width should not exceed 3.5 times the diameter. Welds must
be smoothly finished and the diameter of the weld must not be less than the diameter of the material in the chain.

9.2 TYPES OF LIFTING CHAIN

There are several types of lifting chain available these are as follows:
 Mild steel stress relieved chain — stamped L.
 High tensile, quenched and tempered chain — stamped P.
 Higher tensile, quenched and tempered chain branded T, 8, 80, A, 800, PWB, or CM and HA800 alternately.
 Very high tensile, quenched and tempered chain branded 100, V or 10.
High Tensile and Very High Tensile (Grade T. 80 and 100) are used extensively for lifting. Very little low grade chain is
used for lifting. Most, if not all, chain components are also High Tensile strength (Grade T or 800) and are branded to
show grade and chain size.

If riggers do not understand the grade marking of a chain, they should check with the manufacturer or the
manufacturer’s supplier for clarification.
Caution:
Industrial lifting chain is not normally sold through general hardware outlets. Chain from general hardware outlets is
usually unsuitable for industrial lifting.

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9.3 OTHER TYPES OF CHAIN
Several other types of approved chain are available such as:
1. Stud link chain. A special purpose marine chain with a stud across the centre of each link to prevent the chain
from jamming when coming out of ship’s chain lockers. Do not use for lifting. Stud link chain lacks the flexibility of
a lifting chain. Under test, it shows no elongation, whereas open link chain shows considerable elongation.
2. Bush roller chain. Including Reynolds, Morse, and Coventry types. It is used as the drive chain on bicycles,
motorcycles or the load chain on fork lift trucks. It has no sideways flexibility, so should not be used for
suspending loads unless the load is in between guides.
3. Proof coil chain is not made for load supporting. It is used as load binder chains, skid chains, hand chain on chain
blocks, or general purposes other than load lifting. Proof coil chain is usually not branded and not made to any
standard. It is not made for lifting purposes and should not be used as lifting chain.
4. Grade 65 is a high tensile load binder chain and is branded ‘65’. It is not a lifting chain and should not be used for
lifting.
5. Grade 70/75 is a high tensile load binder chain and is branded 70, 7, HI-FRT, or HiLITE and is sometimes
supplied gold coloured plating. It is not a lifting chain and should not be used for lifting.
6. Long link chain is made in various grades from mild steel to Grade 80 and is used on conveyors, as ship cargo
chain and for lashing. It is not a lifting chain and should not be used for lifting.

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9.4 INSPECTION OF CHAIN
To prepare for inspection, clean the chain thoroughly, and lay it out in a good light on a table. Use a magnifying lens
with a built-in light and examine every link. If the chain is made up into a sling, examine all of the parts of the sling
assembly and look for defects such s stretching.

High tensile Grade T, Grade 100 and Grade 800 chain has been proof tested to 2.3 times its working load during
manufacture. If chain has stretched in use it has been loaded more than 2.3 times its working load. Grade T, Grade
100 and Grade 800 chain only stretches a significant amount as it approaches its breaking strength, so stretched
chain should never be used.
Oblong links or rings have been proof tested to twice the working load and stretching indicates overloading. If oblong
links or rings have stretched more than 5%, they should be scrapped.
Chain hooks have also been proof loaded to twice their working load prior to supply, so if the hook has opened it is a
sign of overloading or incorrect use. Hooks which have opened more than 5% should be scrapped.

9.4.1 INSPECTIONS OF CHAIN MUST BE CARRIED OUT AND MAY REVEAL THE
FOLLOWING:
1. Bent links. Links can be bent by reeving chain around square objects which are not properly packed. If the chain is
bent at the link weld, the chain should be inspected very closely to ensure that the weld has not begun to fail

2. Damaged links. Reeving around sharp edges without proper packing will gouge the chain link. Dragging chain
along workshop floors can wear chain. Chain which is worn, nicked, cut or gouged to a point where the metal in
the link diameter is reduced by 10% or more should be condemned.
3. Rust. Most chains will develop discolouration meaning some surface rust. This should not be confused with deep
rust which will make the chain unsafe to use.
4. Cracks. To find cracks soak the chain in a light oil, wipe dry and apply a coating of powdered chalk or whiting to
the surface. Leave for several hours and then examine. If a crack exists, the chalk will draw up the oil from the
crack and become discoloured, showing up the shape of the crack. There are also special preparations available
which can be used for showing up or locating cracks.

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5. Wear. Where links seat on each other they wear. This wear is most prevalent in load chain in chain blocks. When
the chain passes over the gypsy the links are subject to extreme friction. The links wear very quickly if the chain
block is being worked continuously near maximum loading.

If the tension cannot be released from the chain it should be checked for wear. Calliper across two links and divide by
two to obtain the diameter. Then check this against an unworn part of the link. The chain must be replaced if wear
exceeds 10% of the diameter.
Inspection records of slings and sling leg lengths should be commenced when chain is new and maintained to give a
reference check. The length of used sling legs may be greater than their original length due to wear, but caution
should be taken to ensure no stretching has occurred.

9.5 CARE AND MAINTENANCE OF CHAIN

The following must always be adhered to:
1. Do not overload chain.
2. Do not use a chain with locked or stretched links or which has links that do not have free movement.
3. Do not hammer a chain to straighten a link or force a link into position.
4. Do not use an excessively pitted, corroded, unduly worn, deformed, chipped, nicked, cracked, or otherwise
damaged chain.
5. Do not snatch or jerk loads being handled by chain slings, especially in cold weather. Sudden lifting can have the
effect of doubling the load in the sling. Chain and chain slings should not be used in temperatures below -20°C as
this extreme cold could make chain brittle.
6. Do not cross, twist, kink or knot chain.
7. Do not drag a chain by force from under a load.
8. Do not drop a chain from a height.
9. Do not roll loads over a chain.
10. Do not use a chain over sharp edges without proper packing on the edges. Hessian bagging is not good enough.
Use cut lengths of rubber car tyre, half rounds of tube or timber. All packing should be secured when sending
loads aloft. When the load is landed the slings go slack and the packing can drop out.
11. Do not use lifting chain at temperatures over 400°C without consulting the manufacturer. Lifting chain used at
temperatures over 200°C requires de-rating. Refer to table on following page for the reduction factor.

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12. Do not place the links of a chain so that they bear on the hook of a crane or hoist (except an endless chain sling).
13. Do not join chain by using a bolt or a bulldog grip.
14. Do not shorten a chain by twisting or wrapping it around a hook.
15. When not in use all chain lifting gear should be stored on racks or pegs, under cover.
16. Any screw thread used in connection with chain blocks must be securely locked.
17. The load chain of a chain block should not be used as a sling.
18. Any repairs to chain should be referred back to the manufacturer or supplier.
19. Chain links and load chains of chain blocks should be frequently inspected and lubricated between uses, or more
frequently for repetitive lifts at near capacity.
20. Do not use chain in corrosive environments without reference to the manufacturer.

9.6 CHAIN SLING ASSEMBLY

Chain slings should be made up to AS 3775 Chain slings-Grade T or the manufacturer’s recommendations. When
ordering parts for chain slings ensure that they comply with the appropriate Standard.
Avoid making up slings from different grades of chain or fittings. Try to use only one grade of chain throughout the
workplace. This will prevent confusion about the WLL of slings for given diameter chain slings, especially if a WLL tag
is missing.
Typical marking for metal tags are shown over page.

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The chain, large oblong link, hammerlocks or couplers, and hook should all be of equal capacity or grade. Riggers
should have the knowledge and expertise to inspect a chain sling to ensure that the grade and safe working load of all
components match.
The working load limit tag must be fixed on all chain assemblies. The tag must detail the SWL under all conditions of
loading.

If a tag is missing the sling should be taken out of service, unless the necessary information is marked on the master
link. Once the tag is replaced the sling can immediately be returned to service. The tag should be replaced by a
competent person.
Coupling links, often branded Hammerlok or Kuplex are used to connect alloy chain to alloy rings and hooks. Make
sure that the pin connecting the two halves is firmly in position and that there are no cracks running from the inside
corners of the forked part of the links.
Twist the spacer in the centre of the link to ensure that it is free. A jammed spacer is a sign that the chain has been
overloaded. Four leg chain slings should be fitted with two intermediate links on the main ring.

9.7 RINGS
A ring must be strong enough to safely handle the WLL of all attached chains or slings.
Rings must be inspected frequently. Do not use a ring which has stretched more than 5% of its mean diameter.
Do not place a ring on to a hook unless it hangs freely over the bow of the hook.

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10. PART 6:SYNTHETIC FIBRE ROPE AND SLINGS
10.1 1INTRODUCTION
Synthetic fibre ropes are generally made from filaments twisted into yarns, the yarns twisted into a strand then three
strands into the rope similar to natural fibre ropes. A filament is one long continuous fibre which can continue for the
whole length of the rope. Synthetic fibre rope should conform to AS 1380-1 972 Fibre-rope slings (of natural or
synthetic rope).
Natural fibre ropes rely on the friction of twisting to stop them from pulling apart. Synthetic ropes can be much thinner
and yet have a greater WLL than natural fibre rope because they do not have overlapping fibres and because some
filaments are stronger than natural fibres of the same thickness.
Each type of synthetic fibre rope is subject to different deteriorating and condemning factors. Some are affected by
acids while others are affected by alkalis and most are difficult to tell apart after some use. All types have different
strengths and so the WLL is not constant.
Synthetic fibre ropes have a smooth slippery surface that can cause slip and failure of most bends and hitches and
are not suitable for hand haulage. Prevent this with additional half hitches or seize the tail with yarn, twine or marline.
Where splices are made, two additional (five) tucks with all of the strands are made and the protruding strands halved
and fused together to prevent the splice from drawing or pulling out. All plain ends of rope should be whipped, to hold
the strands together until the rope is fused.
Under some conditions synthetic fibre rope can conduct electricity and therefore should not be used as taglines near
powerlines.

10.2 TYPES OF SYNTHETIC FIBRE ROPE

10.2.1 NYLON (POLYAMIDE FILAMENT)

Nylon has a breaking strength 2.25 times the breaking strength of natural fibre rope. It is not resistant to all chemicals
and can be affected by linseed oil and mineral acids such as sulfuric and muriatic acid. Alkalis have little effect.
Heat resistance is higher (250°C) than natural fibre rope, which begins to char at 150°C. Although nylon melts or fuses
with excessive heat it stops smouldering when the heat source is removed. It can melt with the heat build up when
turns are surged around warping drums.
Nylon has about four times more stretch than natural fibre ropes which is good for shock loads but has little value for
lifting gear. It is resistant to rot and mildew.

10.2.2 DACRON — TERYLENE (POLYESTER FILAMENT)

Dacron-terylene has twice the breaking strength of natural fibre rope and is not as elastic as nylon. Resistance to mild
acid conditions, rot, mildew, heat or flame are the same as nylon. Exposure to alkaline conditions (eg. caustic soda)
should be avoided.

10.2.3 TANIKLON (POLYETHYLENE FILAMENT)

Tankilon has about 1 .45 times the breaking strength of natural fibre rope. (Similar features to Terylene).

10.2.4 KURALON (POLYVINYL ALCOHOL)

Kuralon has about 1 .25 times the breaking strength of natural fibre rope. (Similar features to Terylene).
10.2.5 SILVER ROPE (FLAT SPIN TANIKLON FIBRE)
Silver rope has about 1.16 times the breaking strength of natural fibre rope. Thirty per cent lighter than natural fibre
rope or nylon. Does not absorb moisture and does not slip as easily as taniklon or other synthetics.

10.2.6 POLYPROPYLENE (LAID SHATTERED FILM TYPE)

Polypropylene has about 1.6 times the breaking strength of natural fibre rope. It is unaffected by water and will float. It
is also unaffected by acids or alkalis except in a very concentrated form. Its strength is reduced by heat (15 to 30 per
cent loss of strength at 65°C).

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10.3 ADVANTAGES OF SYNTHETIC FIBRE ROPE
Synthetic fibre ropes have many advantages over natural fibre ropes including:
 Greater strength size for size;
 Lighter weight size for size;
 Greater elasticity or stretch;
 Greater shock absorption because of greater elasticity;
 Greater resistance to rot and mildew;
 Better resistance to abrasion;
 Some are resistant to acids, others to alkalis;
 Greater flexibility, ease of handling; and
 Less water absorption.

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11. INSPECTION
The whole length of synthetic fibre ropes should be inspected for signs of defects that may make the rope fail and
therefore condemn the rope. Manufacturer’s information and advice on inspection should be followed.

11.1.1 CONDITIONS AND TOOLS FOR INSPECTING ROPE PROPERLY INCLUDE :

 A 300 mm length of rope for comparison that was cut from the end of the line at the time of purchase.
 Enough room to handle the whole length of the line systematically.
 A good light.
 A magnifying glass may be of assistance.
The entire length of the rope must be inspected at intervals of not more than 300mm. The rope strands should be
unlaid slightly to inspect the inside. Care should be taken to return them to their original position after inspection.
Look for:
1. External wear due to dragging over rough surfaces which causes a general reduction of the cross-section of the
strands. This is the most visible cause of weakness. The strands can become so worn that the outer surfaces are
flattened and the yarns are severed on the outside. In ordinary use, some disarrangement or breakage of the
outside fibres is unavoidable and harmless if not too extensive.
2. Local abrasion as distinct from general wear. It may be caused by the passage of the rope over sharp edges while
under tension and may cause serious loss of strength. It is usually intermittent in the form of tearing of the fibres,
yarns or strands. Slight damage to outer fibres and an occasional torn yarn may be considered harmless, but
serious reduction in one strand or less serious damage to more than one strand could merit rejection.
3. Cuts and contusions from careless use may cause internal as well as external damage. They may be indicated by
local rupturing or loosening of the yarns or strands.
4. Internal wear caused by repeated flexing of the rope particularly when wet, and by particles of grit picked up. It is
indicated by excessive looseness in the strands and yarns.
5. Heavy loading may result in permanent stretching so that the extension available in an emergency is reduced. If
the original length of the line is known exactly, a check measurement made under exactly the same conditions will
indicate the total extension of the line, but may not reveal local extension in part of the line. Measurement of the
distances between indelible markers on the line may help reveal local stretching. The local extension should not
exceed 10% for synthetic ropes. Immediately after severe loading causing permanent extension, a line may be
unusually stiff although flexibility may return.
6. Mildew does not attack synthetic fibre ropes.
7. Sunlight — Excessive exposure to sunlight will weaken all synthetic fibres. Unnecessary exposure should be
avoided. However, sunlight will degrade polyolefin fibres (polyethylene and polypropylene) more rapidly than
others. Degradation is shown by breakage of the fibres into small pieces which gives a hairy appearance as a
result of the broken fibres tending to stand up as they break down into a coarse powder.
NOTE:
These symptoms are more readily observed on polypropylene than on polyethylene ropes at similar stages of
degradation. The effect extends progressively below the surface of the rope, but because it is primarily a surface
effect, small ropes will become unserviceable and unsafe quicker than large ropes. Work to develop suitable
protecting agents, pigments and ultra-violet absorbers has been in progress for some time. Carbon black at a
concentration of at least one per cent has proved successful for prolonging life. Other compounds show promise and
are still being evaluated.
8. Heat may, in extreme cases, cause charring, singeing or fusing which all merit rejection. Caution: A line may be
damaged by heat without showing any obvious signs. The best safeguard is proper care of the line in use and
storage. Never drag a line in front of a stove or other source of heat.

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11.2 SYNTHETIC FIBRE ROPES AND CHEMICALS
If unsure about the effects of a chemical on a synthetic fibre rope check the Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) which
should be available for all chemicals used or stored in the workplace.

