Physics-PHY101-Lecture 20

WAVE MOTION
Introduction to waves:
Wave motion is a fundamental concept in physics, describing the propagation of disturbances
or oscillations through a medium or space. Waves manifest in various forms, encompassing
mechanical waves like sound and ocean waves, electromagnetic waves such as light and radio
waves, and even quantum waves. Wavelength, amplitude, and frequency are fundamental
concepts in the study of wave motion. Whether observing the rhythmic undulations of water,
the transmission of sound through air, or the propagation of light through space, understanding
wave motion is crucial in analyzing the dynamics of the natural world across a diverse range
of phenomena.
Waves, including ocean waves, light waves, X-rays, and radio waves, exhibit common
characteristics. When two frequencies combine, they generate additional frequencies, known
as beats. Additionally, when waves from different sources interact, they can either cancel each
other out (destructive interference) or reinforce each other (constructive interference). These
principles apply universally across various types of waves.

Difference between constructive and destructive interference:

Constructive Interference Destructive Interference
1) When the crest of one wave meets with the 1) When the crest of the one wave is meet
crest of another wave (or trough to trough) with the trough of another wave then
then constructive interference takes place. destructive interference is takes place
2) In the constructive interference when two 2) In destructive interference when two
waves meet each other the two waves are waves meet each other they cancel out each
added up each other. other.
3) The condition for the constructive 3) The condition for destructive
interference is that the phase difference interference is that the phase difference
between two waves must be zero. between superimposing waves is 180°.
4) The intensity of waves is increased in the 4) The intensity of light wave decreases in
constructive interference. destructive interference.
5) The waves in the constructive interference 5) The waves in the destructive interference
are in phase. are in out of phase.

Longitudinal Waves:
In longitudinal waves, medium vibrations align with the wave's direction of motion. If one end
of a spring is pushed, the resulting wave travels through the entire spring. An earthquake
generates longitudinal waves in the ground, where one-part pushes another forward, causing
the waves to propagate.

Figure 20. 1: Propagation of a longitudinal wave, showing compressions (high-pressure regions)

and rarefactions (low-pressure regions) as the wave moves through a medium.

Transverse Waves:
In transverse waves, medium vibrations are perpendicular to the direction of motion.
Transverse waves are evident in phenomena like water ripples when an object is placed on the
water's surface, demonstrating upward and downward motion. In earthquake, both longitudinal
and transverse waves are present. Light waves are another example of transverse waves.

Figure 20. 2: Motion of a transverse wave, highlighting the perpendicular oscillation of particles
relative to the direction of wave propagation within a medium.

Difference between Longitudinal and Transverse Waves:

Longitudinal Transverse
The particles of the medium move in the The particles of the medium are moving
same direction of the wave. perpendicular to the direction of wave.
It acts in one dimension It acts in two dimensions
The wave cannot be polarized or aligned. The wave can be polarized or aligned
This wave can be produced in any This wave can be produced in solid and
medium such as gas, liquid or solid. liquid’s surface.
Example: The earthquake P wave, spring Example: Earthquake S wave, and light
waves and sound waves. waves.
 It is made of rarefactions and It is made of troughs and crests.
compressions.

Amplitude and Power in Waves:

The relationship between amplitude and power varies in different cases, making it challenging
to provide a specific explanation. However, a general point can be made: "The height of a
wave is its amplitude," and "the energy in a wave is proportional to the square of the
amplitude." This implies that the power or energy of a wave is determined by squaring its
amplitude. To illustrate, considering a harmonic oscillator with an extension x expressed as:

x = xm sin  t

The symbol “xm” represents the amplitude, which is the maximum value a wave can attain. The
1 1 1 𝑑𝑥 2
potential energy (2 𝑘𝑥 2 ) and kinetic energy (2 𝑚𝑣 2 = 2 𝑘 ( 𝑑𝑡 ) ) , when summed, are
proportional to xm2 or the square of the amplitude. This relationship holds true for any wave,
where the power or energy is directly proportional to the square of the amplitude.
Plane Waves
Let's consider generating sound waves using a piston, where the area of the piston is assumed
to be infinite. By moving the piston back and forth, it produces planar waves that propagate
uniformly in one direction. These waves exhibit infinite extent, with wavefronts spaced at a
wavelength (λ). In this pressure wave, if the pressure is at a maximum at one wavefront, it will
reach maximum again after one wavelength, creating an infinite train of plane waves moving
in one direction.

Figure 20. 3: Representation of plane waves. The planes represent wavefronts spaced one
wavelength apart, and the arrows represent rays.

