MA3354
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DM Full Unit Notes
Discrete Mathematics (Anna University)
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MAHENDRA ENGINEERING COLLEGE
FOR WOMEN
LEARNING MATERIAL
Department of Mathematics
Subject Code : MA3354
Subject Name: Discrete Mathematics
Semester III
Content Prepared By: Mr. V.GANDHI
HOD
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UNIT - 1
LOGIC AND PROOFS
PROPOSITION (OR) STATEMENT
Proposition is a declarative statement that is either true or false but not both. The truth value of
proposition is true or false.
Examples:
1. The integer 5 is a prime number
2. Addition of 2 and 4 gives 5 as their sum.
The statement 1 has the truth value “true”, while the statement 2 has truth value “false”.
Negation of a proposition:
If P is a proposition, then its negation is denoted by P (or) ~P and is defined by the following
truth table.
Example:
P P
P – Ram is intelligent
T F P - Ram is not intelligent
F T
Usual logical connectives.
(i) Disjunction (OR)
The disjunction of two propositions P and Q is the Proposition P Q [Read as P Or Q]
and is defined by the following truth table.
Note:
P Q PQ
P Q is false when P and Q are false. Otherwise P Q is true.
T T T Example:
P:Raju appointed in Wipro
T F T
Q: Raju appointed in HCL
F T T
P Q : Raju appointed in Wipro or HCL
F F F
(ii) Conjunction (AND)
If P and Q are two propositions, then the conjunction of P and Q is denoted by P Q
[Read as P and Q] and is defined by the following truth table.
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P Q P Q
Note: P Q is true when both P and Q are
T T T true.Otherwise P Q is false.
T F F Example: P: Rani wears a ring
Q: Rani wears a chain
F T F
P Q : Rani wears a ring and a chain.
F F F
Problems:
1. Using the statements
R: Mohan is rich ; H: Mohan is Happy ,Write the following statements in symbolic form
(i) Mohan is rich (or) unhappy
(ii) Mohan is poor but happy
(iii) Mohan is neither rich nor happy
(iv) Mohan is poor or he is both rich and unhappy
Answers: R : Mohan is not rich. H : Mohan is not happy
(i) R (H) (ii) R H (iii) (R) (H ) (iv) (R) (R (H))
2. Construct the truth table for the following formulas:
(i) P (Q)
P Q Q P Q
T T F T
T F T T
F T F F
F F T T
(ii) P (P Q)
P Q (P Q) P (P Q)
T T T T
T F T T
F T T F
F F F F
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Conditional and Bi-conditional propositions:
(i) Conditional Proposition
If pand q are two propositions, then the implication “ If p then q” denoted by p q
called the conditional statement of p and q is defined by the following truth table.
P Q pq
Note: p q is false when p is true and q is false, otherwise it is
T T T
true.
T F F
Note: In P Q , P is called anticedent and Q is called the
F T T consecquent.
F F T
Converse, contrapositive and Inverse statements:
If P Q is a conditional statement, Then
(i) Q P is called converse of P Q
(ii) Q P is called contrapositive of P Q
(iii) P Q is called inverse of P Q
Example: P : Ram is a computer science student
Q : Ram Study DBMS
P Q : If Ram is a computer science student then he will study DBMS
(ii) Bi-conditional Proposition:
If P and Q are two propositions, then the preposition P if and only if Q, denoted by
P Q called the biconditional statement and is defined by the following truth table.
P Q PQ
Note: P Q is true if both P and Q have same truth values.
T T T
Otherwise P Q is false.
T F F
Example:
F T F
P: You can take the flight
F F T Q: You buy a ticket.
P Q : You can take the flight ticket if and only if you buy a ticket
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Problems:
Symbolize the statements using Logical connectives
1. Let p, q ,r represents the following prepositions
P: It is raining
q: The sun is shining
r: There are clouds in the sky
Symbolize the following statements:
(i) If it is raining, then there are clouds in the sky.
(ii) If it is not raining, then the sun is not shining and there are clouds in the sky.
(iii) The sun is shining if and only if it is not raining
Solution: Symbolic form: (i) P r (ii) P (q r) (iii) q p
Construction of truth tables:
1. Show that the truth value of P Q P Q is independent of their components.
Solution: Truth table of S: P Q P Q
P Q P P Q P Q S
T T F T T T
T F F F F T
F T T T T T
F F T T T T
The Truth values of the given formula are all true for every possible truth values of P and Q. Therefore,
the truth value of given formula independent of their components.
2. Construct the truth table for (Q (P Q)) P
Solution:
P Q P Q Q (P Q) (Q (P Q)) P
T T T T T
T F F F T
F T T T F
F F T F T
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3. Show that the truth values of
(P Q) (Q R) (P R) Independent of their components
P Q R PQ QR (P Q) (Q R) (P R) (P Q) (Q R)
(P R)
T T T T T T T T
T T F T F F F T
T F T F T F T T
T F F F T F F T
F T T T T T T T
F T F T F F F T
F F T T T T T T
F F F T T T T T
The Truth values of the given formula are all true for every possible truth values of P,Q and R.
Therefore, the truth value of given formula independent of their components.
TAUTOLOGY AND CONTRADICTION:
Tautology:
A statement formula which is always true regardless of the truth values of the variables in it is
called a Tautology (or) universally valid formula.
Example: A A is always a tautology.
Contradiction:
A statement formula which is false always for the truth values of the components is called a
Contradiction.
Example: A A is always a contradiction.
Contingency:
A statement formula that is neither a Tautology nor a contradiction is called Contingency.
Example: (P Q) (P Q) is a Contingency
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Problems:
1. Check whether the following formulas are tautology, contradiction and contingency.
(i) (P (P Q))
P Q P Q (P Q) (P (P Q))
T T T F T
T F F T T
F T F T T
F F F T T
(P (P Q)) is tautology
(ii) (P (Q R)) (P Q) (P R)
P Q R PQ PR QR P (Q R) A (P Q) (P R) B AB
T T T T T T T T T
T T F T F F F F T
T F T F T T T T T
T F F F F T T T T
F T T T T T T T T
F T F T T F T T T
F F T T T T T T T
F F F T T T T T T
(P (Q R)) ((P Q) (P R) )is tautology
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(iii) (P (Q R)) ((P Q) (P R))
P Q R QR PQ PR P (Q R) (P (Q R)) A ((P Q) (P R)) B
T T T T T T T F T
T T F F T T T F T
T F T F T T T F T
T F F F T T T F T
F T T T T T T F T
F T F F F F F T F
F F T F F T F T F
F F F F F F F T F
The given formula is a contradiction.
Logical Equivalence:
Let P and Q be two statement formulas, P is said to be logically equivalent to q If P and q have
the same set of truth values or equivalently p and q logically equivalent if P q is a tautology.
Hence, P q if and only if P q is a tautology.
Problems
1. Prove that (P Q) (P (P Q))
P Q PQ P Q P (P Q) (P Q) (P (P Q))
T T T T T T
T F F F F T
F T T F T T
F F T F T T
From the above table the truth values of P Q and P (P Q) are same
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DeMorgan’s Law:
Statement: (1) ( p q) p q (2) ( p q) p q
Proof: (1) ( p q) p q (2) ( p q) p q
p q P Q ( p q) p q
P Q ( p q)
T T F F T T F F
T F F F T F T T
F T F F F T T T
F F T T F F T T
Laws of Logic:
Name of the Law Primal Form Dual Form
1. Idempotent Law
p p p p p p
2. Identity Law
p F p p T p
3. Dominant Law
pT T pF F
4. Complement Law
p p T p p F
5. Commutative Law
pq q p pq q p
6. Associative Law
( p q) r p (q r) ( p q) r p (q r)
7. Distributive Law
p (q r) ( p q) ( p r) p (q r) ( p q) ( p r)
8. Absorption Law
p ( p q) p p ( p q) p
9. DeMorgon’s Law
( p q) p q ( p q) p q
10. Double Negation
Law (p) p , p p T p p F
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Conditional Equivalences:
p q p q
p q q p ( contra positive)
p q p q
(p q) p q
( p q) r p (q r)
( p q) ( p q)
( p q) ( p r) p (q r)
( p r) (q r) ( p q) r
( p q) ( p r) p (q r)
( p r) (q r) ( p q) r
Biconditional Equivalences:
p q ( p q) (q p)
p q p q
p q (p q ) (q p)
( p q) ( p q) (p q)
p q p q
( p q) p q
Problems without using Truth table:
1. Show that (P Q) (P Q) (P Q))
Proof:
(P Q) (P Q) (Q P) Biconditional
(P Q) (Q P) conditional equivalence (P Q) (P Q)
((P Q) Q) ((P Q) P)) Distributive law p (q r) ( p q) ( p r)
((P Q) (Q Q)) ((P P) (Q P)) Distributive law
((P Q) F ) (F (Q P)) Complement law
(P Q) (Q P) Identity law P F= P
(P Q) (P Q) Commutative law
(P Q) (P Q) Commutative law
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2. Show that ((P Q) (P (P Q)) P Q without using truth table.
Proof:
((P Q) (P (P Q))
((P Q)) (P (P Q)) conditional equivalence (P Q) (P Q)
(P Q) ((P P) Q) Associative Law (P) P
(P Q) (P Q) P P P
(P (P Q)) (Q (P Q)) Distributive Law
((P P) Q) (Q (Q P)) Associative &Commutative Law
(T Q) ((Q Q) P) Associative &Commutative Law
T (Q P) P T T, P P P
P Q P T P, Commutative Law
Hence Proved
3. Show that (P (Q R)) ((Q R) (P R)) R Using Law of Logic
Proof:
(P (Q R)) ((Q R) (P R))
((P Q) R) ((Q R) (P R)) Associate law p (q r) ( p q) r
((P Q) R) ((Q P) R) Distributive law p (q r) ( p q) ( p r)
((P Q) R) ((P Q) R) Demorgan's & Commutative Law
((P Q) (P Q) R Distributive Law
T R Complement Law
R Identity Law
Duality Principle:
If S is any formula involving in logical connectives then S * is the logical expression which is
obtained from S by replacing by and by T by F and F by T then S * is also tautology. S * is
called the Dual of S. We note if S is a tautology.
Example: If S : (P Q) P Q, then S* : (P Q) P Q
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Normal Forms:
Elementary Product:
The product of variables and their negation is called the elementary product.
Example: P, Q, P Q, P Q, Q P, P Q
Elementary Sum:
The Sum of variables and their negation in a formula is called the elementary sum.
Example: P, Q, P Q, P Q, P Q, P Q
Disjunction Normal Form:
A formula which is equivalent to a given formula and which consists of a sum of elementary
products is called the disjunctive Normal Forms (DNF) of the given formula.
Conjunctive Normal Form:
A formula which is equivalent to a given formula and which consists of a product of elementary
sum is called the Conjunctive Normal Forms (CNF) of the given formula.
Principle Disjunctive Normal Form (PDNF) (or) Minterms-Normal Form (or) Sum of product
Form
The PDNF of a given formula P is an equivalent given formula consisting of disjunction of
minterms only.
Example : P P T P P (Q Q) P (P Q) (P Q) Which is the PDNF of
the formula P
Principle Conjunctive Normal Form (PCNF) (or) Maxterms-Normal Form (or) Product of sum
Form
The PCNF of a given formula P is an equivalent formula consisting of conjunction of maxterms only.
Example : P P F P P (Q Q) P (P Q) (P Q) Which is PCNF of the
formula P
Procedure For PDNF
For every truth value T in the truth table (or) given formula, select minterms which also has the
truth value T for the same combination of truth values of T.
Disjunction of these minterms is said to be PDNF.
Procedure For PCNF
For every truth value F in the truth table (or) given formula, select maxterms which also has the
truth value F for the same combination of truth values of F.
Conjunction of these maxterms is said to be PCNF.
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Problems by truth table method
1. Obtain PDNF and PCNF (P Q) (P Q)
P Q Minterms (P Q) PQ (P Q) (P Q) (P Q) Maxterms
T T P Q T T F F P Q
T F P Q F T F F P Q
F T P Q F T F F P Q
F F P Q F F T F PQ
There is no PDNF. (i.e) given statement formula (P Q) (P Q) is a contradiction
PCNF (P Q) (P Q) (P Q) (P Q)
2. Obtain PCNF and PDNF of (P Q) (P R) (Q R)
P Q R Minterms (P Q) P R QR (P Q) (P Q) Max Terms
(P R) (P R)
(Q R)
T T T P Q R T F T T T P Q R
T T F P Q R T F F T T P Q R
T F T P Q R F F F F F P Q R
T F F P Q R F F F F F P Q R
F T T P Q R F T T T T P Q R
F T F P Q R F F F F F P Q R
F F T P Q R F T F T T P Q R
F F F P Q R F F F F F PQ R
PCNF (P Q R) (P Q R) (P Q R) (P Q R)
PDNF P Q R P Q R P Q R P Q R
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Procedure: (Without using truth table)
To Find PDNF (or) PCNF:
1. Replace the conditional and bi-conditional formula by the equivalent formula containing
, and only
2. Use Demorgan’s law and Distributive Law
3. Drop any elementary P P product [ or elementary sum] which is a contradiction [or
tautology].
4. Obtain minterms [maxterms] in the disjunction [or conjunction] by introducing missing factor.
5. Delete the identical minterms [or maxterms] keeping only one that appear in the disjunction [ or
conjunction]
Note:
Obtain PCNF from the PDNF consider the formula A.