11.2.1 POLYAMIDE
Polyamide filament is generally resistant to chemicals but solutions of mineral or formic acids (used in insecticides and
as solvents for perfumes) cause rapid weakening. Therefore, avoid any contact with acid solutions either hot or cold.
Polyamide filament is unaffected by alkalis, such as bleach and detergents, at normal temperatures. It may swell in
some organic solvents such as cleaning agents. Avoid exposure to fumes, spray or mist of acids. If contamination is
suspected, wash out well in cold water.

11.2.2 POLYESTER
Polyester filament is generally resistant to chemicals although solutions of strong, hot alkalis progressively dissolve
the fibre, causing gradual loss in mass and a corresponding fall in breaking strain. Therefore, avoid exposure to
alkaline conditions.
Resistance to acid is good, particularly sulfuric acid, although concentration should not exceed 80%. Therefore, even
dilute solutions of sulfuric acid should not be allowed to dry off on a rope. If any contamination is suspected, the rope
should be washed out well in cold water. Resistance to oils and common organic solvents is good.

11.2.3 POLYETHYLENE
Polyethylene ropes are highly resistant to chemical attack from both acids, such as battery acid, and alkalis. At room
temperature the chemicals which cause serious loss in strength are some oxidising agents eg. hydrogen peroxide. At
60°C there is also a loss in strength caused by some organic solvents such as turpentine. If contamination with any of
these substances is suspected, the rope should be washed out well in cold water.

11.2.4 POLYPROPYLENE
Polypropylene ropes are unaffected by acids or alkalis, but are attacked by organic solvents such as white spirit. Avoid
rope contact with wet paint or coal tar or paint stripping preparations.

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11.3 FLAT WEBBING AND ROUND SYNTHETIC SLINGS
Flat webbing and round synthetic slings are used for lifting where it is necessary to protect the load from damage and
for protection from electrical hazards. They are made from nylon, polyester, polypropylene or aramid polyamide. Each
sling must be labelled with the WLL.

11.3.1 INSPECTION
Synthetic slings must be inspected before each use. They must also be inspected at least once every three months. If
a sling is subject to severe conditions the inspections should be more frequent. Send each sling for a proof load test at
least every 12 months.
Look for:

 Any external wear such as abrasion or cuts and contusions.

 Internal wear which is often indicated by a thickening of the sling or the presence of grit and dirt.
 Damage to any protective coating of the sling.
 Damage caused by high temperatures, sunlight or chemicals (indicated by discolouration).
 Damage to the label or stitching.
 Damage to the eyes or any terminal attachments or end fittings.
 Where the sling is covered by a sleeve, the sleeve must cover the sling for the full length from eye to eye.

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Discard a synthetic sling if:

 The label has been removed or destroyed;

 There is any damage to the sleeve or protective coating;
 A nylon sling comes into contact with acid;
 A polyester sling comes into contact with alkaline substances;
 A polypropylene sling comes into contact with an organic solvent such as paint, coal tar or paint stripper; and
 There are any visible cuts on the sling.
NB. A nylon sling will lose more than 10% of its strength when it is wet.
After six months continuous exposure to sunlight send a sling in for testing.

 Synthetic slings must be stored:

 In a clean, dry, well ventilated place;
 Away from the ground or floor;
 Away from direct sunlight, ultra-violet light and fluorescent lights;
 Away from extremes of heat;
 Away from sources of ignition;
 Away from atmospheric or liquid chemicals; and
 Away from the possibility of mechanical damage.
The working life of synthetic slings will be shortened if exposed to any of the above.

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VERSION: 2.0 PAGE 71 OF 161
12. PART 7 SLINGING AND WORKING LOADS
12.1 INTRODUCTION
There are many variables in working out the safe method of slinging a load and placing it into position. These include
the load weight, size, where the load is to be slung, the sling size, wind, rain and where the load is to be placed.
To ensure a safe lift the rigger or dogger should discuss the placement of the load and the capacity of the crane at
that radius with the crane operator. It is then time to sling the load, tie on a tag line where necessary and then guide
the crane operator to lift, move and place the load safely.
WLL tables are available for all types of slings and rope. Make sure that you consult the correct table before lifting.

12.2 WORKING LIMIT

The working load limit (WLL) of a sling is the maximum load that load may be lifted by that sling making a straight lift.
The load factor for a straight lift = 1.
The WLL can be calculated by dividing the guaranteed breaking strain (GBS) by a safety factor. In general rigging
work the safety factor for FSWR is 5.
Below are the rule of thumb methods for calculating the WLL of natural fibre rope, FSWR and chain.
For the exact WLL consult the tags on the FSWR or chain or the relevant WLL tables. If there is no tag on FSWR it
must be assumed that it has been made from 1570 MPa steel wires.

12.2.1 WORKING LOAD LIMIT OF NATURAL FIBRE ROPE

To calculate the WLL of natural fibre rope in kilograms square the rope diameter (D) in millimetres (mm).
Formula: WLL (kgs) = D2 (mm)
For example:
Diameter = 25 mm
WLL (kgs) = D2 (mm)
WLL (kgs) = D (mm) x D (mm) =25 x 25 = 625 kgs
WLL (t) = 0.625 tonnes.
The above equation can be reversed to calculate the diameter (D) in millimetres of fibre rope needed to lift a given
load. To do this find the square root of the load in kilograms.

Therefore a 15mm diameter fibre rope sling is required to lift a 200kg load for a straight lift.

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12.2.2 WORKING LOAD LIMIT OF FLEXIBLE STEEL WIRE ROPE (FSWR)
To calculate the WLL in kilograms of FSWR square the rope diameter (D) in millimetres (mm) and multiply by
Formula: WLL (kgs) = D2 (mm) x 8
For example:
Rope diameter
(D) = 12mm
WLL (kgs) = D2(mm) x 8
= D (mm) x D (mm) x 8
= 12 x 12 x 8
= 1152 kgs
WLL(t) = 1.15 tonnes
The above equation can be reversed to calculate the diameter (D) in millimetres of FSWR needed to lift a given load.
To do this divide the load (L) in kilograms by 8 and find the square root of the result.
Formula: D (mm) =
For example:

Therefore a FSWR sling of at least 12mm in diameter is required to lift a 1152kg load for a straight lift.

12.2.3 WORKING LOAD LIMIT OF CHAIN

The WLL of chain is determined by the grade (G).
Do not use a chain to lift if it does not have a manufacturer’s tag that gives details of the WLL. Return it to the
manufacturer for WLL assessment and re-tagging.
To calculate the WLL of 80Grade lifting chain in kilograms square the diameter (D) in millimetres (mm) and multiply by
32.
Formula: WIL (kgs) = D2 x 32 For example:
Chain diameter, 10mm. Grade T (80)
WLL =D2(mm)x32
= D (mm) x D (mm) x 32
= 10 x 10 x 32
= 3200 kgs
WLL (t) = 3.2 tonnes

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The above equation can be reversed to calculate the diameter (D) in millimetres of chain needed to lift a given load.
To do this divide the load (L) in kilograms by 32 and find the square root of the result.

Therefore a Grade 80 chain, 10mm in diameter is required to lift a load 3200 kg for a straight lift.
Warning:
The above formulas must not be used for any other load lifting chain which is less than Grade 80 (t).
To calculate the WLL of Grade 30 or 40 lifting chain in kilograms square the diameter (D) in millimetres (mm) and
multiply the grade (G), by 0.3.
Formula: WLL (kgs) = D2 (mm) x G x 0.3
For example:
Chain diameter, 10mm. Chain grade 30
WLL = D2 (mm) x G x 0.3
=D (mm)xD(mm)xGxO.3
= 10 x 10 x 30 x 0.3
WLL (t) = 900 kgs

12.2.4 WORKING LOAD LIMIT OF FLAT WEBBING AND ROUND SYNTHETIC SLINGS
Flat webbing and round synthetic slings are labelled with the WLL. Do not lift if the label is missing. Return the sling to
the manufacturer for assessment and relabeling. Synthetic slings are colour coded. (See table below.)

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12.3 LOAD FACTORS AND SLINGING
The lifting capacity of a sling for a straight lift is the WLL. Once the WLL has been altered due to a particular slinging
method such as an increase in the angle between two legs or a reeve it is then referred to as the safe working load
(SWL).
The lifting capacity decreases as the angle between the legs of the sling attachment increases. Different methods of
slinging will also alter the lifting capacity.
For example, a reeved sling around a square load will halve the lifting capacity of a sling. This gives a load factor of
0.5.
Doggers must know the load factors for each method of slinging shown below.

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A simple rule of thumb for a good safe working angle is to make sure that the horizontal distance between the points
of attachment of the load does not exceed the length of the slings.
This will ensure that the angle between the two legs of the sling does not exceed 60°. At 60° the slings will lift only
1.73 the WLL of one sling.
The recommended maximum angle between the two legs of a sling is 90°. The recommended maximum angle
between the vertical and any leg of a sling is 45°. At 90° the slings will lift 1.41 times the WLL of one sling.
When slinging a rigid object with a multi-legged sling it must be assumed that only two of the sling legs are taking the
load. Additional legs do not increase the SWL of the sling assembly. Therefore each leg has to be capable of taking
half of the weight of the load.
The SWL of a multi-legged sling assembly is assessed on the diagonally opposite legs, which have the largest
included angle.

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12.3.1 COMMON SLING ARRANGEMENTS
The SWL of slings decreases as the angle between the slings increases or if the slings are nipped or reeved. All
factors must be considered when determining which sling is the correct one to lift a given load.
Remember that the rule of thumb method of working out the SWL of slings is not completely accurate. For an accurate
SWL refer to the manufacturer’s load charts.
Please see over page for the common sling arrangements

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12.4 SAMPLE CALCULATIONS
In the examples below all the load and reeve factors are for FSWR. The arithmetic is set out so that calculations can
be easily worked out on a calculator.

12.4.1 MAXIMUM WEIGHT LOAD

To calculate the maximum weight of load that can be lifted multiply the WLL of the sling(s) by the angle factor by the
reeve factor.
For example:
The WLL of each leg of a two legged sling is 8 tonnes, the angle between the two sling legs is 60° and they are
reeved around a square load. This means a load factor of 1.73 for the angle and another factor of 0.5 for the reeve.
Sling WLL 8 tonne
Angle factor 1.73
Reeve factor 0.5
Therefore:
Max load =8 x 1.73 x 0.5
= 6.92 tonnes
6.9 tonnes is the maximum weight that can be lifted

12.4.2 WLL OF MULTI LEGGED SLINGS

To calculate the WLL of multi-legged slings needed to lift a load divide the weight of the load by the load factor.
Formula for a calculator: WLL = weight ÷ load factor
Formula can be written: WLL = weight
load factor
For example:
The weight of the load to be lifted is 20 tonnes and the angle between the legs of a two legged sling is 60°. This
means that the load factor is 1.73 for the angle.
Weight 20 tonnes
Load factor 1.73
Therefore:
WLL =20 ÷ 1.73
= 11.56 tonnes

Therefore, use a sling with a lifting capacity greater than 11.56

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12.4.3 WLL OF A SLING NEEDED TO LIFT A LOAD
For example: Two slings have a 60° angle between them and are both reeved around a 4 tonne square load. This
means a load factor of 1 .73 for the angle and 0.5 for the reeve.
Weight 4 tonnes
Angle factor 1.73
Reeve factor 0.5
Therefore:
WLL = 4 ÷ 1.73 ÷ 0.5
= 4.62 tonnes

Therefore, use a pair of slings each with a lifting capacity greater than 4.62 tonnes.

12.4.4 TO CALCULATE THE OF THE SLING NEEDED TO LIFT A LOAD

To calculate the WLL of the sling needed to lift a load divide the load by the angle factor and divide by the reeve
factor.
Formula for a calculator:
WLL = weight ÷ angle factor ÷ reeve factor
Formula can be written:
WLL = weight
angle factor x reeve factor

For example:
Two slings have a 60° angle between them and are reeved around a 20 tonne round load. This means a load factor of
1.73 for the angle and 0.75 for the reeve.

Weight 20 tonnes
Angle factor 1.73
Reeve factor 0.75
WLL = 20 ÷ 1.73 ÷ 0.75
= 15.41 tonnes

Therefore, use a sling with a lifting capacity greater than 15.41 tonnes.

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12.4.5 CALCULATE DIAMETER(D) IN MILLIMETRES OF FSWR NEEDED TO LIFT A
LOAD OF 5 TONS
To calculate the diameter (D) in millimetres (mm) of FSWR needed to lift a load (L) of 5 tonnes as a straight lift,
convert tonnes into kilograms, divide by 8 and then find the square root of the answer.

Formula: D (mm) =

Formula can be written: D (mm) =

For example:

Therefore, a 25 mm diameter FSWR is needed for the lift

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12.5 LOAD INFORMATION

12.5.1 WEIGHT OF THE LOAD

Do not lift if the weight of a load is not stamped on the load or the delivery docket or it is not possible to calculate the
weight.
It may be possible to calculate the weight of a load from the weighbridge certificate from the delivery vehicle.
Be careful of the load weight stamped on the load or delivery docket. Timber for example, can be 50% heavier when
wet. In foundries when large castings are raised from a mould there can be suction created by the sand adding
substantially to the weight. Pipes are often weighed down by sludge.
Fuel and water tanks may not always be empty. Check for this.
When lifting a load for the first time watch the lifting equipment carefully for signs of strain in case the stated weight is
incorrect. The operator can confirm the weight of a load using a crane load indicator, if one is fitted.

12.5.2 DIRECT LIFTING

Direct the crane operator to position the head of the boom, jib or the bridge directly over the load. The load hook must
be positioned directly above a load before slinging and lifting.
Always lift vertically. If the boom, jib or bridge is not directly over the load, the load will begin to swing dangerously as
soon as it is raised. Dragging a load can put undue strain on the lifting gear and crane boom especially if the load is
dragged from the side.

12.5.3 GENERAL SLINGING

Make sure that there is suitable packing or lagging at all sharp edges of steel beams, and other hard materials.
Use packing to prevent the sling from coming into contact with sharp edges. This will lengthen the life of the sling and
prevent damage to the slings.
Make sure that packing or lagging is secure so that it will not fall out when the slings go slack. Before lifting a load
make sure that it is not caught or trapped in some way.

Machinery, plant, personnel or material work boxes and fuel containers with lifting lugs must have the WLL clearly
marked.
All loose loads delivered to a site that could be hazardous should be strapped or wrapped.
For example, loads of pipe, metal, timber, purlins and wall girts should be strapped before lifting.

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Spreaders are recommended for lifting lengths of timber, pipe or steel. If a spreader is not available - double wrap
before lifting.
Do not bash the eye of a sling down at the nip point. This practice will decrease the SWL and damage the sling.

Evenly Spread Load

Various Slinging Techniques

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12.5.4 STRUCTURAL STEEL
Loads of structural steel (universal beams, RSJs) on trucks must have restraining spikes fitted in the truck to prevent
them from falling out. Removing the chains or straps if there are no restraining spikes in place is very dangerous.
Structural steel can be very dangerous. When a load arrives on site walk around the truck and check that the steel has
not shifted into a dangerous position for lifting after the load binder chains were secured.
Many serious accidents have occurred as load binding chains were removed from steel beams. Deep beams that are
narrower in width than height are unstable and can inflict especially severe injuries.
Always lift bundles of steel reinforcing, beams, pipes and purlins level. Do not lift it vertically or at a slope. It is not
possible to make the inside section in a bundle tight enough to prevent them falling out if the bundle is at an angle.
Steel reinforcing can kill if it falls.
As the load is lifted keep hands well away. Steel beams tend to snap together or roll up as the sling bites into the nip.