Spherical Waves
If sound is emitted spherically, as seen with a chirping sound, spherical waves are formed.
Spherical waves decrease in intensity as they propagate, eventually dissipating to zero after
traveling a certain distance. The rate of intensity decrease depends on the medium's energy
absorption capacity. If the medium does not absorb energy, the produced energy remains within
the sphere, creating different conditions for spheres with varying radii.

Figure 20. 4: Spherical wavefronts emanating from a point source, illustrating the outward
propagation of energy in all directions uniformly.

1
Power 
r2

Let's consider two spheres with radii r1 and r2, where the total power passing through both
spheres is same. This implies that if power P pass through the first sphere, an equal amount
passes through the second sphere. If there is no object in the middle absorbing sound, and only
air is present, there is no decrease in intensity. The radiated power (P)
can be expressed as,

P = 4 r 2 I (Area of sphere = 4πr2)

where “I” is the intensity. For the smaller sphere, the surface area is 4πr12,
and the power (P1) is:

P1 = 4 r12 I1

Similarly, for the larger sphere, with surface area 4πr22, the power (P2)
is:

P2 = 4 r22 I 2

P1 = P2 = P
4 r12 I1 = 4 r22 I 2

I1 r22
=
I 2 r12
This is evidence that when r2 increases, intensity—which is measured in W/m2 —will also
decrease.
Problem: Spherically sound waves are emitted uniformly in all directions from a point source,
the radiated power P being 25 W. What is the intensity, and the sound level of the sound waves
at distance r = 2.5 m from the source?
P = 25 W , r = 2.5 m
P = 4πr I
2

P 25
I= = =.32 W/m 2
4πr 2
4(3.14)(2.5)2
I .32
SL = 10 log = 10 log −12 = 115dB  I o = 10−12 W / m2
I0 10

Phase in Wave Cycles

Phase refers to the specific position in the cycle of a wave at a given point in time. Certainly,
the sine wave follows a characteristic pattern, starting at zero, reaching its maximum at π/2,
returning to zero at π, descending to negative values, hitting -1 at 3π/2, and rising again to zero
at 2π. The cosine wave is closely related to the sine wave, differing by a phase shift of π/2.

The concept of phase introduces a new dimension, representing the argument of a sine or cosine
function. In a general wave like sin (kx - ωt), adding a fixed angle to it introduces a constant
phase difference, crucial in understanding wave behavior. The interaction of phases, whether
added or subtracted, is significant, especially in the context of pure tones where they can either
reinforce or cancel each other. Geometrically, phase can be visualized by examining the
displacement (y) when x is zero.

y( x, t ) = ym sin (kx −  t −  )

In the expression (kx - ωt – ϕ) is termed as phase, with ϕ called the phase constant. The phase
constant either moves forward or backward in space or time, and the displacement (y) can be
expressed in two distinct manners.

  
y ( x, t ) = ym sin  k ( x −  − t 
 k 

   
y ( x, t ) = ym sin  kx −   t +  
   

Principle of superposition:
According to principle of superposition, if there are two separate sources producing waves with
amplitudes y1 and y2, the total amplitude is given by y1+y2. This holds true in a linear system.
The power obtained from this superimposed amplitude is proportional to (y1+y2)2.
 Figure 20. 5: Demonstration of constructive and destructive interference patterns: on the left,
waves aligning in phase to produce amplification (constructive), and on the right, waves aligning
out of phase leading to cancellation (destructive).

In the case of waves colliding, considering one-dimensional motion, the total amplitude is
y1+y2. However, it's important to note that at certain locations, this amplitude increases, while
at others, it decreases when the waves overlap. This behavior remains consistent as long as the
waves are separate and pass through each other while maintaining their original forms. The
principle of superposition is applicable to all types of waves.

Example:
When two loudspeakers emit sine waves of a specific frequency
or pure tone, and a person stands in front of them, the waves
can interfere with each other as the person moves back and
forth. Two waves (y1 (x, t) and y2 (x, t)) having same magnitude
ym, same wave number k, same angular frequency ω but
different phases (ϕ1 and ϕ2) are given by,
𝑦1 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑦𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙1 )
And 𝑦2 (𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑦𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙2 )
Resultant wave y (x, t) by superposition principal is sum of two waves and can be expressed as
𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑦1 (𝑥, 𝑡) + 𝑦2 (𝑥, 𝑡)
𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑦𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙1 ) + 𝑦𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙2 )
𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑦𝑚 [𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙1 ) + 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙2 )]
By using trigonometric product identity given below,
𝐵−𝐶 𝐵+𝐶
sin 𝐵 + sin 𝐶 = 2 cos ( ) sin ( )
2 2
y (x, t) becomes,
𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡)
(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙1 ) − (𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙2 ) (𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙1 ) + (𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙2 )
= 𝑦𝑚 [2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( ) . 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( )]
2 2
𝜙2 − 𝜙1 2𝑘𝑥 − 2𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙1 − 𝜙1
𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑦𝑚 [2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( ) . 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( )]
2 2
𝜙2 − 𝜙1 𝜙1 + 𝜙1
𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) = 2𝑦𝑚 [𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( ) . 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 − ( ))]
2 2
𝛥𝜙
𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) = [2𝑦𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( )] . 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙 ′ )
2
Where 𝛥𝜙 = 𝜙2 − 𝜙1
(𝜙1 + 𝜙2 )
𝜙′ =
2
The first term can be considered as amplitude (as it constant for particular/fixed values of ϕ1
and ϕ2 and is independent of time t).
𝛥𝜙
𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) = [2𝑦𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( )] . 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙 ′ )
⏟ 2
amplitude