A PDNF of A
A Disjunction of remaining minterms
(A) (Disjunction of remaining minterms) (Apply Demorgans Law)
(A) A is the PCNF of A. In the same way, we can obtain PDNF from the PCNF
Problems (Without using Truth value)
1. Obtain PDNF and PCNF of the formula given by (P R) (Q P)
Solution:
PCNF:
(P R) (Q P)
(P) R (Q P) (P Q)
(P R) (Q P) (P Q)
(P R F ) (Q P F ) (P Q F )
[(P R) (Q Q)] [(Q P) (R R)] [(P Q) (R R)]
(P R Q) (P R Q) (Q P R) (Q P R) (P Q R) (P Q R)
(P Q R) (P Q R) (P Q R) (P Q R) (P Q R) (P Q R)
(P Q R) (P Q R) (P Q R) (P Q R) (P Q R)
Which is the required PCNF
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PDNF:
S (P Q R) (P Q R) (P Q R)
(S) [(P Q R) (P Q R) (P Q R)]
(P Q R) (P Q R) (P Q R)
Which is the required PDNF
2. Obtain the sum of product of canonical form of product of sum of canonical form of
P [P (Q (Q R))]
Solution: P [P (Q R)] P [P (Q R)] P [P (Q R)]
(P P) (Q R) P (Q R) P (Q R)
Which is the required PCNF
PDNF: S P Q R
S P Q R P Q R P Q R P Q R
P Q R P Q R P Q R
(S ) P Q R P Q R P Q R P Q R P Q R P Q R P Q R
Which is the required PDNF
3. P [P (Q P)]
Solution: PDNF: Let S P [P (Q P)]
P [ P (Q P)]
(P P) (P (Q P))
T [(P P) Q]
T [T Q]
T T
T
Which is tautology,
It has all the possible minterms
S (P Q) (P Q) (P Q) (P Q) There is no PCNF
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Type I:
[Direct Proof]
Problems:
1. Conclude D from the premises
( A B) ( A C), (B C), D A
Solution:
Steps Premises Rule Reason
(1) ( A B) ( A C) P Given Premise
(2) A (B C) T From (1)
(P Q) (Q R) P (Q R)
(3) (B C) P Given Premise
(4) A T From (2), (3)
A (B C) (B C)
P Q Q A P
(5) DA P Given Premises
(6) D T From (4), (5)
(P Q) Q P
Hence we conclude D from given Premises.
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2. Show that (R S) follows logically from the Premises
C D, (C D) H , H ( A B) and ( A B) (R S)
Solution:
Steps Premises Rule Reason
(1) (C D) H P Given Premise
(2) CD P Given Premise
(3) H T From (1) (P Q) P Q
(4) H ( A B) P Given Premise
(5) A B T From (4), (3) (P Q) P Q
(6) ( A B) (R S ) P Given Premise
(7) (R S) P From (6), (5) (P Q) P Q
Hence we conclude (R S) from the given premises.
Indirect Proof:
H1, H2 , .... Hn are given Premises and C is a conclusion then the principle involved in indirect
method of proof is C (H1 H2 ...... Hn ) F Where F stands for a contradiction
Procedure:
Indirect method of proof take the negation of conclusion as a additional premise from the addition
premises together with the given premises. We derive a contradiction.
Problems:
1. Show that (P Q) follows from P Q by indirect method of proof.
Solution:
Given premises: P Q Conclusion C : (P Q)
By Indirect method of proof takes ((P Q)) as a additional premise and derive a
contradiction F.
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Steps Premises Rule Reason
(1) ((P Q)) P Additional Premise
(2) P Q T (P) P
From (1)
(3) P T From (2),
PQ P
(4) P Q P Given Premise
(5) P T From(4) P Q P
(6) P P T From (3), (5)
P P P, P
(7) F Contradiction
2. Show that R Q, R S, S Q, P Q P
Solution:
Given premises are R Q, R S, S Q, P Q
Conclusion C : P
By Indirect method of proof takes (P) as a additional premise and derive a contradiction .
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Steps Premises Rule Reason
(1) (P) P Additional Premise
(2) P T (P) P
(3) PQ P Given Premise
(4) Q T From (2), (3) P, P Q Q
(5) S Q P Given Premise
(6) Q S T From (5) P Q Q P
(7) S T From (4), (7) P, P Q Q
(8) R S P Given Premise
(9) S R T From (8) P Q Q P
(10) R T From(7), (9) P, P Q Q
(11) R Q P Given Premise
(12) Q T From (10), (11) P, P Q Q
(13) Q Q T From(4), (1) Q, Q Q Q
(14) F Contradiction
Rule CP (or) Conditional Proof (or) Conditional conclusion:
If we can derive S from R and a set of premises then we can derive R S from the set of
premises alone. i.e This rules states that if R S is a conclusion obtained from the given set of
H1, H2 ,......Hn premises it is enough to conclude S alone from H1, H2 ,......Hn and P.
This is based on the equivalence P (Q R) (P Q) R
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Problems:
1. Show that R S can be derived from the Premises P (Q S ), R P and Q
Solution:
Here the conclusion is R S and a set of hypotheses are P (Q S ), R P and Q.Using
CP rule it is enough if we can derive S from the premises.
P (Q S), R P, Q and R
Steps Premises Rule Reason
(1) R P P Given Premise
(2) RP T From (1) P Q P Q
(3) R P Added Premise
(4) P T From (2), (3) (P Q) P Q
(5) P (Q S ) P Given Premise
(6) QS T From (5), (4) (P Q) P Q
(7) Q P Given Premise
(8) S T From (6), (7) P, P Q Q
(9) RS CP
Hence it is proved.
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2. Using rule CP derive P (Q S ) from the Premises P (Q R), Q (R S )
Solution:
Given Premises are P (Q R), Q (R S )
By rule CP take P as additional Premises.
Steps Premises Rule Reason
(1) P P Additional Premises
(2) P (Q R) P Given Premise
(3) QR T From (1), (2) P, P Q Q
(4) Q (R S ) P Given Premise
(5) (Q R) S T From (2), (4)
P (Q R), Q (R S )
P (Q R) (P Q) R
(6) QS T From (5) P Q P
(7) P (Q S ) CP From (1), (5)
P (Q R), Q (R S ) P (Q S ) Hence it is proved.
Inconsistency of Premises:
A set of premises H1, H2 .............Hn is said to be inconsistent H1 H2 ..... Hn F Where F
stands for a contradiction.
i.e (H1 H2 .......Hn ) A A ,where A is any formula.
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Problems:
1. Show that the set of premises A (B C); D (B C); A D are inconsistent.
Proof of sequence:
Steps Premises Rule Reason
1. A D P Given premise
2. A T From (1), P Q P
3. A (B C) P Given premise
4. B C T From (2), (3) (P), P Q Q
5. D T (1), (5), (P Q) Q
6. D (B C) P Given premise
7. B C T (5), (6), (P Q) P Q
8. (B C) T From (7)
(B C)= ( B C)=B C)
9. (B C) (B C) T From (4), (8) P, Q P Q
=F
2.Show that the following premises are inconsistent “If Ram misses many classes through illness
then he fail high school. If Ram fails high school then he is uneducated. If Ram reads a lot of books
then he is not uneducated. Ram misses many classes through illness and reads a lot of books”
Solution: We define, A: Ram misses, many classes
B: Ram fails high school
C: Ram reads a lot of books
D: Ram is uneducated
The premises are
(A B), (B D), (C D), A C
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Proof sequence:
Steps Premises Rule Reason
1. A B P Given Premise
2. B D P Given Premise
3. A D T From (1), (2),
(P Q) (Q R) P R
4. C D P Given Premise
5. D C T From (4),
P Q Q P
6. A C T From (3), (5),
(P Q) (Q R)
P R
7. A C T From (6),
(P Q) P Q
8. (A C) T From (7), Demorgan’s law
(P Q) P R
9. A C P Given premise
10. (A C) (A C) F T From (9), (8) P,Q P Q
Given premises are inconsistent
Argument: An argument can be represented in symbolic form as P1 P2 P3 .... Pn Q (or)
( P1 P2 P3 ..... Pn Q ) Where P1 , P2 , P3 ,......Pn are given statements, called the hypothesis of the
argument and Q is the conclusion of the argument .
Valid Arguments: The Argument ( (P1 P2 P3 ..... Pn ) Q is valid if it is a Tautology. ie.
P1 P2 ....... Pn Q Alternatively, Q is a logical conclusion from whenever the truth of
P1, P2 , P3 , .....Pn implies the truth of Q.
Problems.
1. Show that the following statements constitute a valid argument, “If there was a ball game
then travelling was difficult. If they arrived on time, then travelling was not difficult. They
arrived on time. Therefore there was no ball game”
Solution: Let A: There was a ball game B: Travelling was difficult C: They arrived on time
The premises of argument are, (A B), (C B) and C and the conclution is A
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Testing for validity:
Steps Premises Rule Reason
1. A B P Given Premise
2. C B P Given premise
3. B C T (1)&(2)
P Q Q P
4. A C T (1)&(3) (P Q)
(Q R) P R
5. C A T (4) P Q R P
6. C P Given Premise
7. A T P Q, P Q
The truth of all premises implies the truth of their conclution The given argument is valid
2. Show that the hypothesis, “It is not sunny this afternoon, and it is colder than yesterday”.
“We will go swimming only if it is sunny”. “If we do not go swimming, then we will take a
canoe trip” and “If we take a canoe trip then we will be home by sunset”. Lead to the
conclusion “We will be home by sunset”
Solution: Let P: It is sunny this afternoon q: It is colder then yesterday
r: We will go swimming s: We will take a canoe trip t: We will be home by sunset
Hypothesis: ( p q), (r p), ( r s) and (s t) Conclution: t
Steps Premises Rule Reason
1. p q P Given Premise
2. p T (1), p q p
3. r p P Given Premise
4. r T (3), (2),
(p q) p q
5. r s P Given Premise
6. s T (5), (4) (p q), p q
7. s t P Given Premise
8. t T (7), (6), (p q),p q
The argument is valid
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Theory of Inference
The rule so funiversal specification and generalization:
Rule US [universal specification]
(x) A(x) A( y)
Rule UG [universal Generalization]
A(x) (y) A( y)
Rule ES [Existential specification]
(x) A(x) A( y) [ A(x) or A( y) A(1) ... ]
Rule EG (Existential Generalization]
A(x) (y) A( y)
Type: 1 Direct proof
Show that (x)[ p(x) Q(x)] (x) [Q(x) R(x)]
1.
(x)[ p(x) R(x)]
Solution:
S.No Premises Rule Reason
1 (x) (p(x) Q(x) P Given premise
2 P(x) Q(x) US From(1)
3 (x) (Q(x) R(x) P Given premise
4 Q(x) r(x) US From (3)
5 P(x) R(x) T From (2),(4)
P Q, Q R P R
6 (x) (p(x) R(x) UG From (5)
(x) (p(x) Q(x)) (x) ) (Q(x) R(x)) ( (x) ) (p(x) R(x))
2.Show that (x)( p(x) Q(x)) (x) p(x) (x)Q(x) What can you say about that formula
Solution:
Given premises is (x)( p(x) Q(x) )
The conclusion is (x) p(x) (x)Q(x)
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Premises Rule Reason
S.No
1 (x)( p(x) Q(x)) P Given premises
2 p(x) Q(x) Es From(1)
3 P(x) T From (2) P Q P
4 Q(x) T From(3) P Q Q
5 (x)P(x) EG From(3)
6 (x)Q(x) EG From(4)
7 (x)( p(x) (x)Q(x) T From(5),(6) P,Q Q
Hence (x)( p(x) Q(x)) (x)( p(x) (x)Q(x)
The Converse is not proved
U ={2,3,4,5}
Let p(x): x is even number
Q(x):x is odd number
Then (x)( p(x) (x) Q(x) is true
But (x)[ p(x) (Qx)] is false,
Because there is no both even and odd numbers in U.
3. Show that (x)( F (x) s(x)) (y) (y)(m( y) w( y))
(y)(m( y) w( y)) (x)(F (x) s(x))
Solution:
The given premises are
(x) F (x) s(x)) (y)(m( y) w( y))
(y)(m( y) w( y))
The conclusion is
(x)(F (x) S(x))
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Proof:
S.No` Premises Rule Reason
1 (y)(m( y) w( y)) P Given premises
2 m( y) w( y) ES From(1)
3 (m( y) w( y) T From (2)
P Q (P Q)
4 (y)(m( y) w( y)) EG From(3)
5 (y)(M ( y) w( y)) T From(4)
6 (x)(F (x) S(x)) P Given premises
(y)(m( y) w( y))
7 (x)(F (x) S(x)) T From (5),(6)
Q , P Q P
8 (x) (F (x) S(x)) T From (7)
9 (F (x) S (x) US From (8)
10 F (x) S (x) T From(9)
Demorgan’s law
11 F (x) S(x) T From(10)
Conditional equivalence
12 (x) D(x) S (x) US From(11)
Type: II
Problems in indirect method
1. Show that x P
x Q x x P x x Q x using indirect method.
Soultion:
By indirect method assume that
7 x P x x Q x as addtional premises and derive a contradiction.
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Proof:
S.No Premises Rule Reason
1 7 x P x x Q x P Additional Premises
2 7 x P n 7 x Q x T From (1) Demorgan’s law
3 7 x P x T From (2)
P Q P
4 7 x Q x T From (2)
P QQ
5 x 7P x T From (3)
7 x P x x 7P x
6 x 7Q x T From (4)
7 x P x x 7P x
7 7P(x) Es From (5)
8 7Q(x) Us From (6)
9 7P x 7Q x T From (7) & (8)
P1 Q P Q
10 7 P x Q x T From (9)
Demorgan’s law
11 x P x Q x P Given premises
12 P x Q x Us From (11)
13
7 P x Q x P x Q x T From (10) , (12)
P, Q P Q
14 F contradiction
2. Is the following conclusion is directly derivable from premises given
( x P x Q x , (Y )P(Y ) than (Z )Q(Z )
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Solution: By Using indirect method of proof assume that Z Q Z as additional premise and
derive a contradiction.