12.5.5 LOOSE ITEMS

Loads of loose items such as scaffold clips must be raised in properly constructed boxes branded with the SWL. Do
not lift loads of this kind in 200 litre drums unless they are in a properly constructed lifting frame with a solid metal
base, because:
• These drums have no rated lifting capacity;
• It may not be possible to know the condition of the base of the drum. (They have usually been discarded
because they are unfit to hold liquid);
• The holes cut into the sides for the sling or hooks can pull through under the weight; and
• The sharp edges of the holes can cut through a sling.

12.5.6 RUBBISH BINS

Rubbish bins should have proper lifting lugs and be branded with the WLL. Rubbish bins that are overloaded must not
be lifted. Where rubbish can be blown out or spill from a bin, secure the load before lifting (especially in windy
conditions).
Sling rubbish bins with a four-legged sling. To tip the bin, release the two front slings and raise the bin with the two
back slings.
Do not stand behind a bin when tipping rubbish out. It will whip back suddenly as soon as it is clear of the ground.

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12.6 HANDLING STEEL PLATE
Steel plate can be lifted with:
 Plate clamps that are designed to increase the purchase on the plate as the plate is lifted.
 Hooks or shackles where there are lifting holes in the plate.
Do not use home made type plate clamps or plate dogs. Remember that steel plate can injure or kill.
Use a spreader beam if the angle between the two legs is likely to be more than 60°.

12.6.1 STEEL PLATE CAN BE LIFTED VERTICALLY OR HORIZONTALLY.

Lifting vertically:
 Use a plate clamp where a sling cannot be attached and there is no lifting hole. An example is the dished and
flanged end-plate for a pressure vessel.
 It can be difficult to remove or attach a sling where plate is stored vertically in a rack or is to be fed into bending
rolls.
 As a plate touches the ground and the tension is released from the slings a single hook can come out of the hole
causing the plate to fall. To prevent this lift with a hook put through a ring attached to short length of chain that is
shackled to a plate clamp.
 Always make sure that the tension remains in the slings until the plate is in place.
Lifting horizontally:

 It is recommended that a minimum of four plate clamps and a spreader beam are used for lifting steel plate
horizontally. For horizontal lifts use appropriate plate clamps. Use a spreader beam for long thin plates to prevent
dangerous flapping, sagging and vibration.

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12.7 LIFTING PALLETS
A wide variety of loads are delivered on pallets. Before a palleted load is lifted from a truck check that:
 the pallet is free from defects;
 the load is secured so that nothing can fall off; and
 the load is properly slung.
The WLL of a standard hardwood pallet is 2000kg. The WLL can be dramatically reduced if there are any missing
boards or any other defects. Note: Some pallets are designed for packaging not lifting.
Do not lift a pallet that has defects. To lift a load on a damaged pallet raise the load just enough to slide an
undamaged pallet underneath. Then lower the load and sling properly before lifting and moving the load to the desired
place.
If no spare undamaged pallets are available send the load back to the supplier to be re-palleted. Always raise palleted
bricks inside a brick cage to prevent loose bricks falling.

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12.8 LOADING FORMWORK
When placing concrete out of a kibble onto formwork spread the flow out. Dumping the whole load in one spot can
overload the formwork especially if it is also taking the weight of workers and vibrating equipment. Formwork is only
designed to take concrete spread out evenly over the whole area.
Make sure that the concrete is poured gradually. The sudden release from a kibble attached to a mobile or tower
crane can cause a ‘whip back’ and the kibble will bounce dangerously.

12.9 TURNING OVER LOADS

When turning over a load such as a steel beam the sling must be attached to the hook on the side of the load that is to
be lifted. This will ensure that it will be raised on a diagonal through the centre of gravity.
It is then a simple matter to lower the hook, turning the beam over in a safe and controlled manner.
It is important that the beam is slung so that when the beam is lowered the nip will pull against the eye.
Structural steel members such as universal beams and RSJs have a high centre of gravity and a narrow base when
standing on their flange. If a sling is nipped incorrectly the beam will flop, topple over and possibly break the slings.
The same principles apply when turning over all loads.

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13. PART8 ANCHORAGES AND FITTINGS
13.1 INTRODUCTION
Anchorages are used for securing standing and running gear such as attaching the wire rope to the drum, the head of
the boom or the crane hook.
The eye on the anchorage for a non-moving rope (called a “dead eye anchorage”) must have a thimble. A splice with
no thimble (called a “bald eye splice”) should not be used on an anchorage.

13.2 WEDGE ROPE SOCKETS

Wedge type rope socket anchorages are used extensively for cranes where the hoist fall is often re-reeved around the
sheaves for extra purchase. These socket anchorages should comply with AS 2740 Wedge-type sockets.

There are many dangers associated with wedge type sockets and riggers should ensure that they are set up correctly.
The rope diameter must be equal to the diameter inside the socket, and when the wedge is pulled tight the wedge
must not protrude beyond the socket body.
The hoist rope must be reeved into the socket body so that there is a straight line between the live rope and the
anchorage.
If the rope is reeved in the opposite direction so that the live end is on the sloping side of the wedge, the wire will fail
at the point where the rope enters the socket.
Do not place rope grips (bulldog clips) across both live rope and the dead end because it can lead to severe damage
to the hoist wire. Wedge rope sockets may be used when spliced eyes are difficult to reeve or they would have to be
made after the rope is in place.
The wedge rope socket must be properly set up and used, and properly designed and accurately made. They must be
designed so that when the rope is fitted the wedge will not pass through the socket.

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The advantages of using wedge rope sockets as anchorages are simplicity, ease and speed of applying and
detaching, and that they do not damage the rope to any appreciable extent.
Sharp edges must be rounded off at the point where the load bearing rope enters or leaves the socket.
The angle of the wedge should be slightly greater than that of the socket, so that it does not tend to nip the rope as it
leaves the socket. The angle of the socket is important and should not be greater than 19 degrees.
Do not set up wedge sockets where a block being raised can hit and dislodge the wedge.
Socket bodies and wedges must be frequently inspected for excessive wear at the point the wire rope strands are
jammed into them. Do not use wedge rope socket anchorages where they cannot be easily inspected.
The dimensions of the wedge and socket must be such that when a wedge rope socket with rope is assembled, the
narrow end of the wedge does not protrude outside the end of the socket. Do not use wedge rope sockets where
moving loads can force the wedge out.
A wire rope grip should be applied to the tail (only) of the rope below the socket to prevent dislodgment of the wedge.
In earth-moving equipment such as drag lines and pile drivers the rope is usually initially much longer than required so
that shortening can be carried out several times, quickly and easily, without recourse to splicing. The wedge is
punched out of the socket, the bad rope cut off and re-reeved through the socket, the wedge replaced and pulled tight.
The rope end should always be visible, protruding 150-250 mm from the socket so that rope slippage will be evident.

13.3 THIMBLES
A thimble is a fitting used in the formed eye of a rope and is designed to protect the bearing area inside the crown of
the eye from chafing and distortion.

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13.4 SOCKETED TERMINAL FITTINGS
Metal sockets are suitable for standing ropes. Metal sockets used with running gear will crack the ropes at the entry to
the socket as the wires move.
Rapid hoisting, road travelling and impact shocks cause severe vibration in the rope directly above the point of the
load attachment. Although a visual examination of the rope at this point may not find broken wires (one broken wire is
sufficient to cause it to be condemned), the strength of the section from 1-6 mm above the load attachment is likely to
be greatly reduced because of fatigue within the wires.
Therefore cut off this damaged section periodically even if it looks sound. About one-third of the estimated life of the
rope is a good interval.
When socketing or inspecting existing terminals examine closely for corrosion. Corroded wire is very susceptible to
fatigue.
After constant vibration, a tensile pull test performed on a sample of the rope which looks sound may disclose a large
reduction in its original strength.

A broken rope can kill and can cause severe damage to equipment or plant. Therefore, conduct regular inspections,
cropping or renewing wherever vibrational fatigue occurs.

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13.5 WIRE ROPE GRIPS & CLAMPS
Wire rope grips
Wire rope (or ‘bulldog’) grips are only suitable for permanent fixed stays or guys.
They can be one of the most dangerous fittings used by riggers if not used correctly. If the bolts are over tightened the
rope will be crushed or if the bolts are under tightened slipping will occur.
At least three wire rope grips should be used, with the saddles on the live part of the rope, and the U-bolt pressing on
the less heavily loaded tail of the rope. They should be spaced at least six rope diameters apart.
Do not use them on temporary stays or guys that have to be shifted and re-fastened, because of the severe crushing
and punishing action of the U-bolt. Do not use sections that are damaged by the clips and then straightened out to
take the load.

Note:
Do not fit any or all of the grips with the bridge on the side opposite to the working part of the wire rope.
Do not use bulldog grips on any load hoisting ropes. When connecting a lizard to a stay or guy make sure that the
crowns of the U-bolts press upon the lizard. Although they will damage it, they are easily replaced.
Correctly applied, bulldog grips may form an eye with 80 per cent of the breaking strength of the rope. If not correctly
applied they may have no reasonable safe value.
Do not use a grip that is the wrong size or that has been strained or damaged.
Do not use a bulldog grip to directly connect two straight lengths of rope. If this is necessary, join two thimbles and
then use the grips to make two thimble eyes.

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13.5.1 DOUBLE OR SINGLE BASE CLAMPS (OR SADDLE GRIPS)
Single base clamps are safer than bulldog grips. They have two saddles and two straight bolts. The rope is therefore
protected by saddles from severe local damage.
Long double base clamps which are not commonly available extend at least 6 rope diameters in length offering a
greater purchase on the rope without causing damage and provide 95 per cent of the strength of the rope. Rope life
and safety increase accordingly.

13.5.2 BORDEAUX CONNECTIONS

Bordeaux connections are used for connecting wire ropes to chains where the connections must pass over sheaves.

13.5.3 TURN BUCKLES OR RIGGING SCREWS

Turnbuckle or rigging screws are devices for tensioning or fine length adjustment of FSWR, chain etc. They are also
called bottle, union or stretching screws. They should comply with AS 2319 Rigging screws and turnbuckles.
Turnbuckles or bottle screws all have a left hand thread at one end and a right hand thread at the other.
They can be shortened or lengthened by twisting the frame or bottle. They can be extremely dangerous where
vibration causes them to unscrew. Locknuts should not be put on turnbuckles or bottle screws to prevent unscrewing
under vibration.
The thread inside the bottle or frame must be examined for slackness or wear before use. The screw thread is easily
seen and is not difficult to examine for defects.

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Do not use turnbuckles fitted with a hook to support a load. Use only eye or clevis type turnbuckles to support a load.
On permanent fixings or anywhere where the rigging screw or turnbuckle may be subject to vibration, the frame
should be locked out to prevent slackening.
Rigging screws must have inspection holes which give a view of the amount of thread left in the bottle. Do not use if
the thread is absent or if the thread is not fully engaged.
Rigging screws or turnbuckles should never be subject to side pull. The line of pull must be straight.
The WLL must be branded on any turnbuckle or rigging screw that is used for load supporting. Do not use if the brand
absent.

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13.6 HOOKS AND SHACKLES

13.6.1 HOOKS
There are many different shapes and sizes of hooks. They range from mild steel to very high grade alloy steel. The
common factor is that they are all designed to support loads.
Hooks used with chain to make chain assemblies are usually Grade T. or Grade 800 strength. Very few, if any, other
grades are readily available. Hooks used on chain must not have a WLL marked on them as it will lead to confusion
when slings are used. The tag is the only reference to loading of a sling. Chain hooks are marked with their chain size
and should be matched to the same size and grade of chain.
Hoist hooks and crane hooks must be marked with the WLL. Some hooks, particularly crane hooks, are also marked
with the weight of the hook block.

13.6.2 INSPECTION AND USE

The opening of the gap between the “bill” or point of the hook and the shank, must be large enough for any sling, link,
ring, shackle, or lifting device to be placed on it. The inside of the bight of the hook should be rounded to avoid cutting
any fitting placed on the hook. Nothing should be placed on a hook which will put opening (stretching) forces on the
bill.
Do not use hooks which have had the throat opening stretched more than 5%.
Hooks which are stretched, bent, cracked, or distorted in any way should not be welded or treated by unqualified
people. They should be replaced or sent back to the supplier for assessment. Welding can hide a dangerous crack or
distortion in the hook.
Hooks should not have any attachments welded to them. Use a safety hook if there is a chance that the load can
become unshipped or displaced.
Caution:
Using some spring loaded safety hooks does not guarantee that slings will not be displaced in some
circumstances.
Crane or hoist hooks must be able to freely rotate under all conditions of loading. If the load exceeds 2 t, they must
have a ball or roller thrust bearing between the trunnion and nut. Make sure that no dust or other foreign matter
accumulates in the thrust bearing.
Replace any hook that has the bow worn more than 10%.
Do not place multiple eyes of slings directly on the hook. They should be placed on to a bow shackle, and the pin of
the shackle should be placed on the hook.
To avoid excessive forces on the bill of the hook place slings which are at a wide angle on a bow shackle and not
directly onto the hook.
It is safer to “back hook” to the main lifting ring. Taking the chain sling hooks back up to the main hook can be
dangerous if the chain slings do not sit properly on the main hook.

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13.6.3 SHACKLES
Shackles are a portable link, used for joining various pieces of lifting equipment, The two main shapes for load lifting
are the “dee” and “bow” shackles. Almost all shackles are made of round bar and have circular eyes. The pin of the
common shackle screws directly into one eye and should preferably have a collar. In some shackles, the pins pass
clear through both eyes and are secured by a splitpin forelock (i.e., split flat cotter pin) or nut and splitpin.
Shackles are made to AS 2741 Shackles. The grades range from grades L and M for small dee and bow shackles to
grades S and T for large dee and bow shackles. In order to eliminate projections, shackle pins are sometimes counter-
sunk flush with the eyes.
The pin-and-forelock shackle is a safe shackle but is mainly used for standing rigging such as guys.
Always use the correct size shackle pin. Do not use a nut and bolt in place of the proper shackle pin. A bolt that does
not fit tightly is likely to bend and break.
Condemn a shackle that is worn either in the crown or on the pin by more than 10% of its original diameter,
Do not use a shackle or pin which is bent, strained, deformed or damaged. Tiny microscopic cracks may have
developed during deformation. These can extend under quite small loads and lead to complete failure.

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Screw shackle pins should be tightened then loosened very slightly, so that the shackle pin can be unscrewed when
the weight is released. If the pins are tightened and the strain is taken on the shackle the pin often jams and is difficult
to unscrew.
Where shackles are subject to vibration such as on luffing bridle pendants, mouse the shackle pin to prevent the pin
from unscrewing.
Shackles are designed to take vertical forces only. Diagonal forces will strain the shackle and lead to eventual failure.
If any small object such as a single sling or another shackle is placed on the pin the shackle will “cock bill” or cant. To
stop this happening, pack the shackle pin with washers or ferrules to keep the load in the centre of the pin.
When using multiple slings, always use a bow shackle large enough to accommodate all of the eyes safely on the
bow. The pin of the shackle should rest on the hook.
Do not use an un-moused screw shackle where the pin can roll under load and unscrew.
Shackles must be branded with the WLL. Do not use a shackle without the WLL clearly marked, for load lifting.
Knocking and leverage can cause vibration which works the pin out of the shackle. To prevent this use the forelock, or
the pin with the nut and cotter pin.
Plate shackles are a special shackle made from steel plate with a hole drilled in either end. Two plates are joined by
placing bolts through the holes. Plate shackles are used extensively for joining crane luffing bridle pendants. Make
sure that the nuts have split pins and that the split pins are spread to ensure safety.