There are two distinct aspects of sine and cosine functions. For constructive interference, when
the cos 0o = 1, the amplitude of sine is at its maximum. This occurs when two different
frequencies combine, resulting in constructive interference. For constructive interference,
∆∅
= 0, 𝜋, 2𝜋. . . . . ..
2
On the contrary, for destructive interference, when the cosine is zero (as seen with the cos 90o
=0), adding π again to phase, results in zero(cos 270° = 0), signifying destructive interference.
If two waves cancel each other out, both amplitudes are equal, and this occurs when at the same
distance from the loudspeaker. This principle applies more broadly without any specific
limitations. For destructive interference,
  3
= , …….
2 2 2

Problem: Two speakers, which are separated by a distance D of 2.3 m, emit a pure tone. The
waves are in phase when they leave the speakers. For what wavelengths will the listener hear
a minimum in the sound intensity, if the person is standing at the distance of 1.2 m from speaker
2?
To achieve destructive or constructive interference, we
need to determine the required phase difference. Using
Pythagoras theorem,
Hypotenuse2 = base2 + perpendicular2
 x12 = x22 + D 2
x1 = x22 + D 2 = 2.6m
x1 − x2 = (2.6 − 1.2) m = 1.4m
For destructive interference
  
Phase difference = ,3 ,5 , 
2 2 2
  
1.4m = ,3 ,5 , 
2 2 2
 = 2.8m, 0.93m, 0.56m, 

Stationary Waves
Stationary waves are formed by the superposition of two waves with the same frequency and
amplitude traveling in opposite directions.

Figure 20. 6: A rope with a weight oscillating over a pulley, producing a standing wave pattern
due to interference between waves traveling in opposite directions.

In a standing wave, some sections remain stationary (nodes), while adjacent sections
experience maximum displacement (antinodes), forming a distinctive pattern. The resultant
amplitude of stationary waves depends on the interference of the individual waves. The wave
equations can be expressed as:

y1 ( x, t ) = ym sin ( kx − t )

y2 ( x, t ) = ym sin ( kx + t )

The difference in sign here shows that y1 is the wave which is going in the positive x-direction
while the other is in the negative x-direction.
The stationary wave is formed by the superposition of these two waves. So, the resultant
displacement, y(x,t), is given by:

y ( x, t ) = y1 ( x, t ) + y2 ( x, t )

= ym sin ( kx − t ) + ym sin ( kx + t ) = ym sin ( kx − t ) + sin ( kx + t )

Use the trigonometric identity sin (A + B) + sin (A − B) = 2 sin (A) cos (B) to simplify the
expression:

=  2 ym sin kx  cos t
amplitude

This is the equation for a stationary wave. It shows that the displacement (y)of the particles in
the medium depends on both the spatial part (sin(kx)) and the temporal part (cos(ωt)). The
amplitude of the stationary wave is 2ym, which means it is twice the amplitude of the individual
waves, leading to regions of constructive and destructive interference in the resulting wave
pattern.
The locations of nodes occur at kx = 0,π,2π,3π,…, where the amplitude is zero. Conversely, at
kx = π/2, 3π/2,…, there are antinodes, resulting in maximum amplitude. This proves that the
standing waves formed exhibit both nodes and antinodes, and the distance between them can
be calculated based on the points where the amplitude is at its maximum and minimum.
So far, we have only considered interference in terms of frequency. Now, let's explore what
happens when two separate sources that are considered to be interfering generate pressure
waves (sound waves) having same amplitude p0 but different angular frequencies (ω1 and ω2).
p1 (t ) = p0 sin 1t
p2 (t ) = p0 sin 2t
p (t ) = p1 (t ) + p2 (t )
  −    + 
= p0 (sin 1t + sin 2t )  sin + sin  =  cos   sin  
 2   2 
   − 2    1 + 2 
=  2 p0 cos  1  t  sin  t
  2    2 

The argument of sin is (ω1+ω2)/2 representing the average of frequency, while the argument of
cosine is (ω1-ω2)/2. This difference in frequencies is called beat frequency.