S.no Premises Rule Reason
1 7 Z Q Z P Additional Premises
2 Z 7Q Z T From (1)
3 Y P Y P Given Premise
4 P(a) Es From(3)
5 x P x Q x P Given Premise
6 P a Q a Us From (5)
7 Q(z) T From (4) & (6)
P, Q Q Q
8 7Q(z) Us From (2)
9 Q Z 7Q Z T From (8),(9)
P, Q P Q
10 F Contradiction From (9)
Problems using rule CP:
1. Using rule CP (or) conditional proof show that
x P x Q x x P x x Q x
Soultion:
Given premises are x P x Q x ,
The conculsion is x P x x Q x
By rule CP, assume that x P x as additonal premises and
derive x Q x
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S.No Premises Rule Reason
1 x P x P Additional Premise
2 P(x) Us From(1)
3 x P x Q x P Given Premises
4 P x Q x Us From(3)
5 Q(X) T From (2), (4)
P, P Q Q
6 x Q x UG From (5)
7 x P x x Q x CP From (1), (6)
3. Using rule CP, show that the following x P x x Q x xP x Q x
Solution:
By using CP assume P(X) is additional premises and derive CP.
S.No Premises Rule Reason
1 P(x) P Additonal Premises
2 x P x EG From (1)
3 x P x x Q x P Given Premises
4 x Q x T From (2) and (3)
P, P Q Q
5 Q(x) US From (4)
6 P x Q x CP From (1), (5)
7 x P x Q x UG From(5)
Validity of Arguments:
1. Verify the validity of the argument
“ Every living thing is a plants or an animal.John gold fish is alive but not a plant. All
animals has hearts.” There fore Johns gold fish has heart.
Soultion:
Let P x : x is a plant A x : x is an animal H x :x has heart
A : john’s gold fish
Symbolic form: The given premises are x P x A x , 7P a , x A x H x
The conculsion is H(a)
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S.No Premises Rule Reason
1 P Given Premise
x P x A x
2 P x A x Us From (1)
3 7P a A a T From (2) , Conditional
Equivalence
4 x A x H x P Given Premise
5 A a H a T From(4)
6 7P(a) P Given Premise
7 A(a) T From (6) and (3)
P, P Q Q
8 h(a) T From (5) and (7)
P, P Q Q
The Given arguments are valid.
2. Verify the validity of inference : “ If one he has worked sucessful then another, then john
has not worked harder than peter. Therefore john is not successful then peter.
Soultion:
Let, S(x,y) : x is more sucessful than y. W(x,y) : x is worked harder than y.
J : john P : peter
Given premises are The symbolic form:xy S x, y W x, y , W j , p
The conclusion is s(J, P)
S.No Premises Rule Reason
1 xy S x , y W x , y P Given Preimses
2 x S j , y W j , p T From (1)
3 S j , p W j , p T From (2)
4 W(j, p) P
5 S(j, P) T From (3) , (4)
Q, P Q P
The given arguments are valid.
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UNIT – II
COMBINATORICS
MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION
Principle Of Mathematical Induction:
The statement p(n) is true for all natural numbers if
(i) p(1) is true (basis step)
(ii) for any integer k, p(k ) p(k 1)
ie. If p(k) is true, then p(k 1) is true (Induction step)
Steps involved in proving a result by principle of Mathematical induction.
Step 1: Prove the basis step.
Step 2: Assume p(k) is true.
Step 3: Prove p(k 1) is true.
n(n 1)(2n 1)
Problems.1. Prove by induction 1 2 3 ... n
2 2 2 2
Solution:
n(n 1)(2n 1)
Let p(n):1 2 3 ... n
2 2 2 2
1(11)(2(1) 1)
Basis p(1) : 1
6
1(2)(3) 6
1Which is true p(1) is true.
6 6
Induction:Assume that p(k) is true
k (k 1)(2k 1)
ie.12 22 32 ... k 2
6
Consider p(k+1) = 12 22 32 ... (k 1)2
(12 22 32 ... k 2 ) (k 1)2
k(k 1)(2k 1)
(k 1)2
6
k (2k 1) 2k 2 k 6k 6
(k 1)(
6
(k 1)) (k 1)
6
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(2k 3)(k 2) (2(k 1) 1)((k 1) 1)
(k 1) (k 1)
6 6
(k 1)((k 1) 1)(2(k 1) 1)
p(k+1) is true.
6
n(n 1)(2n 1)
i.e., p(k ) p(k 1) By induction, 1 2 3 ... n
2 2 2 2
2. Prove the Induction n3 2n is divisible by 3 for n 1
Solution:Let p(n) n3 2n is divisible by 3.
Basis: p(1) :13 2(1) 1 2 3 which is divisible by 3. p(1) is true.
Induction: Assume p(k): ie., k 3 2k is divisible by 3
To show (k 1)3 2(k 1) is divisible by 3.
Consider (k 1)3 2(k 1) k3 3k2 3k 1 2k 2 (k3 2k) 3(k2 k 1)
Since k 3 2k is divisible by 3, k 3 2k =3m
k 1 2 k 1 3m 3(k 2 k 1)
3
3(m k 2 k 1) k 3 2k 3m
(k 1)3 2(k 1)
Is divisible by 3 p(k+1) is true. Ie., p(k ) p(k 1) Hence by induction, n3 2n is divisible by 3.
3. Prove by induction 8n 3n is divisible by 5.
Solution: Let p(n) : 8n 3n is divisible by 5 Basis. p(1) 81 31 8 3 5 which is divisible by 5.
p(1) is true.
Induction Assume p(k): 8k 3k is divisible by 5 To prove p(k 1):8k1 3k1 is divisible by 5
Consider 8k1 8k .3 8k.3 3k1
8k (8 3) 3(8k 3k )
8k (8 3) 3m(8 3) m(8 3) 8k 3k
(8k 3m) 8 3
5(8k 3m)
8k1 3k1 is divisible by 5 p(k 1) is true Hence by induction 8k1 3k1 is divisible by 5
Ie., 8n 3n is divisible by 5.
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4. Prove that for every n 2 , n is a Prime number or a product of Prime numbers by
induction
Solution: Let p(n) :n is Prime or it is a Product of Prime number.
Basis: P(2) : 2 is Prime or a Product of Prime number
Since 2 is a Prime number. p(2)is true we use the 2nd Principle to Prove the induction part.
Induction: Assume p(k) is true.
Assume for all r,2 r k , p(r) is true.
Ie. r is Prime or it is a Product of Primes.
To Prove:
P(k+1): (k+1) is Prime or it is a Product of Primes.
If (k+1) is Prime then p(k+1) is true.
If (k+1) is not prime then (k+1)=ab where 1<a<k+1 and 1<b<k+1
2 a k and 2 b k
The inductive hypothesis applies to both a and b. So, a or b are either Prime or they are Product of Primes.
Suppose a a1, a2....ar and b b1,b2....bs where ai ' s and bj ' s are Prime numbers. Then (k+1) is
either Prime or it is a Product of Primes.
p(k+1) is true
p(k) p(k 1)
Hence by 2nd principle of mathematical induction, n is prime or it is a product of Primes for n 2 .
Pigeonhole principle:
The Pigeonhole Principle states that if there are more pigeons than pigeonholes, then thereMust
be atleast one pigeonhole with atleast two pigeons in it. (Or)
If (K + 1) or more objects are placed into K bones, then there is atleast one box containing two or
more of the objects.
Note:
(1) If Kn+1 or more pigeons occupy n pigeonholes, there will be more than K pigeons in atleast one
pigeonhole, Where K is a positive integer.
(2) The Pigeonhole Principle is also called Dirichlet drawer principle.
Example:
(1) Among any group of 367 boys, there must be atleast two with the same birthday, because there are
only 366 Possible birthdays.
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Generalised Pigeonhole Principle
If N objects are placed in to K bones, then there is atleast on box containing atleast [ N/K]
N
Objects. [N/K] is the smallest integer greater than or equal to .
K
100
Example: Among 100 people, there are atleast
= 9 who where born in the same month.
12
Note: If n Pigeons are accommodated in m Pigeonholes and n > m, then one of the Pigeonholes Must
n 1
contain atleast + 1 Pigeons where [x] denotes the greatest integer lessthan or equal to x, which is
m
a real number.
Problems.
1. Prove that there exists a positive integer n such that m divides 2n – 1 where m being a positive
odd integer.
Solution: Consider (m + 1) positive integers 21 – 1, 22 – 1, 23 – 1,. .... ,2m – 1, 2m+1 – 1.
By the Pigeonhole principle, when these are divided by m two of the numbers will give the same
remainder. [(m + 1) numbers are the (m + 1) Pigeons and the m remainders, namely 0, 1, 2, .... (m-1) are
the m Pigeons].
Let the two numbers be 2s 1 and 2t 1 which give the same remainder r, upon division by m, Where
1 S <t m+1
2 s 1 q1m r and 2t 1 q 2m r
2s 2t (q q )m
1 2
But 2 2t 2t 2 st 1
s
2t 2 1 q q m
st
1 2
But m is odd and hence cannot be a factor of 2t m divides 2st 1. Taking n s t, m divides
2n 1Hence we get the result.
2. If n pigeonholes are occupied by kn 1 pigeons, Where K is a positive integer, prove that
atleast one pigeonhole is occupied by k 1 or more pigeons
Solution: If atleast one pigeonhole is not occupied by k 1 or more pigeons , each pigeonhole contain
atmost k pigeons. Hence, the total number of pigeons occupying the n pigeonholes is at most
kn . But there are kn 1 pigeons. This results is a contadiction. Hence the results.
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3. Find the minimum number m of integers to be Selected from s 1, 2,...9 So that
(i) The sum of two of the m integers is even
(ii)The difference of two of the m integers is odd.
Solution:
(i) Sum of 2 even integers or 2 odd integers is even.
Let us divide the set S into 2 sub sets 1, 3, 5, 7, 9and 2, 4, 6,8 , which may be treated as pigeonholes
.Thus n=2 . Atleast 2 numbers must be chosen either from the first subset or from the second set.
ie, atleast one pigeonhole must contain 2 pigeons.
k 1 2 k 1 .
The minimum number of pigeons required (or) the minimum number of integers selected
kn 1 (2) 1 3
(ii) Let us divide the set S into the 5 subsets, 1, 6,2, 7,3,8,4, 9,5 .Which may be treated as
pigeonholes. Thus n=5.If m=6 then 2 of the integers of s will belong to one of the subsets and their
difference is 5.
Permutation and combination:
Permutation
A permutation is an arrangement of a number of objects in a definite order, taken some or all at a
time.
Eg: The permutations of the letters x,y,z taken two at a time are xy, yx, xz,zx,yz,zy
Formula for p(n,r)
The number of permutations of n-different things taken ‘r’ at a time is denoted by the symbol npr (or)
n!
p(n,r). p n, r
n r !
Permutations with restrictions
1. The number of permutations of n different objects taken r at a time in which ‘p’ particular objects do
not occur is n p pr
2. The number of permutations of n different objects taken r at a time in which ‘p’ particular objects are
present is n p pr p X rpp
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Problems
1. Prove that
(i) p n, n p n, n 1
(ii) p n, r n r 1 p n, r 1
(iii) p n, r p n 1, r rp n 1, r 1
Solution:
(i) p(n, n) n!
n! n!
p(n, n 1) n!
n (n 1)! 1!
p(n, n) p(n, n 1)
(ii)(n r 1) p(n, r 1)
n!
(n r 1)
n r 1!
n!
p(n, r)
n r !
(n 1)! r(n 1)!
(iii)R.H.S
n r 1! n r !
1
(n 1)! r (n 1)! nr r
n r 1
! n r !
n r (n r 1)! n r !
n r r n(n 1)! n! p(n, r)
(n 1)!
n r ! n r ! n r !
R.H.S L.H.S
2. In how many different ways can the letters of the word HEXAGON be permuted?
Solution: The word HEXAGON has 7 different letters. Which can be arranged among themselves in
p(7,7)=7!=5040 ways.
Permutation of like objects:
(permutation of objects when all of them are not distinct)
The number of permutations of n objects of which n1 objects are alike of one kind, n2 are alike of
second kind, n 3 are alike of third kind and so on, such that
n1 n2 n3 ... ni n is givenby
n!
n1 !n2 !...ni !
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Problems.
1. How many different rearrangements are there of the word “REARRANGEMENT”?
Solution:
The word “REARRANGEMENT” has 13 letters in all. The letter ‘R’ appears 3 times,
the letter A appears 2 times, the letter ‘N’ appears 2 times and the remaining, G,M,T
appears once.
The required number of permutations.
13! 13121110 98 7 6 4 3!
43243200
3!3!2!2!1!1!1! 3!3!2!2!1!1!1!
2. There are 3 red, 4white and 3 blue marbles in a bag. They are drawn one by one and arranged in
a row. Assuming that all the 12 marbles are drawn, determine the number of different
arrangements.
Solution:
Total No Of Marbles = 5+4+3=12
12!
Required nom of arrangements =
5!4!3!
27720
3. Find the distinct Permutations that can be formed from all the letters of each word
(1) RADAR (2) UNUSUAL
Solution:
(1) The word RADAR has 5 letters of which the letter R appears 2 times, A appears 2 times
and D appear once.
5! 5 43 2 ! 5 43
The Required number of permutations.= = = = 30
2!2! 2! 2 ! 2
(2) The word UNUSUAL has 7 letters of which the letter U appears 3 times, and the Remaining
letters appear once.
7! 765 43!
The Required number of permutations = = = 840
3! 3!
Combination:
A Combination is a selection of some or all of a number or different objects.
A combination of n objects taken ‘r’ at a time is any selection of r objects out of n objects where
the order does not count.
The number of Combinations of n different things taken r at a time is denoted by ncr (or) C(n, r)
n n!
(or) . i.e. nc r = where r n.
r r !(n r)!