13.6.4 EYEBOLTS
Eyebolts are used extensively as lifting lugs on set pieces of equipment. The safest eyebolt is a collared eyebolt. Un-
collared eyebolts should only be used where the pull on the eyebolt is vertical.

Only collared eyebolts should be used where the pull is inclined from the vertical. The underside of the eyebolt should
be machined and the seating upon which the eyebolt is tightened should also be machined. The eyebolt should be
tightened so that both faces meet in a neat tight fit. If both faces are apart the collar is of no use. Any diagonal tension
applied to an eyebolt should be in line. The pull should never be across the eye.
Do not insert a hook into an eyebolt. Always use a shackle. Where two eyebolts are used to lift a load, a pair of slings
should be shackled into them. Do not reeve a single sling through two eyebolts and then put both eyes on the hook.
Where eyebolts cannot be kept in line with each other when tightened, insert thin washers or shims under the collars
to allow the eyebolts to be tightened when in line.

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Do not tighten an eyebolt using a heavy hammer. Use a light hammer or a podger bar. After tightening check the
“solid feeling” which indicates a properly fitted eyebolt.
Loads can spin when lifted with a single eyebolt causing the eyebolt to unscrew from the load. Mouse the eyebolt to
the load to stop unscrewing.
Eyebolts are often put on large motors or similar to lift the casing off. It can be dangerous to lift loads with the eyebolts
that are provided on the load. If no information is provided about an eyebolt sling the load with slings.

If rings are provided with the eyebolt depend on the WLL of the ring or screw thread whichever is the weakest.
Where a nut is fitted to the end of screwed thread ensure that it bears evenly on the surface around the hole.

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14. PART 9:GENERAL DOGGING / RIGGING APPLIANCES
14.1 CHAIN BLOCKS
Chain blocks should comply with AS 1418.2 Serial hoists and winches. Some could be dangerous and fail under load.
If in doubt check with the supplier.
Chain blocks are used for short lifts such as by small monorail cranes, fixed hoists and so on. They are also frequently
used by doggers and riggers for transferring or “fleeting” loads from purchases.

Do not drop a chain block. The jolt may distort the casing causing the gearing to malfunction and the chain block to
fail. The drive pinion could also part from the main driving spur wheel.
Make sure that the hook has not dipped through itself in a two part or multiple chain fall causing the load chain to twist.
Keep blocks away from sand, grit and dust. Some people keep the load chain lightly oiled to create less friction as the
chain passes over the gypsy. If the chain is oiled and it becomes covered in sand or grit, the grit becomes a grinding
paste that wears the chain very quickly.
The gypsy in one manufacturer’s chain block may not be identical to another. It is important when ordering
replacement chain, that the chain and the gypsy are compatible.
Chain blocks with multiple falls are often very heavy on the opposite side to the block. It is a good practice to mouse
the block to the head sling, to prevent the hook from dropping out of the head sling when the weight is released from
the block.

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14.1.1 MAINTENANCE
Inspect the brake lining material for signs of wear and have it replaced if necessary, ensuring the retaining rivets (if
any) are well countersunk.
Check the pawl for sharpness and alignment, the pawl spring for effectiveness, and the ratchet teeth for sharpness
and wear.
Check the bearing bushes for wear and have them renewed if necessary.
Remove the gear case and inspect the gears for wear on the shafts, and also for bending, breakage, wear, and
misalignment of teeth.
Check the load chain for wear and for stretch and the load sheaves for excessive wear. If the load chain does not fit
accurately it should be replaced before using the block.
Inspect the load chain guide for movement. This guide should be the fixed type not a small roller. The purpose of the
guide is to guide the load chain, free of turns, on to the gypsy. If a roller guide is fitted, hang the block up and while
lowering the empty hook, gently twist the ascending chain as it approaches the guide roller. If it jams, a new guide
must be fitted.
Check the hooks for opening out due to overloading or misuse. Examine the hook yokes, ball bearing swivels and
anchorages of chain to clevis pins.
Where a chain block needs major overhaul or repair, advice should be sought from the supplier about the work to be
carried out, and should be done by people who are competent.
Chain blocks must be lubricated lightly. If too much grease is pumped into a chain block the grease could cover the
brake and the chain block would fail.
Do not leave a chain block soaking in oil. The oil will saturate the brake.

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14.2 PULL LIFTS
There are two types of lever operated chain pullers:
1. Those fitted with bush roller chain; and
2. Those fitted with calibrated chain.
A load supported by a bush roller chain pull lift should either be in guides or fixed into a position where side pull
cannot be placed on the chain.
Do not extend the handle to give extra leverage. Doing this will overload the pull lift.
Inspection and maintenance is similar to chain blocks.

There are two types of FSWR lever operated pullers:

1. The drum type; and
2. The creeper type.
The drum type has a safety ratchet and pawl. The pawl must be held by hand when lowering. Do not tie the pawl back
because this can cause control to be lost.
The FSWR used in these winches must be the type recommended by the manufacturer.
The inspection of the FSWR and the anchorages must be done daily to ensure that the winch is safe to hold the load.
A complete inspection must be done monthly, with particular attention to the hoist rope.

Creeper type lever operated pullers have an advantage over drum type pullers because they have unlimited drift.
Without gears, pawls and ratchets, the design enables the rope to pass through the unit in a straight line and is not
wound on a drum.
Two pairs of forged steel jaws control the lifting and lowering of the load by a hand lever. The weight of the load
actuates the jaws. The wire rope is at all times held by one pair of jaws while the other pair having been opened by

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cams, is moved by the lever for the next gripping or pulling motion. This method draws a wire rope of any length
through the unit.
Caution:The rope can slip through these types of pullers because of the constant diameter in the cam
gripping mechanism and because FSWR reduces in diameter under constant loading.

14.2.1 OPERATION
1. Place the hook on the ground, hold the machine at an angle and push down on the clutch release “P” towards
the anchoring hook until it is seated in the notch.
2. Pull the rope through the machine until the required length is reached.
3. Close clutch “P”.
Forward or lifting motion. Place the handle on the lever “Li “, then pull and push alternatively.
Reverse or lowering motion. Place the handle on “L2”, and work with the same motion.
Release, pull and push alternatively on “L2” to slacken the rope, then declutch “P”.

14.2.2 SPREADER BEAMS

Spreader beams are devices that spread the load evenly for a given lift. They are generally made to suit a particular
job. Most have a central lifting point for the crane or lifting medium, and have two or more lugs underneath to take the
load slings.
All spreader beams must be suitable to lift the particular load and must be branded with the WLL. The WLL must
include the weight of the load plus all lifting gear (slings, shackles etc.).
Some spreader beams are fitted with off-set lugs on the top and are designed to raise loads level even though they
are heavy on one end.
For example, there are types of spreader beams used in power stations with sliding lifting lugs used to fit the rotor into
the stator. This is done by sliding the lugs along the spreader until the rotor is level.
There are loads such as pre-stressed concrete beams which are designed to take downward forces only. This is
opposite to the forces imposed by lifting in the centre.
There are two methods of overcoming this problem:
1. Use slings of sufficient length so that the beam can be lifted near the ends and still have a safe angle. For this
method to be successful the crane or lifting medium has to have enough drift to place the beam into position.
2. Use a spreader beam of sufficient length and strength to lift the beam. This method is the best if drift is a problem.

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14.3 EQUALISING GEAR
Equalising sheaves are load supports, which transfer the load from one single point to two others by means of FSWR.
Chain and fibre rope are rarely used. There are several different types of equalising gear, which all do a similar job.
Equalising sheaves transfer the weight on the single point equally to the two points which take half the load each.
If the two points are of unequal capacity, the load on the single point should never exceed double the capacity of the
weakest of the two other lifting points.
If one of the two lifting points remains stationary and the other hoists up, the sheave is then a hauling sheave not an
equalising sheave. Friction must then be taken into account when working out the weight on the hauling part.
If the capacity of the crane is equal to the load imposed on the crane then the capacity could be exceeded by the
additional load due to friction in the sheave system.
Equalising sheaves are often used on electric overhead travelling cranes which have a four part purchase with two
hauling parts attached to the hoist drum. The opposite or stationary side passes over an equalising sheave.

The function of the equalising sheave is to move as the hoist block swings sideways. The part of FSWR that passes
over the sheave has abrasion and fatigue. It takes half of the weight of the hoist block at all times. It also takes half the
weight of the load, plus half of the weight of the hoist block when the crane is lifting. It is the hardest working piece of
rope on the crane and must not be overlooked by maintenance personnel.

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14.4 JACKS
Jacks are used when it is not suitable to use a crane or hoist to raise or lower a load.
Car jacks have no rated WLL and should not be used as load lifting jacks.

14.4.1 PREPARATION
Packing under jacks should be independent of other packing. All wedges should be driven home well, and spiked in
position if they are left for any time.
To prevent a load that is higher than it is wide from overturning make sure it is supported by side guys or toms. Adjust
the guys and toms as the load is lifted.
Do not exceed the WLL branded on jacks. Where possible use a jack that has a larger capacity than is needed to
allow for a possible malfunction.
Jacks should be placed on a timber pad and have a timber pad placed on the head to prevent shipping.

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Screw or bottle jacks should be followed up by packing very closely, as the pull in the tommy bar in the screw head
can cause the jack to shift.
Examine the condition of the pawl, the teeth of the ratchet, and the handle. Make sure that they are in good condition
before lifting.
Test the operation of the quick release before lifting a load.

14.4.2 LIFTING
The head of the jack is designed to take the greatest load. Lift on the head when the load can be lifted either on the
head or the toe of the jack.
Care should be taken when lifting with geared, or platelayer jacks. Lifting on the head should not be carried out with
this type of jack unless special precautions are carried out to ensure stability. When lifting on the head a 600 mm to 1
m space is needed to place these types of jack in position.
Look out for the head making contact with projections or the jack kicking out when lifting on the toe, especially when
lowering. Make sure the load is kept steady while raising the load. Do not lift both ends of the load simultaneously.
Use the lowest gear when lifting a load near to the maximum capacity of the jack.
The lift must be vertical. If the jack shows signs of tilting, pack the load, release the jack and reset.
Do not extend the jack handle to increase leverage because this will overload the jack.
Take care when releasing the ratchet from the pawl during lowering. Control can easily be lost with the likelihood of
injury.

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14.4.3 HYDRAULIC JACKS
Use the correct oil and make sure the oil reservoir is full and free from dirt or grit.
Make sure the plunger rubbers and ram rubbers are a good fit, softened in neatsfoot or hydraulic oil, and immersed
when not in use.
The release valve should operate satisfactorily or be adjusted by a competent person.
All worn rams, pistons, plungers, gears, ratchets, etc., should be discarded and replaced.
Self-contained hydraulic jack

Self-contained hydraulic jack

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14.5 FIXED CANTILEVERED BEAMS
Cantilevered beams (needles) bolted down to floor beams and held by counter-weighting or other means are often
used for single whip hoists, to support a block and tackle, or a chain block.
A cantilever must be set up so that no more than 1/3 of the length protrudes beyond the outer point of support. An
engineer should make the calculations for steel beams. For timber needles see the tables that follow.

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15. PART 10:PACKING, SECURING & MOVING LOADS
15.1 10.1PACKING
Packing must be able to support the load and the base of the footings of packing should be hard and level. If the
footing is earth, a layer of sand should be spread over the area. Make sure that the base area of packing is large
enough to support the load.
Check that there are no services such as large diameter pipes, tanks and cellars under the packing, especially if a
heavy load is to be placed on the packing.
Do not place bearers in line above one another, as the packing can roll and collapse.
During lifting operations, keep filling the gap with packing until larger bearers can be inserted. Follow-up packing must
be adjusted as the load rises.

15.2 PIGSTIES OR CRIBBING

Pigstying is an effective method of supporting a load with crisscrossed timber packing. Each layer is set at 90° to the
layer below.
The footing base must be large enough to support the load and the main load support bearers must be at right angles
to the load.

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15.3 PARBUCKLING
Parbuckling is a method of using two parts of rope to unload drums or cylindrical objects from trucks or to roll them up
or down.

NOTE; For heavy loads it is recommended that one or two completed turns be taken round the object with
the parbuckling rope. For exceptionally heavy loads two separate parbuckling ropes and purchases should
be used, one at each end of object.
Attach one end of each part to an immoveable object. Take a round turn around the cylinder and secure the free end
to another suitable anchorage for slackening away as the load is allowed to move away. To maintain control over
heavy objects use a purchase or tackle.
When using only one parbuckle rope make sure that the load can be lowered evenly. If two parbuckle ropes are used
both must be slackened evenly.
Use parbuckle rope in the centre to start the load moving and also to act as a restrainer when the load is rolling.
Please note:
 The rope must be strong enough and long enough to do the job.
 Skids or bearers must be rigidly fixed.
 All persons must be kept away from both front and rear of the load.

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15.4 ROLLING OBJECTS
Rollers can be used where the loads are bulky or heavy, and there is no room to lift the load into position by crane.
The surfaces underneath should be level and hard. Sole planks may be used to provide a level surface if the ground is
uneven.
Types of rollers:
 Steel scaffold tube for light loads.
 Solid steel bar for heavy loads.
 Timber rollers or logs for “bush jobs”.
Timber bearers should be placed on the rollers and the load landed on bearers giving the rollers two even surfaces.
The bearers must be of sufficient thickness to clear any projections from under the load. Alternatively, a special cradle
may be used.
Use at least three rollers to ensure that the load does not become unbalanced and topple off. Place rollers at an angle
to change direction of movement.
Hands and feet must be kept clear from the rollers while the load is moving

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15.5 SKIDDING
Skidding is where the load slides into place on skids set up on rails. To skid a heavy load set up welt greased rails
strong enough to support the toad on sleepers.
Loosely bolted fish plates must be used to join the rails together. Each rail must be packed above the next rail in the
direction of movement.
The sliding shoes should be constructed of steel channel sections slightly turned-up on the ends of the web and
slightly turned outwards on the ends of the flange.

Timber bearers should be placed across the rails on the shoes at various positions to suit the balance of the load. The
bearers must be strong enough to support the load in the centre.
When the load is in motion care must be taken to ensure that the shoes and bearers travel evenly.
Skids should be packed level to prevent the load from working or toppling sideways.
Where necessary, a restraining purchase should be fitted to the rear to obtain better control of the load.

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15.6 STEEL WEDGES
When driving steel wedges take care that follow up packing is inserted, as the wedges can fly out.
When driving wedges keep well clear of the rear of the wedge as they fly out with extreme force. Secure the wedge
with a lanyard, especially when working at a height.
When driving more than one wedge try to synchronise the blows on each. If steel wedges are fixed, extreme care
must be taken when withdrawing them, as they fly out with great force.
Be careful of the fingers when placing or removing wedges or packings. Hold packing by the end and keep fingers well
clear.
Grind off all burrs or mushroom heads on steel wedges as they fly off and cause serious injury.

