Physics-PHY101-Lecture 19

PHYSICS OF SOUND
Introduction to waves
Waves, including sound waves, are disturbances that transfer energy from one place to another
without transferring matter. In the context of sound waves, the medium through which the
disturbance travels are typically air, but it can also be other materials like water or solids. Sound
waves are produced by vibrations. When an object vibrates, it creates compressions and
rarefactions in the surrounding medium. In the case of your voice, the vibrations originate in your
vocal cords. As you speak, these vibrations are transmitted to the air molecules, creating areas of
high pressure (compressions) and low pressure (rarefactions). These pressure differences are
subsequently transmitted as sound waves via the air. Mechanical waves, specifically water waves,
are produced by tossing a stone into the water. These waves move water molecules in circular or
elliptical patterns by transferring energy over the surface of the water.
For sound waves, the medium is essential. In the absence of a medium (like in outer space), sound
cannot travel because there are no molecules to transmit the vibrations. It's important to note that
while waves transmit energy, the particles in the medium generally oscillate around a fixed
position. At the end of 2004, the biggest tsunami occurred near Indonesia. The energy from the
earthquake caused water particles to move in an up-and-down motion, transmitting the energy
across vast distances.
In this chapter we’ll understand the principles of waves are crucial in various fields, from physics
and engineering to telecommunications and environmental science.
Sound waves generated in a tube:
Moving the piston from left to right in a tube with a piston attached to one end causes a motion in
the layers of air within the tube. Energy is transferred as one layer imparts energy to the next.
These layers of air are constantly vibrating, and their forward movement becomes visible over
time. While this is simple in one dimension, it becomes more complicated when onlookers
intervene by clapping their hands, forcing the layer of air to scatter in different directions. The
difficulty lies in finding and comprehending these dispersed levels.

Figure 19. 1: Sound wave propagation within a tube by a moving piston, highlighting the
compression and rarefaction patterns as the waves travel through the confined space. The
compressible material in the tube is divided into layers with equal masses by the vertical lines.
In a previous lecture, we highlighted the significance of identifying vibrations using a variety of
parameters. Firstly, the frequency of the layer determines the number of cycles per second.
Secondly, the time taken to complete one cycle is referred to as the time period. Lastly, the
amplitude of the vibration signifies its intensity — lower amplitude corresponds to lower sound,
and in the context of earthquakes, low-amplitude seismic activity may go unnoticed.