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Pascal’s Identity:
If n and r are natural numbers such that 1 r n, then
C(n, r) + c(n, r-1) = c(n+1, r) (or) ncr + ncr-1 = (n+1) cr.
Proof:
n! n!
L. H. S = +
r !(n r)! (r 1)! (n r 1)
= n! 1 1 n r 1 r
n!
r !n r 1!
r(r 1)! (n r )! (r 1)! (n r 1)(n r)!
(n 1)!
(n 1) cr R.H.S
r !n 1 r !
Hencethe proof
Vandermonde’s Identity:
Let m,n and r be non-negative integers with r, not exceeding either m or n, then
m n r m n
r k r k
k 0
Proof: Suppose there are m items in one set and n items in a second set. Then the total number of ways to
m n
pick r elements from the union of these sets is Another way to pick r elements from the union is
r
to pick ‘k’ elements from the first set and (r-k) elements from the second set where k is an integer such
that 0 k r .
Hence the total number of ways to pick relements from the union also equals
n
m n m n
k r k Since there are ways of selecting k objects from the first set and
r k
ways
k 0 k
of selecting (r-k) objects from the second set.
m n r m n
Thus we have r k r k Hence the proof
k 0
Problems:
1.A committe of 5 is to be selected from 6 boys and 5 girls determine the number of ways of
selecting the committee if it is to consists of atleast1 boys and 1 girl
Solution:The committee may consists of
(i)1 boy, 4 girls (ii) 2 boys, 3 girls (iii)3 boys, 2 girls (iv)4 boys, 1 girls
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The number of committees of type (i) 6C15C46530
The number of committees of type (ii) 6C25C31510150
654
The number of committees of type (iii) 6C 5C 200
3 2
123
Then number of committees of type (iv) 6C45C115575
The total number of ways of forming the committee 5015020075455
2. There are 6 white marbles and 5 black marbles in a bag. Find the number of ways of drawing 4
marbles from the bag. If (i) they can be of any colour (ii) 2 must be white and 2 must be black (iii)
They must all be of the same colour.
Solution: The Total no of marbles in the Bag = 6 + 5 = 11
1110 98
(i) No of ways of drawing 4 marbles of any colour 11C4 330
1234
(ii) No of ways of drawing 2 white and 2 black Marbles 6C25C2 1510150
(iii) No of ways of drawing 4 white marbles 6C4 15
No of ways of drawing 4 black marbles 5C4 5
No of ways of drawing 4 marbles of same colour = 15 + 5 = 20
RECURRENCE RELATION:
Formation of recurrence relation
1. Find the recurrence relation for the Fibonacci sequence of numbers.
Solution: The sequence of numbers 0,1,1,2,3,5,8,13,. .. is the Fibonacci sequence of numbers
if Fn is thenth term then
Fn Fn1 Fn2, n 2
The recurrence relation is Fn Fn1 Fn2 0, n 2 With the initial condition F0 0, F1 1
2. Find the recurrence relation obtained from y n A2n B(3)n
Solution:
yn A2n B(3)n yn 22 A2n.22 (3)2 B(3)n (3)2
4 A2n2 9B(3)n2
yn1 A2n1 B(3)n1 yn1 2 A2n1.21 (3)B(3)n1 (3)1
2 A2n2 3B(3)n2
yn2 A2n2 B(3)n2 yn2 A2n2 B(3)n2
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Eliminating A and B in the above expressions
4 9 yn
2 3 yn1 0
1 1 yn2
4 3yn2 yn1 9 2 yn2 yn1 yn 2 3 0
12 yn2 4 yn1 18y n2 9 yn1 2 yn 3yn 0
30 yn2 5yn1 5yn 0
yn yn1 6 yn2 0
This is the required recurrence relation
Recurrence relation:
If {an } n≥0 represents a sequence of numbers, then an expression that relates a term of the
sequence to one or more of its preceeding terms is called a recurrence relation.
For example an2 an1 2an is a Recurrence relation.
Fn Fn1 Fn2 , n 2 is called the fibonacci recurrence relation for the sequence of
numbers {1,1,2,3,5,8,13,….}
Order of a recurrence relation:
Order of a recurrence relation = Highest Subscript - lowest subscript
Fn Fn1 Fn2 0is a recurrence relation of order n-(n-2)=2
an an1 5.2n is a recurrence relation of order n-(n-1)=1
General form of k th order recurrence relation
c0 ynk c1 ynk 1 c2 ynk 2 .... cn yn f (n)
Is the general form of the k th order recurrence relation,where c , c ,....., c are constants and f(n) is a
0 1 n
function of ‘n’ only.This recurrence relation is non-homogeneous type.When f(n)=0, the recurrence
relation is said to be homogeneous.
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Different representations of recurrence relation:
1. f (n 2) 5 f (n 1) 6 f (n) 0.
2. yn2 5 yn1 6 yn 0
3. Fn Fn1 Fn2 0
4. yx2 4 yx x2 x 1
Solution of recurrence relation
Consider the recurrence relation c0 yn2 c1 yn1 c2 yn f (n)
The solution of the above recurrence relation is
yn H.S P.S
where H.S Homogeneous Solution
P.S Particular Solution
Rules to find H.S.
Step:1 First write the characteristic equation
c0 x2 c1x c 2 0
Step:2
Solve the characteristic equation and get the roots
Step:3
If 1 and 2 are the roots of the chatacteristic equation the following forms of H.S are given below:
1. H.S A n A n if are distinet
1 1 2 2 1, 2
2.H.S ( A n A ) if n
1 2 1 1 2
3.H.S A ( i )n A ( i )n if i , i
1 2 1 2
r n A1 cos n A2 sin n
r 2 2 and tan1
Where
Rules to find P.S The general form of particular solution to be assumed for the special forms of f(n) to
find the exact solution, is shown in the table.
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Form of f(n) General Form to be assumed
A
k, a constant
kn ,where k is a constant Ak n
f (n) k n Ankn if k is a root of chatacteristicequation
f (n) k n An2kn if k is adoubleroot of chatacteristicequation
f(n) a polynomial in n of degree ‘r’ A nr An r1 ... A
0 1 n
k n f (n)wheref (n)is a
polynomial of deg ree r A0nr An
1
r 1
... An k n
in ' n ' and k is a constant
Problems.
1. Solve the recurrence relation y 5y 6 y 5n subject to the conditions y 0 and y 2
n2 n1 n 0 1
Solution: The characteristic equation is x2 5x 6 0
(x 2)(x 3) 0 x 2, 3
The H.S is y(H ) c 2n c 3n
n 1 2
Assumethe particular solutionas
y(np) A.5n
put yn A.5n inthe given recurrence relation
A.5n2 5A.5n1 6 A5n 5n
A.5n2 A5n2 6 A5n 5n
6 A5n 5n
1
A
6
The particular solution is
1
y( p) (5n )
n
6
n n 5n
yn c1 2 c2 3 1
6
1
from1 y 0 c c 2
0 1 2
6
7
y 2 2c 3c 3
1 1 2
6
solving
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2
2 2 2c 2c
1 2
6
7
3 2c 3c
1 2
6
9
c2
6
3
c2
2
sub ' s
3
c in (2)
2
2
3 1
c
1
2 6
1 3 5
c c
1 1
6 2 3
3 n 5 5n
Hence (1) yn (3) (2) n
2 3
s
t
h
e
s
o
l
u
t
i
o
n
.
6
2. Find a recurrence formula for the Fibonacci sequence of numbers and obtain its solution.
Solution: The Fibonacci sequence of number is
{F } {1,1, 2,3,5,8,13,...}{F , F , F ,...}
n 0 0 1 2
From the term F2 onwards, each term is the sum of the preceeding two terms.
Fn Fn1 Fn2 , F0 1, F1 1
Therecurrencerelationis Fn Fn1 Fn2 0 satisfying theinitial conditions
F0 1, & F1 1
Thecharacteristicequationis x2 x 1 0
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Solving we get herea 1, b 1, c 1
b b2 4ac
x
2a
1 1 4 1 5
2 2
1
Theroots are 5 , 1 5
2 2
Hence the solution is given by
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1 n
5 c2 1 5
n
Fn c1 2 2 (1)
From (1)
F0 1 c1 c2 1and
1 5 1 5 1 5 1 5
F 1 c c 2 1 c 1 (1 c 1) 1
1 1 2 2 2 2
1 5 1 5 1 5
c1 2 2 c 1 2 1
1 5 1 5 1 5 1 5
c 1 c 5
1 2 2 2 1
2
1 5 1 5
c , c 1 c 1 c 5 1
1 2 1 2 5 2 2 5
2 5
5 1 1 5 n 5 1 1 5 n
The solution is given by Fn 2 5 2 2 5 2
3. Solve the recurrence relation y n2 5y n1 6 y n n2
Solution: The characteristic equation is x2 5x 6 0 x 2,3. Homogeneous
solution is given by y(H ) c 2n c 3n Assume the particular solution
n 1 2
y( p) An 2 A n A put y An 2 A n A inthe givenrecurrencerelation
n 1 2 3 n 1 2 3
A (n 2)2 A (n 2) A 5A (n 1)2 5A (n 1) 5A 6An 2 6A n 6A n2
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
(2A )n2 (6A 2A )n ( A 3A 2A ) n2
1 1 2 1 2 3
2A1 1 : 6 A1 2A2 0 and A1 3A2 2A3 0
1 1
Sub ' s A in 6A 2A 0 we get 6 2A 0 3 2A 0 3
1 1 2 2 2 A2
2 2 2
3 1
Sub ' s A and A in A 3A 2 A 0
2 1 21 3
2 2
31 10
3 3A 0 2A 0 2A 10
3
A 5
3 3 3
2 2 2 2 2
( p) n2 3n 5 1
The particular solution is y Hence the solution is y c 2n c 3n (n2 3n 5)
n n 1 2
2 2 2 2
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4. Solve the recurrence relation
yn2 6yn1 8yn 3n 5.
Solution:
The characteristic equation is
x2 6x 8 0
(x 4)(x 2) 0
x 214
H.S y(H ) c .2n c .4n
n 1 2
Assume the particular solution y(n p) =A+Bn
Put yh A Bn in the given recurrence relation
A+B(n+2)-6A-6B(n+1)+8A+8Bn=3n+5
A+Bn+2B-6A-6Bn-6B+8A+8Bn=3n+5
(3A-4B)+3Bn=3n+5
3A-4B=5. And 3B=3
Solving A=3 and B=1
y(np) n 3
The solution is given by yn c 12n c 24n n 3
5. Solve the recurrence relation
yn yn1 6yn2 30given that y0 20 and y1 5
Solution:
The characteristic equation is x2 x 6 0 (x 3)(x 2) 0 x 31 2
The homogeneous solution y(H ) c 3k c (2)k Assume that the particular solutions is y( p) A
k 1 2 n
Put yn A in the given relation
A-A-6A=-30
-6A=-30
A5
The solution is y c 3n c (2)n 5 Using the condition y 20, y 5
n 1 2 0 1
c1 c2 15 And 3c1 2c2 10
Solving c1 =4 and c2 =11 The solution is given by
yn c1 (3)n c2 (2)n 5 yn 4(3)n 11(2)n 5
Solution of Recurrence Relation using Generating Function.
Generating Function:
Let a , a , a .....be a sequence of real numbers. The function f(n)= a a x a x ...... a x is
2 i
0 1 2 0 1 2 i
i0
called the generating function for the given sequence.
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m
For example (1 x)n is the generating function of the sequence ( ) 0 r n
r
Sequence General term (an ) Generating funciton
1
an 1n , n 0
1,1,1,1,.... 1 x
1
a (1)n , n 0 1 x
1,-1,1,-1,.... n
1
an , n 0 1 ax
1
1, a , a 2 , a3 ,...
(a)n , n 0 1 ax
1,- a , a 2 ,- a3 ,... x
n, n 0 (1 x)2
0,1,2,3,... 1
(1 x)2
(n 1), n 0
1,2,3,4
x 1
(1 x)3
(n 1)2, n 0
12, 22,32,...
x(x 1)
n ,n 0
2
(1 x)3
02,12, 22,32,...
1 1
1,1, , ,... 1 ex
2! 3! ,n 0
n1
2x
n(n 1), n 1
(1 x)3
Some useful expansions:
(1) (1 x) x
1 n
(2) (1) n
x (1 x)
n 1
(3) a n
x n (1 ax)1
n0 n0 n0
(n 1)(n 1) n
(1)n an xn (1 ax)1 (5)
(4) (n 1)xn (1 x)2 (6)
2
x (1 x)3
n0 n0 n0
Note:
If f (x) a x , then the following results are very useful to solve recurrence relations.
n n
n0
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f (x) a0 a1x
f (x) a0
(1) an2 x (2) an1 x a x n x f (x)
2
n n
(3)
n0 x2 n0 x n2
n2
(4) a
n1
xn x f (x) a
0
(5) a
n
xn f (x) a a x
0 1
n2 n2
1. Solve the recurrence relation yn2 5yn1 6yn 0, n 0 by the method of generating
function with the initial condition y0 1, y1 1
Solution:
Given the relation.
yn2 5yn1 6yn 0 (1)
Assume that G(x) y n x
n
n0
Multiply the equation (1) by xn and summing from n=0 to n , we have
y
n2
xn 5 y
n1
xn 6 y xn 0
n
n0 n0 n0
W .K.T a
n2
xn
G(x) a0 a1x
n0 x2
n
G(x) a0
a
n0
n1x2 x
G(x) y20 y1x G(x) y0
x 5 x 6G(x) 0
G(x) y 0 y1x 5x G(x) y0 6x2G(x) 0
G(x) 1 x 5x G(x) 1 6x2G(x) 0
G(x) 1 x 5xG(x) 5x 6x2G(x) 0
6x2G(x) 5xG(x) G(x) 4x 1 0
6x 2 5x 1 G(x) 1 4x
(1 5x 6x2 )G(x) 1 4x
1 4x
G(x)
(1 5x 6x2 )
G(x) 1 4x (2)
(1 2x) (1 3x)
Let
1 4x A B
(1 2x) (1 3x) (1 2x) (1 3x)
1 4x A(1 3x) B(1 2x)
(1 2x) (1 3x) (1 2x)(1 3x)
1 4x A(1 3x) B(1 2x)
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1
Put x
2
1 3
1 4 A 1
2 2
1
1 A A 2
2
Put x 1
3
1 1
1 4 B 1 2
3 3
4 2
1 B 1
3 3
1 B 1
1
B
3 3
From (2).