15.7 SKATES
Skates are a method of moving heavy loads with a set of small rollers fixed into a solid frame which are set in bearings
and run very freely. They are built to hold a specific safe working load which should not be exceeded.
Prior to use:
 Sweep clean the area in the direction of travel so that there are no obstructions to jam the skates.
 Ensure that the surface is strong enough to take the weight of the load displaced over the small area of the skate,
or skates, and that the skates will not damage the surface.
 Ensure that the skates are placed under the load in a position so that there is even loading on every skate and
that the load is level. If this cannot be done bearers must be placed under the load to ensure even loading.
 Ensure that there are personnel to keep watch for the load shifting dangerously while it is moving.
 Ensure that all skates run freely and that there is no damage to them.
 Do not move a load on skates quickly. Use a restraining purchase at the rear to ensure that the load does not “get
away”.
 Skates can be reversed so that the skates remain stationary and the load runs over them. During this procedure
make sure that the load does not run off the skates and topple over.

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16. REVISION QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES

# LOAD SHIFTING EXERCISE

EXERCISE 1 A BOX WITH BUILT IN LIFTING LUGS

A box with built in lifting lugs is to be lifted with a set of four leg slings.
The included angle between the diagonally opposite slings is 60°(degrees).
The chain slings are Grade “M”.
The chain diameter is 16mm.
Task
Using the chain diameter and the grade shown, calculate the maximum load that can be lifted
(rounded down to the nearest 10th of a tonne).

EXERCISE 2 A BOX WITH BUILT IN LIFTING LUGS

A box with built in lifting lugs is to be lifted with a set of four leg slings.
The included angle between the diagonally opposite slings is 90°(degrees).
The chain slings are Grade “L”.
The chain diameter is 13mm.
Task
Using the chain diameter and the grade shown, calculate the maximum load that can be lifted
(rounded down to the nearest 10th of a tonne).

EXERCISE 3 A BOX WITH BUILT IN LIFTING LUGS

A box with built in lifting lugs is to be lifted with a set of four leg slings.
The included angle between the diagonally opposite slings is 60°(degrees).
The chain slings are Grade “T”.
The chain diameter is 20mm.
Task
Using the chain diameter and the grade shown, calculate the maximum load that can be lifted
(rounded down to the nearest 10th of a tonne).

EXERCISE 4 STEEL BEAM

A pair of fexible steel wire rope slings (FSWR) are to be used to lift a steel beam as shown.
The angle between the sling legs is 60° (degrees).
The diameter of the slings are 14mm.
The steel beam weighs 186kg per metre.
Task
Using the diameter of the sling and the weight of the beam, calculate the MAXIMUM length of
beam that can be lifted (in whole metres).

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# LOAD SHIFTING EXERCISE

EXERCISE 4A STEEL BEAM

The beam is to be lifted using a 2 legged 13mm, Grade 80 chain.
Task
What would be the maximum allowable weight of the beam?

EXERCISE 4B PIPE
The pipe is to be lifted using a 2 legged 16mm, Grade 80 chain.
Task
What would be the maximum allowable weight of the pipe?

EXERCISE 5 STEEL BEAM

A pair of fexible steel wire rope slings (FSWR) are to be used to lift a steel beam as shown.
The angle between the sling legs is 90° (degrees).
The diameter of the slings are 18mm.
The steel beam weighs 210kg per metre.
Task
Using the diameter of the sling and the weight of the beam, calculate the MAXIMUM length of
beam that can be lifted (in whole metres).

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 EXERCISE 6 STEEL BEAM
A pair of fexible steel wire rope slings (FSWR) are to be used to lift a steel beam as shown.
The angle between the sling legs is 90° (degrees).
The diameter of the slings are 12mm.
The steel beam weighs 114kg per metre.
Task
Using the diameter of the sling and the weight of the beam, calculate the MAXIMUM length of
beam that can be lifted (in whole metres).

EXERCISE 7 DRUM
A drum filled with water is to be lifted with two flexible steel wire rope slings fixed to a spreader
bar (lifting beam).
Water weighs 1 tonne per cubic metre (m³) = 1000kg
The height of the drum is 2200mm
The diameter is 1100mm
The drum tare weight is 340kg
Task
Find the diameter of the two slings required to lift the drum of water.

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# LOAD SHIFTING EXERCISE

EXERCISE 8 DRUM
A drum filled with water is to be lifted with two flexible steel wire rope slings fixed to a spreader
bar (lifting beam).
Water weighs 1 tonne per cubic metre (m³) = 1000kg
The height of the drum is 2800mm
The diameter is 1600mm
The drum tare weight is 420kg
Task
Find the diameter of the two slings required to lift the drum of water.

EXERCISE 9 DRUM
A drum filled with water is to be lifted with two flexible steel wire rope slings fixed to a spreader
bar (lifting beam).
Water weighs 1 tonne per cubic metre (m³) = 1000kg
The height of the drum is 2600mm
The diameter is 1200mm
The drum tare weight is 280kg
Task
Find the diameter of the two slings required to lift the drum of water.

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 EXERCISE 10 MOBILE LATTICE BOOM CRANE
A mobile lattice boom crane has been set up as shown below.
There are two outriggers on each side.
The load to be lifted plus half the boom weight is 13 tonne (W)
The distance from the load to the back wheel support is 6 metres (R)
The distance from the end of the outrigger to the back wheel support is 3 metres (B)
The bearing pressure of the soil is 20t/m² (V)
Outrigger pads are available in the four following sizes:
0.3m x 0.3m, 0.6m x 0.6m, 0.9m x 0.9m and 1.2m x 1.2m
Task
Find the minimum size outrigger pad that can be used.

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# LOAD SHIFTING EXERCISE

EXERCISE 11 MOBILE LATTICE BOOM CRANE

A mobile lattice boom crane has been set up as shown below.
There are two outriggers on each side.
The load to be lifted plus half the boom weight is 5.5 tonne (W)
The distance from the load to the back wheel support is 6 metres (R)
The distance from the end of the outrigger to the back wheel support is 5 metres (B)
The bearing pressure of the soil is 40t/m² (V)
Outrigger pads are available in the four following sizes:
0.3m x 0.3m, 0.6m x 0.6m, 0.9m x 0.9m and 1.2m x 1.2m
Task
Find the minimum size outrigger pad that can be used.

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 EXERCISE 12 MOBILE LATTICE BOOM CRANE
A mobile lattice boom crane has been set up as shown below.
There are two outriggers on each side.
The load to be lifted plus half the boom weight is 13 tonne (W)
The distance from the load to the back wheel support is 6 metres (R)
The distance from the end of the outrigger to the back wheel support is 5 metres (B)
The bearing pressure of the soil is 20t/m² (V)
Outrigger pads are available in the four following sizes:
0.3m x 0.3m, 0.6m x 0.6m, 0.9m x 0.9m and 1.2m x 1.2m
Task
Find the minimum size outrigger pad that can be used.

EXERCISE 13 A crane displays the load chart as BELOW.

The crane is set up on fully extended outriggers and is rigged with a 20 tonne hook block
weighing 250kg.
The radius is 6 metres
The boom length is 18.1 metres
The load is to be lifted over the side.
Task
(a) What is the MAXIMUM load that can be lifted when the crane is set up in the above
configuration?
(b) What could happen to the crane if it were overloaded?

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EXERCISE 13
CRANE LOAD CHART
Showing Rated Lifting Capacity (in tonnes) on Fully Extended Outriggers

Radius 10.1m Boom 18.1m Boom 26.0m Boom

(m) Over Rear Over Side Over Rear Over Side Over Rear Over Side

3.0 25.00 25.00 14.00 14.00

3.5 21.70 21.70 13.40 13.40

4.0 18.50 18.50 12.75 12.75

4.5 15.50 15.50 12.15 12.15

5.0 12.80 12.80 11.60 11.60 7.40 7.40

5.5 10.50 10.50 10.00 10.00 7.10 7.10

6.0 8.80 8.80 8.70 8.70 6.65 6.65

6.5 7.70 7.55 7.70 7.70 6.40 6.40

7.0 6.85 6.60 6.85 6.60 6.10 6.10

7.5 6.20 5.70 6.20 5.70 5.75 5.75

8.0 5.60 4.95 5.60 4.95 5.40 5.40

8.5 5.05 4.36 5.05 4.35 5.00 4.80

9.0 4.60 3.85 4.60 4.35

10.0 3.90 3.10 3.90 3.50

11.0 3.30 2.65 3.30 2.95

12.0 2.80 2.25 2.80 2.50

13.0 2.40 1.95 2.40 2.15

14.0 2.10 1.55 2.10 1.80

16.0 1.55 1.30

18.0 1.20 0.95

20.0 0.90 0.60

22.0 0.70 0.40

24.0 0.55 0.25

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EXERCISE 14
CRANE LOAD CHART
SHOWING RATED LIFTING CAPACITY (IN TONNES) ON FULLY EXTENDED OUTRIGGERS

RADIUS 10.1M BOOM 18.1M BOOM 26.0M BOOM

(M) OVER OVER SIDE OVER OVER SIDE OVER OVER SIDE
REAR REAR REAR

3.0 25.00 25.00 14.00 14.00

3.5 21.70 21.70 13.40 13.40

4.0 18.50 18.50 12.75 12.75

4.5 15.50 15.50 12.15 12.15

5.0 12.80 12.80 11.60 11.60 7.40 7.40

5.5 10.50 10.50 10.00 10.00 7.10 7.10

6.0 8.80 8.80 8.70 8.70 6.65 6.65

6.5 7.70 7.55 7.70 7.70 6.40 6.40

7.0 6.85 6.60 6.85 6.60 6.10 6.10

7.5 6.20 5.70 6.20 5.70 5.75 5.75

8.0 5.60 4.95 5.60 4.95 5.40 5.40

8.5 5.05 4.36 5.05 4.35 5.00 4.80

9.0 4.60 3.85 4.60 4.35

10.0 3.90 3.10 3.90 3.50

11.0 3.30 2.65 3.30 2.95

12.0 2.80 2.25 2.80 2.50

13.0 2.40 1.95 2.40 2.15

14.0 2.10 1.55 2.10 1.80

16.0 1.55 1.30

18.0 1.20 0.95

20.0 0.90 0.60

22.0 0.70 0.40

24.0 0.55 0.25

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# LOAD SHIFTING EXERCISE

EXERCISE 14 CRANE LOAD CHART

Showing Rated Lifting Capacity (in tonnes) on Fully Extended Outriggers
A crane displays the load chart as above.
The crane is set up on fully extended outriggers and is rigged with a 20 tonne hook block
weighing 250kg.
The radius is 8 metres
The boom length is 10.1 metres
The load is to be lifted over the side.
Task
(a) What is the MAXIMUM load that can be lifted when the crane is set up in the above
configuration?
(b) What could happen to the crane if it were overloaded?

EXERCISE 15 CRANE LOAD CHART

A crane displays the load chart as BELOW.
The crane is set up on fully extended outriggers and is rigged with a 20 tonne hook block
weighing 250kg.
The radius is 7 metres
The boom length is 26 metres
The load is to be lifted over the rear.
Task
(a) What is the MAXIMUM load that can be lifted when the crane is set up in the above
configuration?
(b) What could happen to the crane if it were overloaded?

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EXERCISE 15
CRANE LOAD CHART
SHOWING RATED LIFTING CAPACITY (IN TONNES) ON FULLY EXTENDED OUTRIGGERS

RADIUS 10.1M BOOM 18.1M BOOM 26.0M BOOM

(M) OVER REAR OVER SIDE OVER REAR OVER SIDE OVER REAR OVER SIDE

3.0 25.00 25.00 14.00 14.00

3.5 21.70 21.70 13.40 13.40

4.0 18.50 18.50 12.75 12.75

4.5 15.50 15.50 12.15 12.15

5.0 12.80 12.80 11.60 11.60 7.40 7.40

5.5 10.50 10.50 10.00 10.00 7.10 7.10

6.0 8.80 8.80 8.70 8.70 6.65 6.65

6.5 7.70 7.55 7.70 7.70 6.40 6.40

7.0 6.85 6.60 6.85 6.60 6.10 6.10

7.5 6.20 5.70 6.20 5.70 5.75 5.75

8.0 5.60 4.95 5.60 4.95 5.40 5.40

8.5 5.05 4.36 5.05 4.35 5.00 4.80

9.0 4.60 3.85 4.60 4.35

10.0 3.90 3.10 3.90 3.50

11.0 3.30 2.65 3.30 2.95

12.0 2.80 2.25 2.80 2.50

13.0 2.40 1.95 2.40 2.15

14.0 2.10 1.55 2.10 1.80

16.0 1.55 1.30

18.0 1.20 0.95

20.0 0.90 0.60

22.0 0.70 0.40

24.0 0.55 0.25

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# LOAD SHIFTING EXERCISE

EXERCISE 16 LIFTING RIGID LOADS

When lifting a rigid load it is assumed only TWO slings take the weight of the load (not the
four) as is the case when lifting a flexible load.
To calculate the SWL of slings required to lift the load we use the following formula:
Load / Number of slings x angle factor

Task
Calculate the SWL of the four slings for the rigid load above

EXERCISE 17 LIFTING RIGID LOADS

Task
Find the minimum size outrigger pad that can be used.

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# LOAD SHIFTING EXERCISE

EXERCISE 11 MOBILE LATTICE BOOM CRANE

A mobile lattice boom crane has been set up as shown below.
There are two outriggers on each side.
The load to be lifted plus half the boom weight is 5.5 tonne (W)
The distance from the load to the back wheel support is 6 metres (R)
The distance from the end of the outrigger to the back wheel support is 5 metres (B)
The bearing pressure of the soil is 40t/m² (V)
Outrigger pads are available in the four following sizes:
0.3m x 0.3m, 0.6m x 0.6m, 0.9m x 0.9m and 1.2m x 1.2m
Task
Find the minimum size outrigger pad that can be used.

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17. APPENDICES
17.1 PERSONAL SAFETY EQUIPMENT AND FIRST AID
Riggers often have to wear helmets, gloves, eye protection, face masks and respirators and steel capped boots to
protect them from injury.
It is the responsibility of your employer to provide the necessary protective equipment. It is the responsibility of riggers
to wear and use the equipment properly and where and when necessary.

17.2 SAFETY HELMETS

Safety helmets with chin straps must be worn wherever there is a risk of objects falling from above and on any work
site where the hard hat sign is displayed.

17.3 GLOVES
Riggers should wear close fitting pigskin gloves to protect hands from:
 Heat and abrasion
 Molten metal
 Sharp edges
Special purpose gloves may be required for protection against chemicals including acids, alkalis, solvents, fats and
oils.

17.4 EYE PROTECTION

Wear eye protection if you are likely to be exposed to:
 Physical damage caused by — flying particles, dust, molten metal.
 Chemical damage caused by — toxic liquids, gases and vapours dusts.
 Radiation damage caused by — sunlight, visible light, infra-red, laser.

17.5 RESPIRATORY PROTECTION

Riggers should wear a face mask if you are likely to be exposed to:
 Toxic gases and vapours
 Irritating dusts, such as silica
Inhalation of some chemical vapours and gases can cause death or a wide range of unpleasant symptoms including
narcosis and headaches.
Common dusts such as silica can cause lung disease later in life and is found wherever there is excavation, i.e.
building sites, road works, tunnelling and mining.

17.6 HEARING PROTECTION

Hearing damage is likely if you are exposed to long periods of industrial noise above 85 decibels. This is the noise
level of a large truck or loader.
A chainsaw for example has a noise level of about 92 decibels. If you think it is likely that you are being exposed to
dangerous noise levels ask your employer to provide you with hearing protectors.

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17.7 FOOTWEAR
Riggers should be careful to choose footwear which is comfortable, gives maximum grip and provides protection from
pinching, jamming and crushing.
A range of lightweight flexible boots with steel or plastic caps are available.

17.8 SUN PROTECTION

Riggers spend a great deal of time exposed to direct sunlight. To prevent permanent damage caused by ultra violet
rays always wear a hat, long sleeves, long trousers and use UV cream when working outside.