Generation of sound
Working of a loudspeaker
A signal generator produces an electrical signal with a specific frequency and amplitude. To
amplify the weak signal, we use a radio amplifier. Connecting the waves from the amplifier to a
loudspeaker which consist of basic two parts: an outer diaphragm made of hard paper and a
permanent magnet. The coil, when carrying current, experiences a magnetic force, leading to the
diaphragm's vibration. By controlling amplitude and frequency, we can control the sound quality.
High frequencies, above 15 kHz, become inaudible, demonstrating our control over amplitude and
frequency.
Now by placing pallets on the diaphragm, we observe their response to changes in volume and
frequency. Resonance occurs when the pallets and diaphragm frequencies align, resulting in
increased movement of pallets. This experiment confirms that sound is indeed a vibration.
Intensity of sound
Sound operates on various energy levels, and here it is measured in watts. This quantifies the
energy reaching us at any given time. Hence watt is equal to the joule per second (J/s). To
gauge/measure the energy in space, sound intensity is measured in watts per centimeter squared.
There are various levels of sound which differ from each other, and here we employ a logarithmic
scale for precision. Logarithms, such as log1010 = 1, log10102 = 2 and log1010n = n. Hence, it helps
in managing larger values to smaller ones efficiently.
Logarithmic scales are crucial for very low-intensity sounds, around 10-12 W/cm2. This is
expressed in decibels (dB) scale, “a relative measure for comparing the intensity of different
sounds with one another”.
𝐼𝑜 = Threshold of hearing = 10−12 W/ cm2
𝐼
R = Relative intensity of sound 𝐼 = 10𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝐼
𝑜
Let's now examine the intensity of various sounds by using 10−12 as a reference value. Following
this, we will explore how sound levels are expressed on a logarithmic scale.
Waves create a displacement between one peak and another, known as
wavelength. Mathematically, it is described as follows:
At time t=0
2𝜋
𝑦(𝑥, 0) = 𝑦𝑚 sin 𝑥
𝜆
ym is the amplitude. At time t in x direction,
2𝜋
𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑦𝑚 sin (𝑥 − v𝑡)
𝜆
Now, as the waves progress, they travel a distance vt in one second, where v is the velocity of
sound. This clarifies that within one oscillation time, the wave moves forward by vt. The period
T of a wave is the time to undergo one complete cycle of motion.
𝜆
𝜆 = 𝑣𝑇 → 𝑇 =
𝑣
The frequency (ν) is the number of waves crossing a particular point every second.
1
𝑣=
𝑇
𝑥 𝑡
𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑦𝑚 sin2𝜋( − )
𝜆 𝑇
The value of y at any given position remains the same at t, t+T, t+2T,….
To further describe the wave, we introduce two additional quantities: wave number (k) and angular
frequency (ω).
Sound Intensity Relative Intensity Sound Level
2𝜋
𝑘= (W / m2) (I / Io) (dB)
𝜆 Threshold of hearing 10-12 100 0
2𝜋 Rustle of leaves 10-11 101 10
𝜔= = 2𝜋𝑣
𝑇 Whisper (at 1 atm) 10-10 102 20
In the previous discussion on City street, no traffic 10-9 103 30
oscillations, resonance was explored Conversation (at 1 atm) 10-6 106 60
in detail. It was highlighted that
10-3 109
when an oscillator is driven by an Pressure horn (at 1 atm) 90
external force, it exhibits maximum Ear damage 1 1012 120
response when the driving frequency Jet engine (at 1 atm) 10 1013 130
aligns closely with the resonance
frequency. This principle is evident in musical instruments.
Waves in Guitar Strings
Consider a guitar with various strings, each possessing different widths and tensions. Tensions can
be adjusted, creating distinct frequencies for each string. Nodes, points where the string doesn't
move, are present at both ends, where the oscillation amplitude is zero. In between these nodes,
the amplitude may vary depending on the way of excitation of the strings.
The shape of the oscillation depends on the way of exciting string. Two notable features of the
guitar include its unique body shape. There is an air column in the middle of the guitar where
resonance occurs when the strings set the body in vibration. By plucking or exciting a string,
different tones are generated. The frequency of each tone is proportional to the square root of the
tension divided by the mass per unit length, meaning thicker strings have more mass per unit length.
Adjusting tension in the strings of guitar influences frequency. Increasing tension increases
frequency. So, the frequency of oscillation does depend upon the square root of tension.
This is because the speed of sound in all strings is equal to the square root of the tension divided
by the mass per unit length.
Nodes are present at both ends. When exciting the middle string, a unique sound is produced. The
guitarist controls frequency by altering the length, generating multiple frequencies from each string.
Unlike pure tones, which consist of a single frequency, the guitar produces a variety of frequencies.

Mathematics of Complex Waveforms

When different frequencies coexist, we can comprehend this phenomenon through mathematics.
As mentioned earlier, combining sine waves with varying amplitudes results in a complex
waveform that, despite being periodic, appears unconventional compared to simple sine or cosine
functions.
Altering the coefficients produces different shapes.

Figure 19. 2: Addition of sin waves i.e., sin t, sin 2t, and sin 3t, each wave with different amplitudes
(0.5 and 0.3) is obtained.
You can see cost with various frequencies and amplitudes as well.
 Figure 19. 3: Addition of cosine waves i.e., cos t, cos 2t, and cos 3t.
A remarkable discovery attributed to Joseph Fourier two centuries ago says that any wave,
regardless of its shape, can be represented as a sum of sine and cosine functions. This concept is
widely recognized as Fourier analysis.