2 1
G(x)
(1 2x) (1 3x)
y xn 2(1 2x)1 (1 3x)1
n0
n
22 n x 3 nxn n
n0 n0
(2.2n 3n )xn
n0
y x
n n1 n n
n (2 3
y 2n1 3n
n0 n0
is the required solution.
2. Use the method of generating function to solve the recurrence relation
a 4a 4a 4n , n 2 Given that a 2 and a 8
n n1 n2 0 1
Solution:
Given a 4a 4a 4n , n 2 and a 2 , a 8
n n1 n2 0 1
a n 4a n1 4a n2 4n , n 2 1
Multiply the equation 1 by xn and summing from n=2 to we have
a x
n
n
4 a x n 4 a
n1
n2
x n 4n x n
n2 n2 n2 n2
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Put G(x) a n x n
n2
W .K.T a
n
xn G(x) a a x
0 1
n2
a n1 xn x G(x) a 0
n2
a
n 2
n2 x x G(x)
n2
2 16x2
G(x) a0 a1x 4x G(x) a0 4x G(x)
(1 4x)
16x2
G(x) 2 8 x 4xG(x) 8 x 4x2G(x)
(1 4x)
G(x) 4x2 16x2
4x 1 2
1 4x
2 16x2
G(x)(1 4x 4x ) 2
1 4x
16x2 2(1 4x)
G(x)(1 2x)(1 2x)
1 4x
16x 8x 2
2
G(x)(1 2x)(1 2x)
1 4x
16x2 8x 2
G(x) (2)
(1 2x)2 (1 4x)
16x2 8x 2 A B C
Let
(1 2x)2 (1 4x) (12x) (1 2x)2 (1 4x)
16x2 8x 2 A(1 2x)(1 4x) B(1 4x) C(1 2x)2
1
Putx
2 2
1 1 4
16 8 2 B 1
2 2 2
16 8
2 B(1)
4 2
4 4 2 B
B 2
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1
put x
4 2 2 2
1 1 2
16 8 C 1
4 4 2
4
1
1 2 2 C 1
22
2 1
1 C
2
1
1 C
4
C4
Equating co-efficients of x2 on both sides we get.
16=8A+4C
16=8A+4(4)
16=8A+16
8A=0
A0
16x2 8x 2 2 4
2
2
(1 2x) (1 4x) (1 2x) (1 4x)
4 2
G(x)
(1 4x) (1 2x)2
G(x) 4(1 4x)1 2(1 2x)2
a
n0
n x 4 4 x 2(n 1)(2x)n
n
n0
n n
n0
an x n 4(4
n
) 2(n 1).2n x n
n0 n0
4
n1
(n 1)2 n1 x n
n0
an 4 n1
(n 1)2n1
is the required equation.
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3. Solve the recurrence relation an 3an1 n, n 1 and a0 1
Solution:
Given, an 3an1 n (1)
multiply (1) by xn sum min g fromn 1to
a
n1
n x 3
n
n1
an1 x
n
n1
n
(2)
Let G x) a n xn
n0
From (2) wehave
G(x) a 0 3xG(x) x 2x 2 3x3 ...
x(1 2x 3x2 ...)
G(x)[1 3x] 1 x(1 x)2
x 1
Gn)
(1 x)2 (1 3x) (1 3x)
x (1 x)2
G x) (3)
(1 x)2 (1 3x)
x (1 x)2 A B C
Let
(1 x)2 (1 3x) (1 x) (1 x)2 (1 3x)
x (1 x)2 A(1 x)(1 3x) B(1 3x) C(1 x)2
put x 1
1
1 B(1 3) 2B 1 B
2
1
put x
3 2 2 2 2
1 1 1 2 1 2
1 C 1 3 C
3 3 3 3 3
4 1 4
C
9 3 9
4 7 7
C C
9 9 4
Equating co-efficients of x2 on both sides.
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7
1 3A C 3A 1
4
7 3
3A 1
4 4
1
A
4
1 1 7
G(x)
4(1 x) 2(1 x)2 4(1 3x)
1 1 7
(1 x)1 (1 x)2 (1 3x)1
4 2 4
3n x n
1 1 7
an xn 4 xn 2 (n 1)xn 4
n0 n0 n0 n0
[ xn
n0
1
(1 x)
(n 1)xn (1 x)2
n0
a n
xn (1 ax)1]
n0
1 1 7
(n 1) 3n xn
4 2 4
n0
74 3
a x
n n n 3
3 4 xn , n 0
n
n0 n0
7 n 3
an 3n
4 3 4
Which is the required solution
4.Using gererating function, solve a 8a 10n1, n 1 with the initial condition a 9
n n1 1
Solution:
Given an 8an1 10n1 (1)
put n 1 a 8a 1011
1 0
a1 8a0 1
sin ce a1 9 9 8a0 1
8a0 1 9
a0 1
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Multiplying both sides of (1) by xn and summing n 1
a x (2)
n n n1 n
n 8 an 1 x 10
n1 n1 n1
put G(x) a n xn
n0
W .K.T a xn G x) a
n 0
n1
a
n1
n1 xn xG(x)
from (2)
G(x) a0 8x G(x) x 10x 2 102 x3 ....
G(x)[1 8x] 1 x(110x (10x)2 .....)
x(110x)1
G(x)(1 8x) 1 x(110x)1
1 x (110x) x
G(x)
1 9x
(1 8x) (1 8x)(110x) (1 8x)(110x) (1 8x)(110x)
1 9x A B
Let,
(1 8x)(110x) 1 8x 110x
1 9x A (110x) B(1 8x)
1
Put x , 1 A 2
1
A
8 8 8 2
1 1
Put x , 1 B 2 B
10 10 10 2
1 9x 1 1 1 1
(1 8x)(110x) 2 1 8x 2 110x
1 1 1 1 1 (1 8x)1 1 (110x)1
G(x)
2 1 8x 2 110x 2 2
1 1 n n
a n x 8 x 10 x
n n n
n0 2 n0 2 n0
1 1
a xn [
n
(8n ) (10n )]x n
n0 n0 2 2
1
a (8n 10n )
n
2
is the required solution.
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PRINCIPLE OF INCLUSION AND EXCLUSION.
1) If A and B are two sets, then the number of elements in their union set (A B) is given by
A B A B A B
( A B) ( A) (B) ( A B)
2) If A, B and C are finite sets then
A B C A B C A B B C A C A B C or
A B C ( A) (B) (C) ( A B) (B C) ( A C) A B C
3) If A and B are finite and disjoint set,
( A B) ( A) (B) Since ( A B) , ( A B) () 0
4) Similarly A, B, C is finite disjoint set, then
A B C ( A) (B) (C)
Let A be any set and U be universal set then () (A) (Ac )
5) If A,B,C,D are four sets, then
A1 A2 A3 A4 A1 A2 A3 A4 A1 A2 A1 A3
A1 A4 A2 A3 A2 A4 A3 A4
A1 A2 A3 A1 A2 A4 A1 A3 A4
A2 A3 A4 A1 A2 A3 A4
Problems:
1.A computer company must hire 25 programmer handle system programming task and 40
programmer for application programming of these hire 10 will be except to perform task of each
type. How many programmer must be hire?
Solution: Let, A=set of system programmers B=set of application programmers
( A) 25, (B) 40, ( A B) 10
No of programmer must be hire ( A B)
( A) (b) ( A B)
25 40 10
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2. Among 100 students, 32 studied maths, 20 studied physics, 45 studied chemistry, 15 studied
maths and chemistry, 7 studied maths and physics, 10 study chemistry and physics, 30
donot studied those three subjects. Find (i) number of students studying all three subjects
(ii) number of
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students studied one of the subject (exactly). (iii) number of students like maths and doesnot
like physics and chemistry.
Solution:
A: Set of students studying maths B: Set of students studying Physics
C: Set of students studying Chemistry U: Total no. of students
n( ) = 100, n(A) = 32, n(B) = 20, n(C) = 45, n(A B) = 7, n(B C) = 10, n(A C) = 15
n A B C = 30.
(i)We know that,
n(U) = n(A B C) + n A B C
n(A B C) = n( ) - n A B C = 100 – 30 = 70.
By addition,
n(A B C) = n(A) + n(B) + n(C) - n(A B) - n(B C) - n(A C) + n(A B C)
n(A B C) = 32 + 20 + 45 – 7 – 10 – 15 + n(A B C)
70 = 97-32 + n(A B C)
n(A B C) = 70 – 97 + 32.
n(A B C) = 5.
n A B C = 30.
(i) No. of students studying all three subject n(A B C) = 5.
(ii) No. of students studying one subject 15 + 8 + 25 = 48 (iii) No. of students like only maths: 15
(iv) No. of students studying Physics: 8 (v) No. of students studying chemistry: 25
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3. Determine the number of integers between 1 and 250 that are not divisible by 2,3 or 5.
Soultion: Let, A : set of integers between 1 and 250 are divisible by 2.
B : set of integers between 1 and 250 are divisible by 3.
C : set of integers between 1 and 250 are divisible by 5.
250 250 250
A 125 B 83 C 50
2 3 5
250 250 250 250 250 250
A B 41 B C 16 A C 25
23 6 3 5 15 25 10
250
A B C 8 A B C 125 83 50 4116 25 8 184
235
Number of integers that are not divisible by 2,3 or 5 = 250 – 184 = 66.
4. Find the number of integers between 1 and 250 both inclusive that are divisible by any of the
integers 2,3,5,7?
Solution: Let A: Set of integers between 1 and 250 are divisible by 2.
B : Set of integers between 1 and 250 are divisible by 3.
C : Set of integers between 1 and 250 are divisible by 5.
D : Set of integers between 1 and 250 are divisible by
250 250 250 250
A 125 B 83 C 50 D 35.7 35
2 3 5 7
250 250
250 250
250 250
A B 41 BC 16 C D 7
23 6 3 5 15 57 35
250 250
250 250
250 250
D A 17 AC 25 B D 11
7 2 14 2 5 10 37 21
250 250 250
A B C 8 A B D AC D 3
2 3 5 2 3 7 2 5 7
250 250 250
B C D 2 A B C D 1
3 5 7 2 3 5 7 210
A B C D A B C D A B AC A D B C B D
C D A B C A B D A C D B C D A B C C
125 83 50 36 41 25 17 16 11 7 8 5 3 2 1
312 118 194
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UNIT-III
GRAPHS
BASIC DEFINITIONS
GRAPH:
A graph is a pair of sets (V,E). Where V is a non-empty set. The set V is called the set of vertices or
nodes and the set E is called the set of edges
Example: Let G=(V(G), E(G))
Where V (G ) {v1, v 2 , v3 , v4 } E (G ) {e1, e 2 , e 3 , e4 }
Definition- Adjacent vertices.
Any pair of vertices which are connected by an edge in a graph is called adjacent vertices
Here V1,V2 ;V2,V4 ; V2, V3 are adjacent vertices, V1, V3 ; V3, V4 ; V1, V4 are not adjacent
Definition: Adjacent edges
If two distinct edges are incident with a common vertex then they are called adjacent edges
Here e1 and e2 are incident with a common vertex V2.
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Definition : Isolated vertex
In any graph, a vertex which is not adjacent to any other vertex is called an isolated vertex. Otherwise
the vertex has no incident edge.
Here V3 has no incident edge. Therefore the vertex V3 is called isolated vertex.
Definition: Label graph
A graph in which each vertex is assigned a unique name or label is called a label graph.
Directed graph (or) digraph
Let G=(V,E) be a graph. If the elements of E are ordered pairs of vertices, then the graph G is
called a digraph.If e is an edge of a digraph G, and e=(u,v) then e is a directed edge which starts
at node u and ends at node v
Undirected graph:
Let G=(V,E) be a graph. If the elements of E are unordered pairs of vertices of G, then G is called an
undirected graph.
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Self loop (or) loop:
A loop is an edge whose vertices are equal. i.e., An edge of a graph which joins a vertex to itself
is called a loop.
Parallel edges (multiple edges)
Multiple edges are edges having the same pair of vertices.
Multigraph:
Any graph which contains some parallel edges and no loops is called a multigraph.
An undirected graph that may contain multiple edges but no loope.
Simple graph and Non Simple graph:
A simple graph is a graph having no loops or multiple edges.
If a graph G is not a simple graph it is called a non simple graph.
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Null graph
A graph G=(V,E) in which the set of edges E is empty is called a null graph.
Weighted graph : A graph G in which weights are assigned to every edge is called a weighted graph.
Finite graph: A graph G=(V,E) in which both V(G) and E(G) are finite sets is called a finite graph.
Otherwise the graph is infinite.
Simple directed graph: When a directed graph has no loops and no multiple directed edges it is called
a simple directed graph
Pseudo graphs: Graphs that may include loops and possibly multiple edges connecting the same pair of
vertices, are sometimes called pseudographs. i.e, An undirected graph that may contain multiple edges &
loops.
Examples
1. The diagram shows a graph G, why G is not a simple graph?
Solution: G is not a simple graph since it contain multiple edges e4, e5 also a loop e7.