1 + 2
=
2
 − 2
diff = 1  po = pm
2
p(t ) =  2pm cos diff t  sin t
beat = 2diff = 1 − 2

Consider two audio generators fixed to separate amplifiers. Turning on one generator produces
a sound, and when switched to the second generator, a different sound is heard. Our ears cannot
easily discern the frequency difference between them. However, when both generators are
turned on simultaneously, two frequencies are generated: the beat frequency and the sum of
frequencies. As we observe, when the frequencies of the generators are nearly equal, a beat
frequency is noticeable, characterized by a slow modulation.

Figure 20. 7: Phenomenon of beats formation, showing the periodic variation in amplitude
resulting from the interference of two waves of slightly different frequencies.

Applications of Beats Phenomenon:

The beat phenomenon helps in tuning musical instruments where the frequencies of two tones
become nearly equal, producing an audible beat. Another application is in radio modulation.
Since audio frequencies range from 20 cycles/s to 20,000 cycles/s, and radio waves operate in
kHz and MHz, the beat phenomenon is used for modulation. By adding an audio frequency to
a carrier wave, a new frequency is formed, such as combining a 20 kHz frequency with a 20
mega cycle radio frequency. This creates a high-frequency wave suitable for efficient radiation,
and upon reaching the radio, it undergoes demodulation.

Speed of sound
A mass attached to a spring exhibits oscillations when pulled and released. The frequency (f)
1 k
of oscillation is determined by f = 2π √m , where k is the spring constant (representing the
force with which the spring tries to return to its original position based on its stiffness) and m
is the mass. Sound waves obey a similar principle when a particle is displaced from its position;
it strives to return to its original position. The force exerted in this process is calculated using
bulk modulus (B). The velocity of sound (v) is related to bulk modulus and density (ρ) through
B
the formula v = √ ρ . Sound speed varies in different mediums, being faster in liquids and even

more so in solids.

Medium Sound speed (ms-1)

Gases
o
Air (0 C) 330
 Helium 965
Hydrogen 1274
Liquids
Water (0oC) 1402
Solids
Aluminium 6420
Steel 5941

Pulse Propagation:
Sound typically propagates in the form of pulses (a short burst of a wave or a localized
disturbance) rather than pure tones. Pulse shapes can vary, gradually diminishing or ending at
different points. At time t = 0, pressure distribution is observed as a function of x. The shape
of the pulse is represented by f(x). Moving with the pulse at the speed of sound (v) without
changing f(x) is crucial.
At time, the original shape of the function f(x) remains the same.
y( x,0) = f ( x)

At time t it is displaced by an amount vt

y ( x, t ) = f ( x ') = f ( x − vt )
where, x ' = x − vt

x − vt = constant

Figure 20. 8: Propagation of a single pulse without change in shape along a medium.

It implies that if you move with speed v, the pulse will continue to move with you, preserving
its shape.
x − vt = constant
Differentiate w.r.t time
 dx
−v=0
dt
dx
=v
dt
The speed at which the pulse maintains its shape is called phase velocity. Phase velocity is
independent of frequency, meaning it remains constant regardless of the frequency of the pure
tone. Uniform speed for each frequency is crucial to avoid variations in arrival times.

Dispersion in Medium:
Dispersion occurs when there is a correlation between frequency and speed, leading to different
frequencies arriving at varying times. Dispersive medium is one where different waves move
at different speeds. In such a medium, a pulse loses its shape over time, undergoing alterations
in its shape. Short peak pulses will spread and flatten over time in a dispersive medium. In cold
air, the speed of sound is approximately 330 ms-1. If a moving car emits a sound wave that
reaches you, you can deduce that the car is approaching if its speed is slower than the speed of
sound (330 m/s). But what happens if it's moving faster? In such a scenario, it is termed
supersonic motion.

Figure 20. 9: Formation and propagation of shock waves.

Shock Waves:

Supersonic motion occurs when the source moves at a speed surpassing that of sound. This
leads to the generation of shock waves or shock fronts, resulting in explosion-like noises. The
associated angles (denoted as θ) involve sine θ and cosine θ. The quantification of these angles
and their trigonometric functions is expressed through what are known as Mach numbers.
Mach numbers serve as a numerical representation of the ratio between the speed of a moving
object and the speed of sound, providing a standardized measure for describing the intensity
and characteristics of supersonic motion. For example, if an object can fly two or three times
faster than the speed of sound, it is a Mach Two or Mach Three aircraft.

Applications of Shock Waves:

Shock waves carry substantial energy and find applications in various fields. One practical
application is the use of ultrasound shock waves to break down kidney stones, offering a non-
surgical solution. The example of using ultrasound shock waves illustrates the potential
benefits derived from a profound understanding of wave dynamics.