Instrument Tuning Software

There is software designed for tuning various musical instruments, ensuring accurate node
generation by comparing with the instrument's natural nodes. Unlike a guitar, which produces
multiple notes, the low-frequency note is known as the fundamental frequency, and the other
frequency notes which appear after the low-frequency notes are termed as overtones.
It's important to note the distinction between music and pure tones. While pure tones lack appeal,
music incorporates a fundamental frequency and overtones. Comparing the tones generated by the
software with recorded guitar sounds reveals that the guitar produces a mix of fundamental
frequencies and overtones, around 84 Hz.
To further illustrate this, harmonic analysis quantifies the amplitude of each harmonic, providing
information about the coefficients of sine frequencies and others in decibels. The software takes
an interesting step by performing Fourier analysis at each moment. As a person speaks, a graph on
the screen displays the analysis in real-time.
Doppler Effect
The Doppler Effect is the phenomena in which relative motion between source and observer causes
the observer to receive a frequency that is different from that emitted by the source. The
phenomenon was discovered by Austrian physicist Christian Johann Doppler in 1842.
Case 1: Observer is moving towards a stationary source
 Figure 19. 4: Doppler effect with a stationary sound source (S) and a moving observer (O)
travelling at a speed (vo) towards the source. The circles show wavefronts moving across the
medium separated by one wavelength.
If the observer was at rest, the number of waves received in time t would be t/T or vt /λ (1/T = ν
= v/λ). Where v is the speed of sound in the medium and λ and ν are the wavelength frequency of
sound wave. But if O is moving towards the source with speed vo, the additional number of waves
received is obviously vot /λ . By definition,
number of waves received
ν′ = frequency actually heard =
unit time
vt vo t
+
ν′ = λ λ = v + vo
t λ
v + vo v + vo
= v = ν( )
⁄ν v
Frequency actually heard is
vo
ν′ = ν (1 + )
v
The increase in frequency ν (vo/v), brought on by the observer's motion, is added to the frequency
(ν) heard at rest to create the frequency (ν') heard by the observer. We finally conclude that the
observer hears a higher frequency (higher pitch) while moving towards the source.
Case 2: Observer is moving away from a stationary source
Waves are received at a reduced rate by an observer receding from the source, . Hence, number of
waves received per unit time in this case is
vt vo t
−
ν′ = λ λ = v − vo = v − vo = ν (v − vo ) = ν (1 − vo )
t λ v⁄ v v
ν
The above expression shows a decrease in frequency by an amount ν(vo/v) corresponding to the
waves that do not reach the observer in each unit of time because of the receding motion.
Since the observer is moving through the medium while the source is at rest with respect to it, the
general relation existing in this situation is
v ± vo
ν′ = ν ( )
v
where motion towards the source is represented by a plus sign, and motion away from the source
is represented by a negative sign.
Case 3: Source is moving towards the observer at rest

Figure 19. 5: Doppler effect with a source (S) moving at a speed (vs) towards a stationary observer
(O).
The waves are compressed by a quantity known as "doppler shift" (Δλ = vs/ν) as the source comes
closer to the observer because same number of waves are contained in a smaller region depending
upon the velocity of source vs. So, the wavelength seen by the observer is
v vs v − vs
λ′ = λ − ∆λ = − =
ν ν ν
From this frequency received by the observer is
v v
ν′ = =
λ′ (v − vs )⁄
ν
v
ν′ = ν
(v − vs )
Consequently, whenever the source is travelling in the direction of the observer, the observed
frequency rises.
Case 4: Source is moving away from the observer at rest
The wavelength emitted by the source increases as it gets farther away from the observer, causing
the observer to hear a lower frequency.
v vs v + vs
λ′ = λ + ∆λ = + =
ν ν ν
 v v v
ν′ = = =ν
λ′ (v + vs )⁄ (v + vs )
ν
In light of this, the general relationship that holds when the source is moving through a medium
and the observer is at rest is
v
ν′ = ν
(v ± vs )
where the minus sign holds for motion toward the observer and the plus sign holds for motion
away from the observer.
Case 5: Both source and observer are moving
Let us consider that the source and observer are moving towards each other. Using eq. Doppler
shift due to the motion of source is toward observer is
v − vs
λ′ =
ν
While observed frequency due to motion of observer towards source is

v + vo
ν′ =
λ′
Putting the value of λ’ in above equation
v + vo
ν′ = ν ( )
v − vs
Similarly, we can find the expression for the source and observer moving away from each other
v − vo
ν′ = ν ( )
v + vs
Combining the above expressions, we can write in general,
v ± vo
ν′ = ν
(v ∓ vs )
In this expression, the upper signs (+vo and -vs) refer to motion of one toward the other, and the
lower signs (- vo and +vs) refer to motion of one away from the other.
For all Doppler-effect problems we can conveniently say that:
The word toward is related to an increase in observed frequency while the words away from are
related to a decrease in observed frequency.
Both Doppler formulas that we derived here can approximate electromagnetic waves when their
relative speeds are significantly slower than the speed of light.
Applications of Doppler Effect
Remember, the Doppler shift is commonly used in sound emission, with applications extending to
ultrasound in medical diagnoses. Ultrasound operates at several MHz, allowing for precise
visualization of small distances within the body due to variations in tissue density affecting sound
frequency.
In ultrasound, a source emits sound, and reflections are captured by a microphone or probe for
computer analysis. In terms of the Doppler effect, it's employed to estimate blood flow speed in
veins.
Marine applications utilize sound waves to determine the speed and direction of submarines
underwater, a technique known as sonar. During World War II, sonar proved valuable for
submarine detection, showcasing the practicality of sound waves in underwater scenarios where
radio waves fall short.