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2. Describe formally the graph given below:
Solution: G= (V,E)
V={V1,V2,V3,V4}
E={e1,e2,e3,e4,e5}
E(a)={(V1,V2,), (V2,V3), (V3,V4), (V1,V3),(V2,V4)}
Incidence and degree:
Definition: Incidence
Let G be an undirected graph. An unordered pair (u,v) is an edge incident on u and v. If G is a
directed graph, an edge (u,v) is said to be incident from u and to be incident to V.
Indegree: In a digraph G, the number of edges ending at vertex V of G is called the indegree of V.
Indegree of v denoted by d () (V )
Out degree:
Let G be a digraph and V be vertex of G. The out degree of v is the number of edges beginning at V
and is denoted by d () (V )
Degree of a vertex:
In an undirected graph G, the degree of a vertex V is defined as the number of edges incident with V with
self loop counted twice and is denoted by d(V).
In case of digraph G, d(V ) d () (V ) d () (V ) ie, degree of v=Indegree of V + out degree of V.
Minimum degree and Maximum degree.
For a graph G=(V,E) We introduce
(G) minimum of all the degrees of the vertices of a graph G
(G) =maximum of all the degrees of the vertices of a graph G.
Example.
1. Find the indegree and the outdegree of each vertex in the following graph.
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Sol:
Vertex Indegree Out degree
d (V ) d (V )
V1 0 4
V2 2 1
V3 2 0
V4 4 0
V5 1 3
V6 1 3
V7 2 1
Isolated vertex:
A vertex of degree zero in a graph is called an isolated vertex.
Pendent vertex:
A vertex of a graph with degree one is called a pendent vertex.
K-regular graph:
A graph G is said to be k-regular, if every vertex of G has degree K.
Complete graph
A simple graph G in which every pair of distinct vertices are connected by an edge is called a
complete graph. If G is a complete graph n vertices then it is denoted by Kn
Examples
K6
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K3 is a complete graph of 3 vertices
K4 is a complete graph of 4 vertices K5 is a complete graph of 5 vertices
Simple theorems
Theorem 1: State & Prove Handshaking theorem
Statement:
(i) The sum of degrees of the vertices of an un-directed graph G is twice the number of edges in
G
n
Ie deg(vi)2| E | and
i1
(ii) If G isn directed graph
n
d()(vi) d()(vi)
and
i1 i1
() ()
d (vi) d (vi) 2 | E | 2 (Number of edges in G)
Proof:
(1) Let G be an undirected graph. Each edge of G is incident with two vertices and hence contributes 2
to the sum of degrees of all the vertices of the undirected graph G.
The sum of degrees of all the vertices in G is twice the number of edges in G
n
Ie, deg(vi)2|E| = 2 (number of edges in G)
i1
(ii) Let G be digraph and e be an edge associated with a vertex pair (Vi, Vj).
The edge e contributes one to the outdegree of Vi and one to the indegree of Vj
This is true for all the edges in G.
Hence
n n
d ()(vi) d ()(vi)| E |
i1 i1
d (v) 2| E |
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Example:1
Verify that the sum of the degree of all the vertices is even for the graph
Solution:
The sum of degree of all the vertices is
d(v1)d (v2 )d (v3 )d (v4 )d(v5 ) d (v6 ) d (v7 ) d (v8 )
=2+3+5+3+3+4+2+2
= 24 which is even
Example: 2
Verify the handshaking theorem for the graph
Solution: To prove deg(Vi)(2) ( no of edges)
Ie, deg(vi)(2)(9) 18
deg(Vi)deg(V )deg(V ) deg(V ) deg(V ) deg(V ) deg(V )
1 2 3 4 5 6
=2+4+4+3+4+1
= 18
Hence the theorem is true
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Complement of a graph
Let G be a graph with n vertices, then Kn-G is called complement of G it is denoted by G
Graph G Complement G of G
Walks paths and circuits :
Definition (walk):
A Walk in a graph is defined as a finite alternating sequences of vertices and edges
V0e1V1e2V2e3 . Vn1enVn beginning and ending with two vertices immediately proceeding and following
it. The Walk V0e1V1e2V2e3....Vn1enVnV0e1V1e2V2 .... Vn1enVn may be written as
V0 V1 V2 ..... Vn1 Vn and is shortly called V0 Vn walk. If V0 Vn then the walk is an open walk
and if V0 Vn then the walk is called a closed walk. A walk is also called a chain.
Length of a Walk: The number of edges in walk is called the length of the walk
Trail: A walk in a graph in which no edge is repeated is called a trail
Tour: A closed trail is called tour in a graph G
Example:
In the graph G W1:V1e1V2e2V3e3V4e4V5 is called a walk and is of length 4. It is also trial
since the edges are not repeated.
W2: V2e2V3e3V4e4V5e5V2 is called a closed walk and no edge in w2 is repeated. Therefore w2
is a closed trial and hence a tour.
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Path:
A path is an open walk in which no vertex appears more than once.
A path between two vertices V0 and Vn is a sequence of edges of the form
v0, v1v1, v2 v2, v3. vn1, vn .
A path between vertices v0 and vn is also given by V 0e1 V1e2V 2e3V 3vn1envn.
If v0 vn, the path is called open path and if v0 vn the path is called a closed path
Path length:
The number of edges used to define the paths is called the path length of path
Simple path:
If all the edges and vertices in a path are distinct except possibly the end points, then the path is called
a simple path ie. A path that does not contain an edge more than once
Circuit : A closed path in which all the edges are distinct is a circuit.
Eg:
Cycle : A circuit in which all the vertices are distinct is a cycle.
Closed paths: 2e14e2 2 is a closed path Path: 1-2-3-4-5- is a path .
2e3 3e4 4e7 5e6 1e5 2e1 4e2 2 is a circuit 1-2-3-4-5-1 is a simple path 2-4-3-2 is a cycle.
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Bipartite graph:
A graph G is called a bipartite graph if its vertex set V can be divided in to two disjoint subsets A and
B such that every edge in G joins a vertex in A to a vertex in B.
Example
Complete Bipartite graph:
A Bipartite graph G in which every vertex of A is adjacent to every vertex in B is called a complete
Bipartite graph, where A and B are partitioned subset of the vertex set V
If |A| = m and |B| = n, then the complete bipartite graph is denoted by Km, n and it has mn edges
K 4,2 K3,3
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Matrix representation of graph:
A graph can be represented by a matrix. There are two ways of representing a graph by a matrix
namely
(1) Adjacency matrix
(2) Incidence matrix
Adjacency matrix:
Let G be a graph with n vertices. The adjacency matrix of G is n n symmetric binary matrix.
1
A(G) (a ) a if vi and v j in G are adjacent
where ij if v and v in G arenot adjacent
ij nn
0
i j
Where vi and vj are vertices of G.
The adjacent matrix A(G) of a graph with n vertices is
(i) symmetric
(ii)The principal diagonal entries are all 0’s if and only if G has no loops, and
th th
(iii) Thei rowsumand i columnof A(G)isthe deg reeof V i
Example:
(i) Consider the graph
ADJACENCY MATRIX OF A DIRECTED GRAPH
Let G be a digraph with n vertices. The adjacency matrix A(G) of a graph G is an nxn
Matrix defined by A(G) aijnxn Where aij=1 if there is an edge directed from vi to vj and
Aij=0 otherwise
Example:
Consider the digraph given below
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Problems
1. Write the adjacency matrix of k4.
Solution:
K4 graph is
2. Write the adjacency matrix of k2,3
Solution: k2,3 graph is
3. Draw a graph of the given adjacency matrix
1 1 1 0
0 0 1 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 1 0
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Solution:
Let
Incidence Matrix
Incidence matrix of an undirected graph
Let G be a graph with n vertices and m edges. The incidence matrix denoted by B(G) is defined as
n m matrix B=(bij), where bij=1 if jth edge ej is incident on ith vertex vi and bij=0 otherwise.
Example:
Incidence matrix of a digraph
The incidence matrix of a digraph (with no loops) is defined as follows. If ek is an edge from vi to vj,
all elements in column k are zero except bik=1 and bjk= -1 i.e, if edge ej is directed from vi
Bij = 1
= -1 if edge ej is directed to vj
= 0 otherwise.
Example Consider the graph
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Problems
1. Find the adjacency matrix of the following graph.
2. Write the incidence matrix for the following graph
3. Draw the graph G for the following incidence matrix
Solution:
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GRAPH ISOMORPHISM
Two graphs G and G’ are isomorphic if there is a f :V (G) V (G ') from the vertices of G
(i) f is one-one
(ii) f is on to and
(iii) f presence adjacency
ie., If for vertices u and v in G(u, v)E(G) , if { f (u), f (v)} E(G ') Two graphs are
isomorphic if They have same number of vertices, They have same number of edges & Equal number
of vertices with same degree
Example: show that the following graphs are isomorphic
Vertex of G Degree Vertex of G’ Degree
a 3 V1 3
b 3 V2 3
c 3 V3 3
d 4 V4 4
e 1 V5 1
We define the map f :G G ' as
f (a)V1, f (b) V2 , f (c) V3 , f (d ) V4 f (e) V5 The adjacency matrix for the
ordering a, b, c, d, e and the adjacency matrix of G’ for the
ordering aV1 ,b V2 ,cV3 ,dV4,e V5 is the matrix
i. e, A(G) =A(G’) The graph G and G’are
isomorphic
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Self-Complementary graph
A graph G is said to self-complementary if G is isomorphic to its complement G
The graph G is shown below is self complementary
Consider v1 a, v2 b, v3 c, v4 e, v5 d
G and G’ are isomorphic and hence G is self complementary
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Problems
1. Show that a graph G is self complementary if it has 4n or 4n+1 vertices
(n is a non-negative integer)
Solution:
Let G= (V,E) be a self complementary graph with m vertices. Since G is self complementary G is
isomorphic to G’
E(G
)F(G')
(m
m 1)
E(G)F(G ') sincekn GG'
2
m(m 1)
2E(G)
2
m(m 1)
E(G)
4
m(m1)
is an integer and one of m or m-1 is odd
4
m or m-1 is multiple of 4 Hence m is of the form. 4n or 4n+1
G has 4n or 4n+1 vertices where n is a non-negative integer.
Note:-
From the above it is clear that a graph with n vertices is isomorphic to its complement if n or n-1 is a
n(n 1)
multiple of 4 and number of edges in G=
4
2. Show that graphs G1 and G2 are not isomorphic where G1 and G2 are as given below.
Solution:
We have number of vertices in G1= number of vertices in G2 and number of edges in
G1= number of edges in G2. In the graph G1 vertex is of degree 3 and there are two pendant vertices
adjacent to V3 in G1 but in the graph G2, the vertex C is degree 3 and it has only one pendant vertex
adjacent to it. Hence adjacency is not preserved in the graphs.
G1 and G2 are not isomorphic.
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Definition: Subgraph:
A subgraph of a graph G= (V,E) is a graph H= (W, F), where W F and F E
A subgraph H of G is a proper subgraph of G if H G
Example:
Connectivity (or) connectedness in Graphs.
A graph G is said to be connected if every pair of vertices in G are joined by a path. If G is not
connected then G is called a disconnected graph.
A maximal connected subgraph of G is called a component of G. If G is disconnected then G has
atleast two components clearly a graph G is connected if it has exactly one component.
n 1
Theorem: If G is a graph with n vertices and (G) , then G is connected
2
Proof:
Let us assume that G is not connected Then g has more than one component. Consider any
n 1 n 1
component G1= (v1, E1) of G . Let v V , since (g) , thereexist at least vertices in G1
1 1 2 2
which are adjacent to v1 in G1
n1
v1 1 v1 n 1 Thus each component of G has at least n 1
vertices and G has atleast
2 2 2
n1
two components .Hence the number of vertices in G 2 n Ie. V(G) n1
which is a
2
contradiction . G is connected.
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Theorem:
A graph G is connected if and only if for any partition of V into subsets V1 and V2 there is an edge
joining a vertex of V1 to a vertex of V2.
Proof:
Let G be a connected graph and V=V1 V2 be a partition of V into two subsets.
Let u V1 and v V2 since the graph G is connected a path in G say u v0 , v1, v2 , ......, vn v
Let i be the least positive integer such that viV2 Then Vi-1 V1 and the vertices vi-1 ,vi are adjacent.
Thus there is an edge joining Vi-1 V1 and Vi V2
Conversely,
Let G be a disconnected graph, then G contains two components
Let V1 be the set of all vertices of one component and V2 be the set of remaining vertices of G. Clearly,
V1 V2= V and V1 V2=
The collection {V1, V2} is a partition of V and there is no edge joining any vertex of V1 to any vertex of
V2.
Hence the theorem.
Theorem:
A graph G is disconnected if its vertex set V is partitioned in to two non-empty disjoint subsets V1 and
V2 such that there is no edge in G whose one end vertex is in subset V1 and the other is in subset V2
Proof:
To prove this theorem, let as assume that such a partitioning exists.
Consider, two arbitrary vertices v1 and v2 of graph G=(V,E) such that v1V1 and v2V2. As
per our assumption, no path can exist between vertices v1 and v2, otherwise there would be atleast one
edge whose one end vertex would be in v1 and other in v2. Hence if a partition exists, the graph G is not
connected.
Conversely, let us assume G is disconnected let v1 be vertex in G. Consider v1 be the set of all
vertices that are joined by paths to v1. Since graph G is disconnected, v1 does not include all vertices of
G. And the remaining vertices will form a non-empty set v2. Now it is clear that no vertex in v1 is joined
to any in v2 by an edge.
Hence the partition
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Theorem:
A graph without parallel edges or self loops with n nodes and k components can have atmost (n-
k) (n-k+1)/2 edges.