17.9 FIRST AID

Riggers work in a high risk industry. Not only are there many minor injuries but there are also serious injuries where
the injured person will need first aid to restore breathing, heart beat or to stem blood flow.
Know the location of the first aid room and the nearest first aid kit. There should be a first aid kit on every floor of a
multi-storey building site or within 100 metres of any part of the workplace.
The standard first aid symbol is a white cross on a green background.
First aid kits on construction sites should have a carrying handle. There should be a notice near to the first aid room
with the name(s) of those in the workplace who hold an approved occupational first aid certificate.
It is recommended that Riggers take the time to do an approved first aid certificate course.

17.10 COMMUNICATION AND SIGNALS

17.10.1 TWO-WAY RADIOS

An effective means of communication when out of line of sight from the crane operator and other crew members on
site is two-way radio.
It is important that the two-way system provides clear and immediate signals without interference.
The two types of two-way radio are conventional and trunk.
For mobile cranes the rigger should stay in line of sight from the crane driver ready to use hand signals if the radio
fails.
Conventional radio
Great care is taken when allocating frequencies to make sure that there are no other operators using the same
frequency in the area. It is not possible, however, to control radio users in the field who may be using a frequency in
the wrong area.
Always use a good quality system from a reputable company with a properly allocated frequency for the area.
Interference on your frequency can be a safety hazard. Stop using the system if there is interference, until the system
is checked or a new frequency allocated.
Trunk radio
Trunk radio is a computer controlled two-way system that locks other radio users out of your frequency. No other
operator can cut in and overpower your signal.
With trunk radio it is possible to have several separate groups on one site communicating by radio without interfering
with each other. Trunk radio is recommended for large sites.

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17.11 DIRECTIONS FOR CRANE OR HOIST OPERATORS
Riggers must give crane or hoist operators clear signals when directing crane movements. The noise of the crane
motor and distortion over the radio can make it difficult to hear directions.
The following are the standard directions for crane operators:
 Hook movement “Hook up” and “Hook down”
 Boom Movement “Boom up” and “Boom down”
“Boom extend” and “Boom retract”
 Slewing “Slew left” and “Slew right”
 OK to raise “All clear”
 Do not move “Stop”
Speak clearly and say the name of the part of the crane to be moved first — then the direction of movement.

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18. AREAS AND VOLUMES

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19. TABLE OF MASSES
Acid (crated maximum) ........................................................... 200 kg
Ale, beer, 160 litre............................................................. 250 kg
Aluminium, cu m…………………………………………….. 2.7 t
Aluminium ingot… .............................................................. … 5-15 kg
Asbestos cement sheet, plain, 2 m x 1 m… ........................ 18 kg
Ashes, coal, cu m… ................................................................ 800 kg
Ashphalt, 200 litre, drum ......................................................... 200 kg
Barbed wire, coil ...................................................................... 50 kg
Blue metal, cu m… .................................................................. 2.0 t
Bitumen, 200 litre, drum .......................................................... 200 kg
Bolts, various, bag ................................................................... 50 kg
Brass, cu m…........................................................................... 8.5 t
Bricks, common, 1,000 ........................................................... 4 t
Bronze, Cu m… ....................................................................... 8.5 t

Cast iron, cu m… ..................................................................... 7.2 t

Cast steel, cu m… ................................................................... 7.9 t
Clay, cum .................................................................................. 1.9 t
Cement, 1 bag.......................................................................... 20 kg
Coal, 1 cu m… ......................................................................... 864 kg
Concrete, cu m… ..................................................................... 2.4 t
Copper, cu m ............................................................................ 9.0 t
Copper, 3 mm thick, sq m...................................................27 kg

Doors, 50 .................................................................................. 1t
Dog spikes, 100 ........................................................................ 50 kg
Drums, empty 200 litre....................................................... 13 kg

Earth, 1 cu m… ......................................................................... 1.9 t

Fat, tallow, etc. (44 gal barrels) 200 litre ................................ 200 kg
Fencing wire, coil ........................................................................ 50 kg
Fibrous plaster, sq m..................................................................9 kg
Fibre board. sq m…................................................................... 0.6 kg
Fibro cement sheets:
Flat —
4.5 mm thick, sq metre.................................................................7 kg
6mmthick, sq metre ..................................................................... 11 kg

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Corrugated —
Standard, sq metre……………………... 11 kg
Deep corrugations, sq metre…………… 12 kg
Compressed —
15 mm thick, sq metre………… 26 kg
Fish bolts, 24 mm dia…………………………………………. 1 kg
Fish plates, 4-hole……………………………………………... 13 kg
Fish plates, 6-hole……………………………………………... 18 kg

Galvanised flat iron 0.5 mm sheet,

1.8mx90mm.............................................................................. 7 kg
Glass, 10 mm thick, sq metre ................................................ 27 kg
Granite, cu m…........................................................................ 2.6 t
Grease (44 gal) 200 litre ......................................................... 200 kg
Gypsum, cu m… ...................................................................... 2.3 t
Gypsum, 1 bag......................................................................... 50 kg

Hardwood (see Timber)

Hermatic ore, cu m… .............................................................. 5.4 t
Hemp, bale ............................................................................... 300 kg
lce,cu m…................................................................................. 930 kg
lron,cast m… ............................................................................ 7.25 t
Iron, ore, cu m………………………………………………... 5.4 t
Jute, bale……………………………………………………… 150 kg
Kerosene (44 gal) 200 litre ..................................................... 200 kg
Lead,cu m… ............................................................................. 11.4 t
Lead, 3 mm thick, sq m…....................................................... 34 kg
Lead, pig or ingot… ................................................................. 36 kg
Lime (stone), 12 bags… ......................................................... 1 t
Lime (stone), cu m…............................................................... 2.6 t
Lime, hydrated, 1 bag………………………………………. 22 kg
Lime, hydrated, 44 bags… ..................................................... 1 t

Nails, case ................................................................................ 50 kg

Netting, wire 1 m roll, 50 m .................................................... 25 kg
Oils, all types (44 gal drum) 200 litre .................................... 200 kg
Paint (except red and white lead) 5 litre ............................... 0.5 kg
Palings, H.W. 1.5 m sawn, 400 ............................................. 1 t
Palings, H.W. 2 m sawn, 360 ................................................. 1 t
Particle board 18 mm thick, sq metre ................................... 12 kg
Petrol (44 gal) 200 litre ...................................................... 200 kg

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Pig iron, pig............................................................................... 50 kg
Pipes:
Glazed stoneware —
100mm 55m………………………...………………………. 1 t
150mm 32m ......................................................................... 1 t
225 mm 20m ........................................................................ 1 t
300mm l5m .......................................................................... 1 t
Cast iron, 3.6 m long, lined —
80 mm nominal inside dia .................................................. 18 kg/rn
100 mm pipe ........................................................................ 28 kg/rn
150 mm pipe ........................................................................ 54 kg/rn
200 mm pipe ........................................................................ 84 kg/rn
225 mm pipe ........................................................................ 115 kg/rn
300 mm pipe ........................................................................ 148 kg/rn
Steel, galvanised —
8 N.B. O.D. 13.5 mm…………………………………….. 0.7 kg/rn
10 N.B. O.D. 17.0 mm…………………………………… 0.9 kg/rn
15N.B.O.D.21 mm ………………………………. 28 kg/rn
20 N.B. O.D. 27mm ………………………………….. 1.69 kg/m
25 N.B. O.D. 34 mm ………………………………….. 2.5 kg/rn
32 N.B. O.D. 42 mm ........................................................... 3.2 kg/rn
40 N.B. O.D. 48 mm ........................................................... 3.8 kg/rn
50 N.B. O.D. 60 mm ........................................................... 5.3 kg/rn
Copper, 13 g internal diameter — approx.
12.7 mm O.D…....................................................................0.35 kg/rn
16mm O.D… ....................................................................... 0.5 kg/rn
25 mm O.D… ....................................................................... 0.8 kg/rn
38 mm O.D… .......................................................................1.25 kg/rn
50 mm O.D… ......................................................................... 1.7 kg/rn

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VERSION: 2.0 PAGE 137 OF 161
20. GLOSSARY:

TERM DEFINITION

ACID Substance which when concentrated will burn the skin. Neutralizes and the opposite to
alkali. Examples include battery acid, sulphuric acid and hydrochloric acid

ALKALI Opposite to acid. Examples include, caustic soda and potash

AS: Australian Standard — followed by a number which denotes a particular publication.

ANGLE FACTOR: The factor by which the WLL of a multi-legged sling is de-rated to give its SWL at a particular
angle between, the sling legs.

ANTI-TWO-BLOCK See hoist-limiting device

DEVICE

BS British Standard — followed by a number which denotes a particular publication.

BACK HOOKING A method of slinging using slings with hooks where the sling is passed around the load and
the hook is secured back onto the ring or hook above the load.

BACK SPLICE: A splice in the end of a fibre rope to prevent it from unlaying

BALD EYE: An eye in a rope which is not protected by a thimble. It is also called a ‘soft eye’

BARROW HOIST See cantilever platform materials hoist.

BASKET HITCH: A method of securing a sling around an object by bringing both eyes back together with an
angle factor = 1.

BAYONET A jib extension used with the auxiliary winch on a hydraulic boom crane and often extending
from a fly jib to increase the crane’s operating radius and drift.

BEARING JOINT A bolted joint in steel erection designed to allow for some joint slip for alignment

BECKET: An anchorage point on a sheave block when reeving a tackle or purchase.

BECKET LOAD: The load in any fall of rope in a multiple fall tackle or purchase. It equals the total load being
lifted divided by the number of falls supporting the load.

BEND A tie made in fibre rope to create a temporary eye (such as a bowline bend) or to join ropes
(such as a sheet bend).

BIGHT: The middle portion of a length of rope. For example, a “bowline on the bight” means a
bowline formed in the middle of a rope.

BILL The lower end point of a hook.

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 TERM DEFINITION

BIRDCAGING An appliance which, supports one or more sheaves

BLACK WIRE See Bright wire.

BLOCK An appliance which, supports one or more sheaves

BLOCK AND TACKLE A sheave block or blocks used with fibre rope

BOATSWAIN’S CHAIR A suspended scaffold where the platform is a chair or similar device suitable for use by one
person.

BODY BELT A safety belt designed to be worn around the waist and which does not have shoulder
straps or leg straps.

BOOM: A member attached to and cantilevered from the crane structure from which the load is
suspended. Can be luffed or sleeved while the crane is handling a load.

BOOM BUTT: The end of the boom nearest to the crane

BOOM HEAD The end of the boom furthest from the crane

BOOM LIFT See Boom-type elevating work platform

BOOM-TYPE A powered telescoping device, hinged device or articulated device or any combination of
ELEVATING WORK these used to support a platform on which personnel, equipment and materials may be
PLATFORM elevated to perform work. Also known as “cherrypickers”.

BORDEAUX A fitting used to connect a chain to FSWR where the connection is required to pass over a
sheave
CONNECTION:

BOTTLE SCREW: See Rigging screw.

BOW SHACKLE A shackle with bowed sides

BOWSING: See Frapping.

BOWSTRING A rope tensioned to a structural member to prevent it from distorting during lifting.

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 TERM DEFINITION

BREAKING FORCE: See guaranteed breaking strain (GBS).

BRIDGE CRANE A powered crane consisting of one or more bridge beams mounted at each end to an end
carriage that can travel along elevated runways. It may be cabin-controlled or remote-
controlled (such as pendant control).

BRIGHT WIRE: Uncoated steel wire used in the construction of FSWR. Also known as ‘black wire’

BRITISH DOCKS Orthodox 5-tuck eye splice in FSWR. BUSH ROLLER CHAIN: Chain constructed with parallel
flat links and cylindrical rollers, such as bicycle and motorcycle drive chains
SPLICE

BUILDER’S HOIST A hoist incorporating a mast or guides which is used on building and construction projects. It
includes a cantilever platform materials hoist and a personnel and materials hoist.

BULLDOG GRIP A wire rope grip consisting of a U-bolt, two nuts and a saddle

CCLP: Cantilevered crane loading platform.

CABLE LAID ROPE Three hawser laid fibre ropes laid up together in an opposite lay to form one rope. Cable laid
ropes are often used for moorings.

CALIBRATED CHAIN Short link chain with parallel link sides constructed to very exact link lengths so it can ride
smoothly over a gypsy. Commonly used on chain blocks. Also called ‘pitched short-link
chain’.

CANTILEVER A beam, structural member or similar which is anchored at one end and which is free at the
other end.

CANTILEVER A powered builder’s hoist which has the lift platform, cantilevered from the hoist tower. It
PLATFORM moves materials only, up and down the face of a building or structure. Also called a ‘barrow
MATERIALS HOIST hoist’.

CANTILEVERED CAPSTAN WINCH: See warping drum

CRANE
LOADINGPLATFOR
M

CAT HEAD: The sheave assemblies on the top mast section of a builder’s hoist or the top of the A-frame
on a tower crane.

CENTIMETRE: A unit for measuring distance. 10 mm equals one Centimeter. 100 cm equals 1 meter.

CHAIN BLOCK A geared portable appliance used for hoisting a load suspended on a chain

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 TERM DEFINITION

CHAIN BLOCK A geared portable appliance used for hoisting a load suspended on a chain

CHAIN PULLER: A geared portable appliance incorporating a load chain, which is operated by a lever handle

CHERRY PICKER See Boom-type elevating work platform

CHOKE HITCH: A method of securing a load to a sling or a sling to an anchorage by reeving the sling back
through its eye, or fixing the eye back to the sling leg with a shackle

CIRCUMFERENCE The distance around the outside edge of a circle

CLEVIS An eye with a removable pin

CLIMBING FRAME An internal or external frame used to lift the crane from the tower sections of a tower crane for
climbing up or down.

COME-ALONG See chain puller or creeper winch.

CRADLE The part of a suspended scaffold that incorporates the working platform.

CRANE: An appliance intended for raising and lowering a load and moving it horizontally, but excluding
industrial lift trucks, earthmoving machinery, amusement structures, tractors, industrial robots,
conveyors, building maintenance equipment, suspended scaffolds and lifts

CRANE CHART See load chart.

CRAWLER CRANE: See track-mounted crane.

CREEPER WINCH A portable manually operated winch for hoisting or haulage where an FSWR is moved
through the winch by a gripping-jaw mechanism.

CRIBBING See Pigsty

CUT SPLICE A splice joining two fibre ropes which, incorporates an eye.

DEAD END The tail of a rope which, does not take load.

DEAD LOAD The self-weight of a crane, hoist or scaffold before it is loaded

DEBRIS NET A fine mesh net usually laid over an industrial safety net in order to catch small light items of
falling debris.

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 TERM DEFINITION

DEE SHACKLE A shackle with parallel sides, resembling the letter D on its side

DOGGING The application of slinging techniques, including the selection or inspection of lifting gear, or
the directing of a crane or hoist operator in the movement of a load when the load is out of
the operator’s view.

DERRICK CRANE A slewing strut-boom crane with the boom pivoted at the base of a mast which is either
guyed (guy-derrick) or held by backstays (stiff-leg derrick). Can luff under load

DIAMETER: The distance across a circle measured through its centre

DIVERTING SHEAVE A sheave set up to change the direction of the lead rope between the winch and the head
sheave

DOG KNOTTING: A method of finishing a splice in a fibre rope by halving each strand and knotting each half to
the adjacent half strand. It prevents the splice from loosening during use

DOMESTIC GRADE A portable ladder designed and manufactured for light loads and intended for use by home
handymen. It is not intended for industrial work.
LADDER:

DOUBLE BASE A wire rope grip with two or more bolts along a split barrel to minimise damage to the FSWR.
CLAMP

DOUBLE ROPE A scaffold where the cradle is suspended using two hoists and two suspension ropes at each
support point
SUSPENDED
SCAFFOLD

DOUBLE THROAT A wire rope grip which uses a saddle on each side to minimise damage to the FSWR.
WIRE
ROPE GRIP

DOUBLE WRAP: A method of slinging where the sling legs are passed twice around the load with the eye
choked back to the sling. Often called a round turn.

DRAGLINE A crane fitted with a bucket or scoop, which is thrown outwards and retrieved by a drag cable
arrangement.

DRIFT 1: A steel handtool consisting of a tapered shaft which is used to align bolt-holes in structural
steel connections. It is sometimes driven in with a flogging hammer to ‘drift’ the bolt-holes
into alignment

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 TERM DEFINITION

OR 2 The distance between the upper and lower blocks of a tackle or purchase. The drift
determines the maximum height a load can be lifted

DROTT: A brand name for excavators and loaders.

DRUM: The cylinder of a winch around which the rope is wound and stored. It may be plain or
grooved

DUAL COVERAGE Work which can be performed by someone who holds either the appropriate class of rigging
certificate or the appropriate class of scaffolding certificate, because the work is within the
scope of both types of certificate

DUAL LIFT See Multiple crane lift.

DUCK A light canvas material similar to calico.

DUNNAGE Packing under loads to allow the removal or placing of slings.

EOHTC: Electric overhead travelling crane — an electric powered bridge or gantry crane.

EWP Elevating work platform.

EGG RING The main (or master) ring to which the legs of a chain sling assembly are attached

ELEVATING WORK A telescoping device, scissor device or articulating device used to support a working platform
PLATFORM

END SPLICE See Back splice.

EQUALISING BEAM A lifting beam which, can be used with two cranes to ensure that each crane is supporting its
correct portion of the load.

EQUALISING Sheaves used to equalize the load.

SHEAVES

EXTENSION A portable ladder constructed in two or more stages which, can be adjusted to vary the height
LADDER of the ladder.

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 TERM
DEFINITION

EYE SPLICE A splice in the end of a rope, which forms an eye

EYEBOLT A lifting ring fixed to a threaded rod, which can be screwed into a load or anchorage

FC Symbol used to indicate a fibre core in the construction of an

FSWR: Flexible steel wire rope

FW: Filler wire. It is used in some FSWR constructions to space and support the main wires in a strand

FABRICATED A pre-assembled scaffold hung from another structure but which is not capable of being raised or
HUNG lowered when in use. It is sometimes used for large steel erection projects
SCAFFOLD

FACTOR OF The ratio of the minimum breaking load (or GBS) to the WLL or actual working load. For
SAFETY example, an FSWR with a safety factor of five has a WLL which is one fifth of its GBS.

FALLS The separate parts of rope in a purchase or tackle

FELLING: Various methods of demolition where a winch or earthmoving equipment is used to drag over a
part of the building or structure.

FERRULE A metal collar used in an FSWR eye splice to hold the rope parts together

FLEET ANGLE The angle formed from the Centre line of the drum to the Centre of the first lead sheave then back
to the inside Centre of the drum flange.

FLEETING: A method of moving an object by using two hoists, purchases or tackles to lift, haul and lower the
load.

FLEMISH EYE A method of forming an eye in FSWR by separating and re-marrying the strands without tucks

FLOGGING A hammer designed to be held in one hand for driving drifts, cold chisels and the like. Commonly
HAMMER used in steel erection.

FLY: A secondary jib mounted at the head of the crane’s main boom or jib, increasing the crane’s
operating radius and drift. Also called a ‘goose neck’

FLYING FOX An arrangement where a rope is suspended between two tower structures and which supports a
carriage (or ‘fox’) from which a load may be raised, traversed and lowered.

FRAPPING: A lashing where several turns are passed around parts to pull a rope tighter. Also called a
‘bowsing’ lashing. GBS: Guaranteed breaking strain.

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 TERM DEFINITION

GANTLINE A fibre rope reeved through a single sheave block

GANTRY CRANE A powered crane with one or more bridge beams. The beams are supported at each end by
legs mounted on travelling end carriages. They have a crab with one or more hoisting units
that are able to travel across the bridge beam or beams. Used where there is no supporting
building for the Crane

GEARED JACK: A geared mechanical device used to raise or lower loads

GERMAN JACK See Geared jack

GOOSE NECK: See Fly.

GUARANTEED The load (or force) stated by the rope manufacturer as the rope’s breaking load when tested
to failure in a new condition. The ratio between the GBS and the WLL is the factor of safety
BREAKING STRAIN

GRADE Indicates the strength of chain, FSWR or other items manufactured from steel. The higher
the grade of steel, the higher the tensile strength.

GROMMET An endless sling constructed with a single rope strand layed up onto itself.

GUN TACKLE: A fibre rope tackle which uses an upper block with two sheaves and a lower block with two
sheaves (two double blocks).

GUY: A tensioned rope fixed at one end to a mast, tower or structure and anchored some distance
from the base to stabilise the structure.

GUYED DERRICK: A derrick (or derrick crane) stabilised by guys

GYPSY A sheave with pockets formed into its groove to take a load chain, such as on a chain block.

HAMBONE: See Wedge socket

HAMMERHEAD A tower crane with a counterweighted horizontal boom which supports a traversing crab for
CRANE hoisting

HAMMERLOCK: An attachment for joining hooks or rings to a chain.

HANDY BILLY A fibre rope tackle where one block has two sheaves and the other block has three sheaves
(double and treble blocks). It is also called ‘light gin tackle’

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 TERM DEFINITION

GIN POLE: A guyed derrick without a pivoted strut-boom. It can raise and lower a load and a limited
amount of slewing can be achieved by adjusting the guys

GIN WHEEL A purpose-designed single-sheave tackle block often used as a gantline during the erection
and dismantling of scaffolds.

GIRDER CLAMP An appliance designed to be fixed to the lower flange of a universal beam or RSJ to provide
an anchorage for a sling, suspension rope, purchase or tackle

GIRT: A horizontal structural member in a wall of a steel structure, which supports the wall cladding
sheets.

HAWSER LAID: A fibre rope construction which uses three strands. HEAD BLOCK: The top block in a
purchase, tackle or block at the head of a crane boom or hoist

HEADACHE BALL A spherical overhauling weight.

HEAVY DUTY A scaffold platform with a duty live load capacity of 650 kg per bay. This is three times the
capacity of a light duty platform.
WORKING
PLATFORM:

HEAVY GIN TACKLE A fibre rope tackle where the upper block has three sheaves and the lower block has three
sheaves (two treble blocks).

HELIX The spiral put into a rope construction

HIGH STRANDING Rope damage indicated by one strand sitting up higher than the others in a portion of the rope

HITCH A tie made in a fibre rope to fix it to an anchorage or to a load. Common examples include the
clove hitch, rolling hitch, becket (or buntline) hitch and timber hitch.

HOIST: An appliance used to raise or lower a load with no horizontal movement

HOISTING Raising or lowering a load

HOIST-LIMITING A device used in a crane or hoist to stop the winch or warn the operator before the hook block
jams into the head block (two-blocking) while the hook is being raised. It is also called an
DEVICE:
‘anti-two-block device’.

HOOK BLOCK The lower block on a crane which incorporates a hook for slinging loads

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 TERM DEFINITION

HYDRAULIC A crane which has a boom which luffs using hydraulic power and usually also telescopes using
BOOM hydraulic power.
CRANE

IWRC Wire rope core in the construction of an FSWR

IWS Wire strand core in the construction of an FSWR

INBOARD The portion of a needle or other cantilevered beam between the fulcrum and end anchorage or
Centre of the counterweights.

INDUSTRIAL A portable ladder designed and manufactured for general industrial use. This is the type of ladder
for use in rigging work.
GRADE
LADDER:

INDUSTRIAL A purpose-designed net intended to catch a person falling from a building or structure.
SAFETY NET

INERTIA REEL A self-locking device with a retractable line intended for use with a safety harness.

JACK: An appliance which is placed under a load to raise or lower it.

JIB: A member attached to the crane structure from which the load is suspended. It can not be luffed
while the crane is under load. (Please note: In the past, ‘jib’ was often used to mean the same
thing as ‘boom’.)

JIB TROLLEY A crab or saddle from which the load is suspended and which can traverse along the jib.

JOCKEY A diverting sheave which can freely run along the length of an axle to reduce the fleet angle of the
SHEAVE: lead rope.

kg Kilogram.

kPa: Kilopascal.

kN: Kilo newton.

KERNMANTLE A method of constructing synthetic fibre rope where a plaited sheath is layed over a parallel or
twisted core. Kernmantle ropes are used with abseiling equipment and emergency rescue lines.
CONSTRUCTION

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 TERM DEFINITION

KIBBLE A crane-lifted vessel normally used for hoisting and pouring wet concrete

KIDNEY BELT: See Body belt

KINKING: Damage to a rope indicated by a sharp permanent twist

KILOGRAM: A unit for measuring mass (or weight). One litre of water weighs one kilogram. There are
1000 kg in a tonne.

KILONEWTON: A unit for measuring force. One kilonewton is approximately equivalent to a weight of 100 kg

KILOPASCAL: A unit for measuring pressure or stress. One kilopascal is approximately equal to 100 kg per
square metre.

KNEE BRACE A diagonal brace used to stiffen a column in a steel structure.

L: Indicates Grade 30 mild steel chain

LH Indicates left hand lay in a rope construction

LL: Indicates Lang’s lay in an FSWR rope construction

LANG’S LAY A construction method for FSWR where the rope strands are laid in the same direction as the
wires

LANYARD A short length of synthetic fibre rope used to attach a safety harness or body belt to an
anchorage

LATTICE BOOM A crane with an open-web boom, usually in sections. It does not telescope. Sometimes called
CRANE a ‘pin-jib crane’

LEAD BLOCK A block which diverts the line of pull in a winch hauling rope

LEAD ROPE The portion of rope between the lead block and the winch drum

LEFT HAND LAY A method of rope construction where the strands are laid up in an anti-clockwise direction.
Sometimes called an ‘S twist’ because the strands run the same direction as the central part
of the letter S.

LEVER HOIST: See Chain puller.

LIFELINE: A vertical, or near vertical rope to which a safety harness can be attached using a device that
will grab the lifeline if the wearer slips.

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 TERM DEFINITION

LIFTED LOAD See live load

LIFTING CLAMP: See plate clamp

LIGHT DUTY A platform on a scaffold with a duty live load capacity of 225 kg per bay.
WORKING
PLATFORM

LIGHT GIN TACKLE See ‘handy billy’

LIVE LOAD: The load being lifted (also called the ‘lifted load’) or the load of persons and materials
supported by a scaffold platform in each bay.

LIVE ROPE: A moving rope

LOAD BINDER Chain designed for securing loads to the trays of trucks. It is not designed for lifting.
CHAIN

LOAD CHART A manufacturer’s notice fixed to a crane or hoist which specifies the SWLs in all normal
operating configurations. It is also called a ‘load plate’ or ‘crane chart’

LOAD FACTOR: The fraction of a sling assembly’s WLL created by a particular slinging method. It includes the
angle factor and the reeve factor.

LOAD LIMITING Used with a power-operated scaffolding hoist, which cuts the hoist motor at a pre-set load to
avoid overloading the rope or the suspension rig.
DEVICE:

LOAD WEIGHT A device which indicates the weight of the load being lifted
INDICATOR:

LOCOMOTIVE A crane designed and intended for use on railway tracks

CRANE:

LONG SPLICE A method of joining two ropes so that they

can travel over sheaves without obstruction

LOWER BLOCK The bottom block in a tackle or purchase from which the load is suspended

LUFF TACKLE: A fibre rope tackle where the upper block has two sheaves and the lower block has a single
sheave (single and double blocks).

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 TERM DEFINITION

LUFFING Raising or lowering the boom head of a crane

M The symbol used to indicate the diameter of a structural bolt in millimeters. For example, M16
indicates a 16 mm bolt.

mm Millimetres.l000mm equal one meter

MPa Mega Pascal

MSDS Material safety data sheet

MAN AND See Personnel and materials hoist.

MATERIALS
HOIST

MANILA: Natural fibre used for rope construction. Has a creamy brown appearance when new.

MARLIN SPIKE: A tapered hand tool used to pries open the strands of an FSWR during splicing or during rope
inspection.

MARLINE Tarred hemp cordage used for seizings, mousings and whippings. Also called ‘small stuff’.

MAST CLIMBER: A hoist with a working platform used for temporary purposes to raise personnel and materials
to the working position. It has a drive system mounted on an extendable mast which may be
tied to a building.

MATERIALS HOIST A builder’s hoist used for raising and lowering materials (not personnel) including a
cantilevered platform materials hoist.

MATERIAL SAFETY Manufacturer’s or supplier’s information about a substance, including any hazards associated
with its transportation, storage and use.
DATA SHEET

MECHANICAL When used in connection with rigging, this term includes specified cranes, hoists, cableways,
LOADSHIFTING flying foxes, winches, blocks and purchases which incorporate sheaves, jacks and airbags.
EQUIPMENT

MEDIUM DUTY A platform on a scaffold with a duty live load capacity of 450 kg per bay. This is twice the
WORKING capacity of a light duty platform.
PLATFORM

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 TERM DEFINITION

MEGAPASCAL A unit for measuring pressure or stress. 1000 kilopascals equals 1 mega Pascal. 1 mega
Pascal is approximately equal to 100 tons per square meter

MOBILE CRANE A crane which can travel over a supporting surface without the need for fixed runways or
railway tracks and which relies on gravity for stability

MOBILE SCAFFOLD An independent free-standing scaffold mounted on castors

MOBILING Moving a mobile crane over its supporting surface while it is under load.

MULTI-LEGGED A sling assembly with more than two sling legs.

SLING

MULTIPLE CRANE The movement of a load where the load is suspended from two or more cranes.
LIFT:

NR Symbol used to indicate non-rotating rope.

NEEDLE: A cantilevered structural member that supports a scaffold or load

NIP The point at which a rope or sling is gripped by a hitch. NON-

ROTATING ROPE FSWR in which adjacent layers of strands are laid in opposite directions, i.e. alternatively right
hand and left hand, to prevent the rope from spinning under load. Commonly used as a crane
hoist rope.

NON-SLEWING A mobile crane which has a boom or jib that cannot be slewed It includes an articulated type
mobile crane and a locomotive crane.
MOBILE CRANE:

OL: Symbol used to indicate ordinary lay rope construction.

ON RUBBER: The operation of a truck-mounted or rough terrain mobile crane without the aid of outriggers

OPEN WEDGE See wedge socket

SOCKET

ORDINARY LAY: A method of FSWR construction where the strands are laid in the opposite direction to the
outer layer of wires. Referred to in North American manuals as ‘regular lay’.

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 TERM DEFINITION

OUTBOARD The portion of a needle or other cantilevered beam between its fulcrum and its outermost
attachment point. OUTRIGGER: A stabilising extension for a mobile crane. OVERHAULING
WEIGHT: Counterweight to overhaul the self-weight of an unloaded hoisting rope.

OVERWOUND: Rope winding on and off the top side of a winch drum.

P Symbol used to indicate Grade 40 chain

PARBUCKLING: A method of moving a large cylinder, up or down a ramp using one or more ropes to haul it or
control its descent.