Proof:
Let n1, n2 , n3 , .... nk be the number of vertices in each of the k components of a graph G.
n1 n2 ... nk n where ni 1
Before proving the theorem, let us take
(n
i
1
)nk
1 i
Squaring on both sides,
2
k
2 2
(n)
1 nk
2n
i
i
1
k
(Or)
(n 2
ni)k
2
i
non negative cross terms = n2 k2 2nk
i
1
Since ni -1 0 for all i
n i n (k 1)(2n k) (1)
2 2
i1
ni(ni 1)
We know the maximum number of edges in the ith component of the graph G is
2
The maximum number of edges in G
1 k
ni(ni 1)
2 i 1
1 k ni2 n
2 i 1 2
1
2 (k1)
(2
n k)from (1)
n
2
12 1 1
2nk2n 2
k k 2 2n
k
nk2
k2
)(
n
k)
n
n n k (
n
2
2
1 2
Hence the theorem.
(n)
k(nk1)
2
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Connectedness in digraphs.
Definition: unilaterally connected.
A simple digraph is said to be unilaterally n connected if for any pair of vertices of the graph
atleast one of the vertices of the pair is reachable from the other vertex.
Definition: strongly connected.
If for any pair of the graph both the vertices of the pair are reachable from one another, then the
graph is called strongly connected.
Definition: Weakly connected:
In an undirected graph if any pair of vertices are reachable from one another, then the graph G is
connected. A simple digraph is said to be weakly connected. If its underlying undirected graph is
connected.
Example:
Problems:
1) Consider the following digraph use its adj matrix to find how many paths of length 3 from v1 to v2.
Solution: The adjacency matrix of the given digraph is
As(1,2)th entry in A3 is 2, there are two directed paths of length 3 from v1 to v2.
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2)How many paths of length 4 are there from a to d in the simple graph G given below.
Solution: The Adjacency matrix of G is
The number of paths of length 4 from a to d is(1,4)th entry of A 4 = 8.
EULER AND HAMILTON PATHS
Definitions: Euler path:
Let G be a muligraph. An Euler path in G is a path that includes each edge of G exactly once and
intesects each vertex of G atleast once.
Traversable graph: A graph is said to be traversable if it has a path.
Eulerian circuit: An Eulerian circuit in G is an Eulerian path whose end points are identical.
Eulerian graph: An graph G is said to be eulerian if it has an eulerian circuit.
Example: In the following graph. v1 –v2 –v3 – v4-v2 – v5 –v1 is closed.
Euler trail it contains all the vertices and edge of G
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Theorem:
The following statements are equivalent for a connected graph G
1) G is Eulerian
2) Every vertex has even degree
3) The set of edges of G can be partitioned into cycles.
Proof: (1) (2)
Let P be an Euler path in G. Each occurrence of a given vertex in P contributes two to the degree of
that vertex and since each vertex of G appears exactly once in the path P, every vertex of G must be even
degree.
(2) (3)
G is connected and non-trivial, therefore degree of every vertex in G is atleast two and G contains a
cycle say Z1. The removal of the edges of Z1 results in a spanning subgraph G1, in which every vertex has
even degree.
If G1 has no edges, then all the edges of G form a cycle and holds ,otherwise the arguments can be
repeated until we obtain a totally disconnected graph Gn. Z1, Z2, Z3, …..,Zn contains the set of edges of
G1 which partition G into G cycles . Hence proved.
(3) (1)
Let G be partitioned into cycles and Zi be the cycles. If Z1 is the only cycle graph, G is Eulerian
otherwise,
Let Z2 be another cycle in G and V be a common vertex of Z1 and Z2 in succession is a closed
trial containing all the edges of Z1 and Z2 continuing this process, we obtain a closed trial containing all
the edges of G. Hence G is Eulerian.
Theorem:
If G is connected graph and has exactly two vertics of odd degree, there is an Euler path in G. Any
Euler path in graph G must begin at vertex of odd degree and ends at the other.
Proof:
Let u and v be two vertices of odd degree in G. By adding the edge {u.v} to G, we can produce a
connected graph say G1, all of whose vertices are of even degree.
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Since G1 is a connected graph and every vertex of G1 is of even degree, we can find an Euler circuit C in
G1. Deleting the edge{u,v} from the circuit C, we get an Euler path that beings at u (or v) ends at v (or u).
Problems:
1. Show that the following graph G is Eulerian and find an Eulerian circuit in G.
Each vertex is of even degree in G and no vertices of odd degree. Therefore G is Eulerian
ABCDEACEBDA is Eulerian circuit in G.
2. Show that the graph G shown below is not Eulerian.
Solution:
There are four vertices of degree 5 in the graph namely a, b, c, d
Therefore G is not Eulerian.
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Theorem:
A connected graph G with no loops has an Eulerian path if and only if it has exactly two odd
vertices.
Proof:
If G has an Eulerian path from u to v both u and v are odd and since this path passes through
every vertex and traverses each edge once, every other vertex is necessarly even.
On the other hand, suppose that G is connected with exactly two odd vertices u and v. Now either u
and v are adjacent of they are not.
If U and V are adjacent, let e be an edge between them. Delete e to get the graph G’ (with
atmost two components) in which each vertex is even.
If G’ is connected, an Eluerian circuit is obtained in G’ starting from U and adjoin the edge e to
this circuit to get an Eulerian path between U and V. If G’ has two components, let the component that
contains U be G1 and the component that contains V be G2. Clearly both these components are Eulerian.
We obtain an Eulerian circuit from u in the first component and an Eulerian circuit from V in the
second component. Then the path consisting of the edges of the first circuit, the edge e, and the edges of
the second circuit constitute an Eulerian path between U and V. Finally, If U and V are not adjacent in G.
Construct an arc e joining then, producing a new graph H, which is Eulerian.
We obtain an Eulerian circuit in H from U in which the last edge is e. If we delete e, We have an
Eulerian path in G from U to V. This completes the proof.
Theorem
A connected graph G with no loop is Eulerian If and only if the degree of each vertex is even.
Proof: Assume that G is connected with no loops and is Euler. Then G has an Euler circuit.
Any Eulerian circuit in G leaves each vertex as many times as it enters. So each vertex of G is
even.
Suppose that G is connected graph in which each vertex is of even degree. We prove that G is
Eulerian by actually constructing an Eulerian circuit in it. An Eulerian circuit is obtained in G by
procedure in which circuits are spliced until to get the circuit.
Start from any vertex V. Traverse distinct edges of G until we return to V. This is certainly
possible since each vertex is of even degree. Let C1 be the circuit this obtained.
If this circuit C1 contains all the edges of the graph G1 then C1 is an Eulerian circuit.
Otherwise, delete all the edges of this circuit C1 and all vertices of degree O from G to obtain the
connected subgraph H1. In which each vertex is also even
Furthermore, Since G is connected, there is a vertex u. Now start from u and obtain a circuit c 2 by
traversing distinct edges of the subgraph H1
We note that the two circuits have no common edges, even though they may have common
vertices. If V = U, the two circuits, can be joined together to form an enlarged circuit C3.
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If U and V are distinct, let P and Q be the two distinct simple paths between U and V consisting
of edges from C1. Then P, Q and C2 are spliced together to form a new circuit C3. If this enlarged circuit
has all the edges of G, We conclude that it is Eulerian. Otherwise, We continue until we obtain a circuit
that has all the edges of G.
HAMILTON PATHS AND HAMILTONIAN CYCLES.
Definition: Hamiltonian Path.
A path between two vertices in a graph is a Hamiltonian path if it Passes through each vertex
exactly once.
Hamiltonian cycle:
A Closed Path that passes through each vertex exactly once and in which all the edges
are distinct is a Hamiltonian cycle.
Hamiltonian Graph:
A graph is a Hamiltonian graph if it has a Hamiltonian cycle. ie., A given G is Hamiltonian
If there exists a cycle containing every vertex of G.
Theorem:
Let G = (V, E) be a loop free undirected graph with |V| = n 3. If deg (X) + deg (Y) n for all
non-adjacent vertices X, Y V, then G contains a Hamilton cycle.
Proof:
Assume that G does not contain a Hamilton cycle, We add edges to G until we arrive at a
Subgraph H of Kn where H has no Hamilton cycle, but, for an edge e (of kn) not in H, H + e has a
Hamilton cycle. Since H Kn, there are vertices a and b in V where {a, b} is not an edge of H but H +
{a, b} has Hamilton cycle C. The graph H has no such cycle, so the edge {a, b} is a part of cycle C are
listed as follows.
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For each 3 i n, If the edge {b, vi} is in the graph H1 then we claim that the edge{a,
Vi-1} cannot be an edge of H. For if both of these edges are in H1 for some 3 i n, then we get the
Hamilton cycle.
For the graph H (which has no Hamilton cycle)
For each 3 i n, atmost one of the edges {b, Vi} {a, Vi-1} is in H.
Also, degH (a) + degH (b) < n, Where degH (V) = degree of V in H.
For all v V, degH (V) degG (V) = deg (V)
So we have non-adjacent vertices a and b in G
Such that deg (a) + deg (b) < n.
This is a contradiction to the hypothesis that deg (X) + deg (Y) n for all non-adjacent
X, Y V. G contains a Hamilton cycle.
Problems:
1. Show that the following graph is Hamiltonian.
Solution: We find in G, Hamiltonian cycle, V1V2V3V4V5V6V7V8V1.
The given Graph G Hamiltonian.
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2. Find a Hamilton Path in the following graph. Does a Hamilton cycle exist in G?
3. Show that the complete graph Kn has a Hamiltonian cycle Whenever n 3.
Solution:
A Hamiltonian cycle in Kn can be formed starting at any vertex, such as Hamiltonian cycle can
be build by visiting vertices in any order. We choose, as long as the path begins and each end at the same
(n 1)!
vertex and visits each other exactly once, as it is possible in Kn, n 3, Also there are
2
Hamiltonian cycles in Kn.
4. Draw a graph with six vertices which is Hamiltonian but not Eulerian.
Theorem:
n2 3n 6
A graph G has a Hamilton circuit m Where m and n denote the number of vertices
2
and the edges of G respectively.
Proof:
Let V1 and V2 be the two vertices of G. Which are adjacent, Eliminate V1 and V2 from G together
with any edges which have these vertices as end points, and obtain a new graph H.
The number of edges in H are
M – (deg V1) – (deg V2)
(n 2)(n 3) n2 5n 6
The maximum number of edges in H can have is (n 2)C2
2 2
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Now,
n2 5n 6
m (degV1 ) (deg V2 )
2
n2 5n 6
ie, (degV1 ) (degV2 ) m ( )
2
n2 3n 6 n 5n 6
2
deg(V1 ) deg (V2 ) n
2 2
deg(V1) deg (V2 ) n
for nonadjacent vertices V1 and V2
Hence by a theorem, G has Hamiltonian circuit.
Problems
1. Show that the graph given below has no Hamiltonian cycle but it has a Hamiltonian path
Solution:
G has 9 vertices
n=9
The number of edge in any Hamiltonian cycle in G is 9. There are 3 vertices of degree two in G.
Therefore all the incident edges on the vertices d, e and f must be included in any Hamiltonian
cycle.
The edges a, d; d , g; b, e; e, h; c, f ; f ,i must be included in
constructing a Hamiltonian cycle.
The degree of b is 3 when the edges given above are included and we include the edge
a , b in the Hamiltonian cycle, we delete the edge b, c . Then we must include a, c in the
Hamiltonian cycle. Thus the degree of a would be 3.
Hence no Hamiltonian cycle exists in G. However there exists a Hamiltonian path in G.
The Hamilton path in G is
a-d – g- h –e – b – c – f- i.
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Isomorphism of Graphs using Adjacency Matrices
Definition:
Two graphs G1 and G2 with Adjacency matrices A1 and A2 respectively are isomorphic.If and
only if there exists a permutation matrix P such that P A1PT = A2
Note: A permutation matrix having the rows of the unit matrix in a different order
Problems
1. Show that the following graphs G1 and G2 are isomorphic.
Solution:
Since A V , B V , C V , and D V Further P A1 PT
1 3 2 4
The two graphs G1 and G2 are isomorphic such that AV1 , B V3 ,C V2 , D V4 .
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2. Show that the following graphs are isomorphic.
Solution:Both graphs having 4 vertices and 5 edges
In the graph G1
d(A) = 3 ; d(B) = 2 ; d(C) = 2 ; d(D) = 3 ;
In the graph G2
d(V1) = 3 ; d(V2) = 2 ; d(V3) = 3 ; d(V4) = 2 ;
Consider the following correspondences,
AV1 , B V4 ,C V2 , D V3
The adjacency matrices after this correspondence are
The adjacency matrices are identical for the correspondence
AV1, B V4 ,C V2 , D V3
Hence the two graph are isomorphic.
3. Determine the graphs G and H are given below are isomorphic.
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Solution: Both graphs having 6 vertices and 4 edges
In the graph G1 d(A) = 3, d(B) = 3, d(C) = 3, and d(D) = 3.
In the graph G2 d(V1) = 3, d(V2) = 3, d(V3) = 3, and d(V4) = 3.
The adjacency matrices for the graphs are
Hence the two graphs are isomorphic.
4. Find an Euler path or an Euler circuit if it exit in each of the following graphs.
Solution:
In G1 there are only two vertices namely A and B of degree 3 and other vertices are of
even degree.
Hence there exist an Euler path between A and B. The actual path is
A -B - E - D - A - C - D - B
This path uses each of the 7 edges exactly once, so it is an Euler path.
In G2 there are 6 vertices of odd degree. Hence G 2 contains neither an Euler path nor
an Euler circuit.
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In G3 all the vertices of even degree. So the graph contains an Euler circuit.
The circuit A – B – C – D – E – A – C – E – B – D – A contains each of the 10 edges
exactly once and so it is Euler circuit.
5. Deter mine which of the following graphs are bipartite and which are not. If a graph is
bipartite, state if it is completely bipartite.
Solution:
(i) In G1 since the vertices D, E, F are not connected by edges that my be considered as one
subset V1 then A, B, C belong to V2
V1 D, E, F & V2 A, B, C
The vertices of V1 are connected by edges to the vertices of V2 but the vertices A, B,
C of the subset V2 are the edges BC. Hence the graph G1 is not a bipartite.