PARCELLING Covering a splice with strips of duck, or canvas before serving

PARACHUTE See ‘safety harness’. PARTS OF ROPE: See ‘falls’.

HARNESS

PENDANT A rope used to provide support to a length of crane boom or jib.

PENDANT A hand-held set of motion controls attached to a crane or hoist by an extension cable to provide
CONTROL remote operation. Particularly used with some types of bridge crane and power-operated chain
blocks

PERSONNEL A powered builder’s hoist, which hoists personnel, goods or materials

AND
MATERIALS
HOIST

PIGSTY A method of placing bearers on top of each other at right angles to provide a stable temporary
support for a load.

PIN-JIB CRANE: See ‘lattice boom crane’

PITCHED See ‘Calibrated chain’. PLATE

SHORT-LINK
CHAIN:

CLAMP: A purpose-designed appliance for lifting steel plate and similar items

PLATE A shackle with two side plates used to connect boom pendants.
SHACKLE

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 TERM DEFINITION

PODGER A spanner with a tapered handle used to field bolt structural steel members
SPANNER

POWER TAKE- A winch powered by the engine of the vehicle to which it is attached.
OFF
WINCH:

PORTAL BOOM A powered jib or boom crane mounted on a portal frame that is supported on runways allowing,
CRANE the crane to travel. Commonly used in waterside ports

PREFORMED FSWR where the spiral of the strands and wires is formed before the rope is laid up
ROPE:

PROOF-COIL Unmarked chain of uncertain grade and construction

CHAIN

PROTECTIVE A device used with a suspended scaffold which will arrest the descent and support a cradle or
DEVICE boatswain’s chair in the event of a failure of a suspension rope or scaffolding hoist

PURCHASE: A series of sheaves reeved up to form a mechanical advantage in the FSWR.

PURLIN: A longitudinal member spanning between roof trusses or beams to which roofing sheets are fixed

RL See ‘ordinary lay’.

RSJ Rolled steel joist.

RADIUS: The distance between the centre of a circle and its outside edge

REEVE To thread rope through lifting gear such as sheaves or put one eye through the other for slinging.

REEVE FACTOR The factor by which the WLL of a sling is adjusted to give its SWL for a particular manner in which
the sling is reeved.

REGULAR LAY See ‘ordinary lay’.

REMOTE- A purpose-designed shackle with an operating rope enabling it to be disconnected by a person

RELEASE standing below the lifting point. Often used to lift columns during steel erection.
SHACKLE:

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 TERM DEFINITION

RIGGING: The use of mechanical, Ioad shifting equipment and associated gear, to move, place, or secure a
load including plant equipment or, members of a building or structure and to ensure the stability of
those members, and for the setting up and dismantling of cranes and hoists, other than the setting
up of a crane or hoist which only requires the positioning of integral outriggers or stabilisers.

RIGGING An enclosed device with an anchorage point and a threaded rod in each end. Used to tension an
SCREW FSWR or to provide fine adjustment to a sling assembly

RIGHT HAND A method of rope construction where the strands are laid up in a clockwise direction. Sometimes
LAY called a ‘Z twist’ because the strands run in the same direction as the central part of the letter Z.

ROLLED STEEL A structural steel member with an I-section, now largely superceded by universal beams (UB’s)
JOIST and universal columns (UC’s).

ROOF RIG See ‘suspension rig’.

ROOSTER The head sheave for the auxiliary winch on the top of the boom head of a hydraulic boom crane.
SHEAVE

ROUGH A mobile crane designed to, operate on unimproved natural terrain and disturbed terrain of
TERRAIN construction sites.
CRANE

ROUND SLING: An endless synthetic fibre sling constructed with a circular cross-section.

RUNNING GEAR: Flexible ropes which run over sheaves or drums and the gear used with such ropes.

S The symbol used to indicate seale construction in an FSWR

S: TWIST: See ‘left hand lay’

SF: The symbol used to indicate seale filler wire in the construction of an FSWR.

SW The symbol used to indicate seale warrington construction in an FSWR.

SWL: Safe working load.

SAFE WORKING The maximum load which may be applied to a crane, hoist, rope, chain or sling for particular
LOAD: conditions of use

SAFETY A body harness to which a lanyard or inertia reel can be attached to protect a person from falling
HARNESS: or arrest a fall

SAFETY HOOK: A hook provided with a safety latch across its throat intended to prevent a sling being accidentally
dislodged.

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 TERM DEFINITION

A horizontal rope or webbing anchored to two or more points of a building or structure and
SAFETY LINE tensioned to provide an anchorage for a person wearing a safety harness to attach a lanyard or
inertia reel

SAFETY NET See ‘industrial safety net’.

SAG ROD A stiffening member fixed between purlins or girts, generally at their mid span.

A multi-layered strand construction method in FSWR where equal sized wires in one layer are laid
SEALE:
over an equal number of smaller equal sized wires in the next layer.

SEALE A multi-layered strand construction method in FSWR where a seale laid layer is laid over a
WARRINGTON warrington laid centre.

SCAFFOLD A temporary structure specifically erected to support access platforms or working platforms

SCAFFOLDING A serial hoist used with a suspension rope to raise and lower a cradle or boatswain’s chair during
HOIST: normal operation.

SCISSOR HOIST An elevating work platform where the platform is raised and lowered using a scissor mechanism

SECONDARY A rope sometimes used on a suspended scaffold which does not normally support the cradle but
ROPE which is rigged for use with a protective device

A lashing for holding two ropes, or two parts of a rope together. Common types include round,
SEIZING
square, flat, racking, throat and end seizings.ropes. Often used to secure the anchor of a vessel.

Winding marline, twine or annealed wire tightly around a rope, usually to protect a splice from
SERVING:
damage and to protect the user’s hands from cuts.

SHEAVE: A grooved wheel or roller over which a rope or chain passes

A derrick-like appliance consisting of two legs in an ‘A’ formation, with a sheave block fixed to its
SHEERLEGS
apex and the framework stabilised with guys..

A method of joining two ends of fibre rope. ,It is used where the spliced section does not have to
SHORT SPLICE
travel over a sheave.

SHROUD LAID A method of constructing a fibre rope using four strands layed around a core

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 TERM DEFINITION

SIMPLY
A beam which, is fixed at each end
SUPPORTED BEAM

A horizontal rope or webbing anchored to two or more points of a building or structure and
SAFETY LINE tensioned to provide an anchorage for a person wearing a safety harness to attach a lanyard
or inertia reel

SIMPLY
A beam which, is fixed at each end
SUPPORTED BEAM

SINGLE LADDER A non-self supporting portable ladder whose length cannot be adjusted

A fibre rope tackle where both the upper and lower blocks have single sheaves (two single
SINGLE WHIP
blocks).

Vegetable fibre obtained from the sisal plant. Sometimes used to construct natural fibre
SISAL:
ropes.

SLEWING: The rotation of a crane’s boom or jib in the horizontal plane.

SLEWING CRANE A crane with a boom or jib which has slewing capability

SLEWING MOBILE A powered mobile slewing crane. It does not refer to a front-end loader, backhoe, excavator
CRANE or similar equipment when configured for crane operation

SLING Detachable lifting gear made, from FSWR, natural fibre, chain, or synthetic fibre

A sheave block with a drop side to permit the bight of a rope to be placed or removed without
SNATCH BLOCK
reeving it through

The sudden application of power to lift a load, causing large impact forces on the load and the
LOADING
running gear

SNIGGING Dragging a sling or dragging a load. SNOTTER: A fibre rope sling.

A dangerous method of twitching tight the parts of a rope by placing a bar between them and
SPANISH WINDLASS
taking several turns.

A rigid member used to connect two trolleys from which a scaffold is suspended. It keeps the
SPREADER BAR:
suspension points aligned when the cradle or working platform is traversed

A beam with a central lifting attachment and with slinging points at each end. Used to reduce
SPREADER BEAM
the angle of slings or to sling loads with large surface areas or to reduce the strain on a load.

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 TERM DEFINITION

SPECIAL DUTY
WORKING A platform on a scaffold designed for live loads greater than 675 kg per bay.
PLATFORM

SOCK See ‘cable pulling stocking’. SOFT EYE: See ‘bald eye’

Ropes such as guys and stays which do not run or work over sheaves or drums, and the gear
STANDING GEAR
used with such ropes.

STATIC LINE See ‘safety line’

A self-supporting portable ladder of fixed length having flat steps or treads and hinged back
STEP LADDER
legs

STIFF-LEG DERRICK A derrick crane stabilised by rigid backstays and sleepers

A number of wires or fibres layed in a spiral which, are then layed up with other strands to
STRAND:
form a rope.

STOCKING See ‘cable pulling stocking’

STRETCHING
See ‘turnbuckle’.
SCREW:

STRONGBACK A temporary member fixed to a load to strengthen or stiffen it during lifting

STROP: An endless sling.

Chain constructed with a stud across the centre of each link. Commonly used for marine
STUD-LINK CHAIN purposes, the stud prevents the chain from jamming when it comes out of ships’ lockers.
Unsuitable for general lifting purposes

A materials tower hoist with a WLL greater than one tonne. It is sometimes constructed as a
SUPER DUTY HOIST
dual tower with a materials platform in one tower and a concrete bucket in the other

SUSPENDED A scaffold incorporating a suspended platform which, can be raised and lowered in normal
SCAFFOLD: use, including a boatswain’s chair.

The portion of a suspended scaffold (including a trolley track) which is mounted at a higher
SUSPENSION RIG: level than the cradle and which supports and positions the cradle. Sometimes called a ‘roof
rig’

SUSPENSION ROPE A rope used in a suspended scaffold to support a cradle

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 TERM DEFINITION

SWAGED FITTING A metallic fitting attached to FSWR using radial pressure to form an eye

SWING STAGE A suspended scaffold with a single row of suspension ropes

SWIVEL: A rotating item of lifting gear which can rotate, without spinning the rope, hook or load

Manufactured fibre used in the construction of fibre ropes and slings, such as polyamide
SYNTHETIC FIBRE
(nylon), polyester, polyethylene, polypropylene, etc.

T Symbol indicating Grade 80 chain

T Symbol for tonne.

TACKLE Fibre rope reeved through sheaves to form a mechanical advantage

TAGLINE A fibre rope attached to a suspended load to control the load during lifting.

TAPERED FLANGE
largely obsolete type of steel I-beam. UB’s are now generally used
BEAM

The unloaded weight of a crane, lifting box or other container. It is also called the ‘self-
TARE WEIGHT
weight’

The extension or rétraction of a crane’s boom or jib by the movement of the boom or jib
TELESCOPING
sections during normal operation. A feature of most hydraulic boom cranes

A grooved piece of metal, circular or pear-shaped, used to protect an eye splice. It forms a
THIMBLE
‘hard eye’

TONNE A unit for measuring mass (or weight).1 000 kg equals 1 tonne.

TOWER CRANE A boom or jib crane mounted on a tower structure

TRACK-MOUNTED
A mobile crane mounted on a crawler track base. It is not usually fitted with outriggers.
CRANE

TRAVEL: Movement of a complete crane along a surface or track.

TRAVEL TOWER A boom-type EWP mounted on a truck tray

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 TERM DEFINITION

Movement of a crab or other part of a crane along runways forming part of the crane
TRAVERSE structure, or horizontal movement of a scaffold platform hung from or suspended from a
trolley track

A fibre rope used with a suspended scaffold or hung scaffold supported from a trolley track
TRAVERSING ROPE to provide controlled horizontal movement of the platform. Also the rope used to traverse the
fox across the main cable of a flying fox.

TRESTLE LADDER A portable hinged self-supporting ladder designed and intended to support scaffold planks

TRUCK-MOUNTED A mobile crane mounted on a truck-type chassis and cab system, with the crane base
CRANE forming part of the truck chassis.

TUCK A rope strand tail passed under a strand in the construction of a splice

An open-framed attachment with an anchorage and threaded rod at each end used to
TURNBUCKLE
tension a rope or to provide fine adjustment

UB Universal beam

UC Universal column

UNDERWOUND Rope winding on and off the underside of a winch drum

UNION SCREW See Turnbuckle

UNIVERSAL BEAM An I-section steel beam commonly used in steel structures

UNIVERSAL COLUMN An I-section steel column commonly used in steel structures

VEHICLE LOADING A powered slewing crane mounted on a vehicle for the principal purpose of loading and
CRANE unloading the vehicle.

W Symbol used to indicate a warrington construction in an FSWR.

WLL: Working load limit

WALKING Mobiling a load with track-mounted cranes

A powered winch with a dished drum used with a fibre or wire rope which is turned around
WARPING DRUM
the drum using friction to lift or haul a load. Also called a ‘capstan winch’

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 TERM DEFINITION

A multi-layered strand construction method for FSWR where the strand is laid up parallel with
WARRINGTON:
alternate large andsmall wires in one layer.

WEBBING SLING A flat woven synthetic fibre sling.

WHIP UPON WHIP A fibre rope tackle with two moveable single blocks and one fixed single block

A method of preventing the end of a rope from unlaying by securing yarn, marline, twin or wire
WHIPPING around it. Forms of whipping used with fibre ropes include Common whipping, American
whipping, West-Countryman’s whipping and Palm-and-Needle whipping.

WINCH: An appliance which provides a means of hoisting or hauling a load.

A single continuous steel filament. In FSWR, a number a wires make up a strand, and several
WIRE
strands form a rope

WIRE ROPE GRIP A removable device incorporating nuts and bolts designed to be fixed to FSWR

A suspended scaffold cradle supported by a single suspension rope. Usually designed for
WORK CAGE
one person

A crane-lifted box designed to carry personnel and provide them with a working platform.
WORKBOX
Often used to service tower crane booms and during large-scale steel erection

WORKING LOAD The maximum load which can be applied under general conditions of use to a crane, hoist,
LIMIT rope, chain, sling or item of lifting gear.

The laying of lengths of spun yarn into the valleys between the strands of a rope to make the
WORMING
rope completely circular before it is served.

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21. SAMPLE ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
21.1 INTRODUCTION
The questions in this Appendix are typical of those set for riggers’ certificate assessments and are specifically for
dogging,You will find the answers in the text of this guide.

# QUESTION

1. Which has the greater bearing pressure — shale or dry sand

2. What type of tagline would you use operating near power lines
 natural fibre rope or
 synthetic fibre rope
3. Which type of two-way radio is recommended for dogging on large city building sites — a trunked radio or a
conventional radio?

4. What is meant by 6 x 24 FC RHOL FSWR?

5. Are the strands of a right hand lay rope laid clockwise or anti-clockwise around the core?

6. Does the lay of a rope affect the WLL?

7. Which letter is often used to mark Grade 80 chain?

8. What is the WLL of a synthetic sling colour-coded green?

9. What is the recommended maximum angle between two legs of a sling?

10. When a three-legged sling is used to lift a rigid load, how many legs are assumed to be taking the weight?

11. How would you protect a sling from damage caused by the sharp edges of a load?

12. What can happen if a kibble of concrete is dumped in one spot?

13. What minimum clearance around stacked loads would you keep for truck access?

14. What is the minimum diameter FSWR you would use for two vertical slings fixed to a spreader for lifting a tank
filled with water where:
 the tank’s tare weight is 200 kg
 the tank diameter is 850 mm
 and the tank height is 1600 mm?
15. If you are using a 13 mm Grade (P) four-legged chain sling with an included angle of 60 degrees between the
diagonally opposite sling legs, what is the maximum load that can be lifted?

16. If you are using a pair of 14 mm reeved FSWR slings with an included angle of 90 degrees to lift a universal
beam which weighs 147 kg per metre, what is the maximum length the beam can be?

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