(ii) By taking V1 A, C & V2 B, D, E the condition required for bipartite graph
are satisfied.
Hence, the graph G2 is bipartite in G2 both A & C are adjacent to each of B, D, E.
Hence G2 is complete bipartite graph.
(iii) By taking,
V1 A, B, C & V2 D, F , E the condition of bipartite is satisfied.
G3 is bipartite.
Here the vertices A and F (also C & D) are not accepted by edges.
AV1 is non adjacent to F V2
G3 is not a complete bipartite graph.
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UNIT-IV
ALGEBRAIC STRUCTURES
Binary operation
Definition
Let A be any non-empty set. The binary operation * is a function from AA to A
ie., a rule which assigns to every pair (a,b) A A , a unique element a*bA .
Example: Usual addition, multiplication are binary operations defined on the set of real numbers.
Properties of Binary operation:
(1) Associative:
* Is associative if a * (b * c) = (a*b)*c for all a,b,cA .
(2) Commutative.
a * b = b* a for all a,bA
(3) Existence of Identity
* Possesses the identity element e A if a * e = e * a = a for all a A
The binary operation is called idempotent if it possesses idempotent element.
(4) Existence of Inverse Element
The element b is called an inverse of the element a if a*b = b*a = e.
Algebraic Systems:
Definition: A non-empty set together with one or more binary operations defined on it is
called algebraic system.
If * is a binary operation defined on a set A, then (A, *) is called an algebraic system.
Semi group:
Let S be a non-empty set with a binary operation * on it. Then S is called a semigroup w.r.to
* if * is associative
ie., a * (b * c) = (a * b) * c for all a,b,c s
Examples:
1. Let X be any non-empty set, Then the set of all functions from X to X is the set X x , is a
semigroup w.r.to *, the composition of functions.
Problems:
1. Show that set of rational numbers Q is a semigroup for the operation * defined by
a * b = a + b – ab.
Solution: Q is closed for *
a * (b * c) = a * (b + c – bc)
= a + b + c- bc – a (b + c - bc)
=a + b + c – ab – bc – ca + abc .............................................. (1)
(a * b) * c = ( a + b – ab) * c
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= a + b – ab + c – (a + b – ab)c
= a + b + c – ab – ac – bc + abc .......................................... (2)
From (1) and (2)
a* (b * c) = (a * b) * c a, b, c Q
* is associative (Q, *) is a semi group.
Commutative semigroup: The semigroup (S,*) is called commutative semigroup if
a* b = b * a a, b s
Problems:
1. Let (s, *) be a commutative semigroup if x * x = x, y * y = y, P.T (x * y) * (x * y) = x * y
Solution: L.H.S (x * y) * (x * y)
= x * (y * (x * y)) [by Associative Law]
= x* ((y * x) * y) [by Commutative Law]
= x * ((x * y) * y) = x * (x * (y * y)) [By given y * y = y]
= x * (x * y) [By Associative Law]
= (x * x)*y [By given x * x – x]
=x*y = R.H.S
Monoid:
Let M be a non-empty set with a binary operation * on it. Then M is called a monoid for the
operation * if
(i) * is associative i.e., (a * b) * c = a * (b * c) a M
(ii) There exists an element eM such that e * a = a * e = a a M(
e is called the identity of M w.r.to *)
A semigroup with an identity element is a monoid
Symbolically we represent a monoid by (M, *, e) with e as identity element.
Examples:
1. N = {0, 1, 2,…..} then (N, +), (N, *) are monoids.
2. (Z, *) (Z, +) are monoids.
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Problems:
1. Show that the set of integers, I is a monoid for the operation * defined by a * b = a + b – ab,
a, b I.
Solution:
I is closed for the operation * further * is a associative.
The element 0 I is the identity for * since x * 0 = x + 0 – x . 0
And 0 * x = 0 + x – 0. x = x, x I
(I, *) is a monoid, with identity 0 I
Commutative Monoid:
A monoid (M, *) is said to be commutative of a * b = b * a a, b M
Eg., (I, +), (I, X) are commutative monoids.
GROUPS
Definition:
A non-empty set G with binary operation * is called a group. If the following axioms are satisfied.
1. * is associative Ie., (a * b) * c = a * (b * c) a, b, c G
2. There exists an element e G such that a * e = e * a = a; a G (e is the identity element)
3. For every a G, an element a1G , such that a*a1 a1*ae ( a 1 is called the inverse
element of a)
Abelian Group (or) Commutative Group
A group (G, *) is called abelian if a * b = b * a a, b G ie., * is commutative in G.
Eg.,G= {1, -1, i, -i}. In G, the operation ‘.’ Is defined by the following table then (G, .) is a abelian
group.
Here ‘.’ is the operation, multiplication of complex numbers.
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Properties of Group:
Property: 1
The identity element in a group is unique.
Proof: Let e1 and e2 be two identity elements of G
e *e e (Taking e as identity)
1 2 2 1
e *e e (Taking e as identity)
1 2 1 2
e1e2
Property: 2
The inverse of every element in a group is unique.
Proof:
Let (G, *) be a group, with identity element e, Let b and c be inverses of an element a G
a*b=b*a=e
a*c=c*a=e
b=b*e
= b * (a * c)
=(b * a)* c = (a * b) * c =e*c=c
Property: 3 If a is an element in a group (G, *) then (a1)1 a
Property: 4 If a and b are two elements in a group (G, *) then (a*b)1b1*a1
Property: 5 Cancellation Law:
In a group (G, *)
a*c=b*c
a=b [ Right cancellation]
a*b=a*c
b = c [ Left cancellation]
Property: 6
In a group [G, *] the equations x * a = b and a * y = b have unique solutions.
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Proof: Consider x * a = b
1
Post multiplying by a
x * (a * a 1 ) = b * a
x * e = b * a 1
x = b * a 1
Proof of uniqueness. Let x1 and x2 be two solutions of x * a = b
Then x1 * a = b and x2 * a = b
x1 * a = x2 * a
x1 = x2 by right cancellation Law
In a similar manner, the equation a * y = b has a solution y = a 1 * b and this solution is unique.
Problems:
1. Show that a group (G, *) is abelian iff (a *b)2 a2*b2 .
Solution: First we assume that (G, *) is abelian (a*b)2(a*b)*(a*b)
= a * (b *(a * b)) = a *((b * a) * b) =a * ((a * b) * b) [ G is abelian a * b = b * a]
=(a * a) *(b *b) = a2*b2
Convesly we assume that
(a*b)2 a2 *b2
To Prove G is abelian
(a * b) * (a * b) = (a * a) * (b * b)
a * (b * (a * b)) = a * (a * (b * b))
b * ( a * b) = a * (b * b) (by left cancellation Law)
(b * a) * b = (a * b) * b
b * a = a * b (by Right cancellation Law)
a * b = b * a a, b G
G is abelian
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Definitions
Order of a group:
The number of elements in a group is denoted by the symbol O(G) or |G| called the order of the
group G.
Order of an element:
Let G be a group & aG. If for some positive integer n, an=e, then n is called the order of the
element a and is denoted by the symbol O(a). O(a)=n if an=e.
*Order of a a=order of a-1. Ie O(a)=O(a-1)
Cyclic Group:
A group (G,*) is called a cyclic group. If for some element aG, every element xG is
expressed as x=am or x=ma where m is an integer. Here a is called the generator of the cyclic group G.
We say that G is a cyclic group generated by aG and It can be written as G=(a).
Eg: [[1,2,3,4],X5] is a cyclic group with generators 2 and 3
1=24
2=25
3=27
4=26
Ie. Every element of this group expressed as a power of 2.If a is generator of the group G then a -1 is also a
generator.Since 2X53=1 and 3X52=1 is the inverse of 2.
3 is also a generator of this group. *A cyclic group can have more than one generator.
Theorem:Any cyclic group is abelian.
Proof: Let (G,*) is a cyclic group generated by aG.
Let (b,c) G Then b=am and c= an for some integers m and n.
b*c = am* an
=am+n * an+m
=an* am
=c*b
b*c = c*b b,c G
G is an abelian group.
Note: The converse of the above result is not true.
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Consider Klein’s Four group.
G={e,a,b,c} with operator * defined by the following table
This group G is an abelian group with identity element e but it is not cyclic.
Theorem:
Let (G,*) be a finite cyclic group generated by an element aG.
If O(G)=n then an=e so that G={a,a2,….an=e} where e is the identity element for * in G.
Furthermore n is the least positive integer for which an=e.
Proof: Let (G,*) be a cyclic group of order n.
We first proof that am=e is not possible for m<n.
If possible let am=e for m<n Since G is a cyclic group, an element xG can be written as,
X=ak for some integer k. Since m and k are integers by Division Algorithm we write,
k=mq+r where 0 r<m (q=quotient, r=remainder)
Now, x = ak = amq+r= amq*ar=(am)q*ar= eq*a r=ar
x= ar where 0 r<m
Hence every element of G is of the form a r, where r<m. G has atmost m distinct elements,
a0,a1,a2,…..am-1.This shows that order of G, |G|=m<n, But G is a cyclic group of G of order n.
am=e for m<n is not possible. an=e G has n elements a,a2,….an=e
We must show that the element of G are distinct
Suppose ai=aj for i<j aj=ai aj*ai=e ie. aj-i=e Also i<j n, we have 0<j-i<n
This means that aj-i=e with j-i<n. This is a contrediction. ai=aj for i<j is not possible.
Hence the elements a,a2,….an are all distinct. Now G={ a,a2,….an=e}
We conclude that n is the least positive integer for which an=e.
Hence the theorem
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Permutation Groups and Dihedral Groups
Permutation:
Let A be a finite set. A bijection (one-to-one on to mapping) from A onto itself, is called a
permutation on A.
Eg: A={1,2,3,4} we defined a permutation
f:A A by f(1)=2, f(2)=4, f(3)=1, f(4)=3.
f is bijection and it is a permutation on A denoted by
1 2 3 4
f=
2 4 1 3
If a={a1,a2,….an} then permutation on A is
f= a1 a2 ........ an
b b ........ b
1 2 n
where the row b1,b2,…bn is just a rearrangement of the elements of a1,a2…..an.
Symmetric set:
If S is a finite set having ‘n’ distinct elements then we shall have n! distinct permutations of the
set S. The set of all distinct permutations of degree n defined on the set S is denoted by S n, called the
Symmetric set of permutations of degree n.
The operation permutation multiplication
a1 a2 ....... an
If f= and
b1 b2........ bn
g= b1 b2 ....... bn
c c ........ c
1 2 n
are two permutations in Sn, we define the operation product of permutations by
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f.g= a1 a2........ an
c c ........ c
1 2 n
This operation is nothing but the composition of two functions.
ie. (f.g)(x)=g[f(x)]
This is a binary operation defined on the symmetric set Sn.
Identity Permutation:
If I is a permutation of degree n such that it replaces every element by the element itself, then I is
called an identity permutation of degree n.
I= 1 2 3........ n or I= a1 a2 ............... an
1 2 3........ n a a ........ a
1 2 n
is the identity permutation of degree n.
Inverse of a permutation
a1 a2 ....... an
If f= , then the inverse of f is obtained by interchanging the rows in f.
b1 b2........ bn
b1 b2........ bn
ie. f-1=
a a ........ a
1 2 n
Symmetric Group
The set Sn of all permutations on n symbols is a finite group of order n!
w.r.to the operation of permutation multiplication. This group of permutation is called the symmetric
group (Sn, .). For n 3, the symmetric group Sn is non-abelian.
Proof:
Let S={1,2,…n}
The set of all permutations defined on the S is denoted by S n. In Sn, the operation permutation
multiplication (composition of functions) is a binary operation.
(i) Associativity:
Let f= a1 a2........ an , g= b1 b2........ bn
b b ........ b c c ........ c
1 2 n 1 2 n
c1 c2........ cn
and h= be three elements is Sn.
d1 d.........
2
d n
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a1 a2 ....... an
Then f.(g.h)=(f.g).h and it is =
d1 d 2 ........ d n
The operation ‘.’ is associative.
(ii) Existence of Identity:
Let I= a1 a2........ an or I= b1 b2 ....... bn
a a ........ a b b ........ b
1 2 n 1 2 n
a1 a2 ....... an
For f = Sn we have
b1 b2......... bn
a1 a2 ........an a1 a2 ....... an = a1 a2 ........ an
I.f = b b ........ b b b ........ b
a1 a2.........an 1 2 n 1 2 n
a1 a2 ....... an b1 b2........ bn = a1 a2 ....... an
f.I = b b ........ b b b ........ b
b1 b2......... bn 1 2 n 1 2 n
I.f=f.I=f I is the identity element of Sn.
(iii) Existence of Inverse:
b2 ....... bn
For f= a1 a2........ an n b1
f-1= a
b b ........ b S , a ........ a
1 2 n 1 2 n
Further f- f-1=I and f-1-f=I
Every element f belongs to Sn has inverse element.
(iv) Non-Commutativity:
Since the composition of functions is not commutative, we have f.g g.f.
Hence (Sn.) is a non-abelian group for n 3.
Problems
1. List all the elements of the symmetric set S3 where S={1,2,3} and prove that (S3. ) is a group
Solution:
The elements of the symmetric set S3 are
P1= 1 2 3 ; P2=1 2 3 ; P3=1 2 3
1 2 3 3 1 2 3 1 2
P4= 1 2 3 ; P5=1 2 3 ; P6=1 2 3
1 3 2 3 2 1 2 1 3
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The operation ‘ ’ product of permutations defined on the set S 3={P1, P2, P3,P4, P5, P6} is given in the
following table
This table shows that the operation ‘ ’ is associative since the composition of function is associative.
ie. P1 (P2 P3 ) P1 P1 P1 Also (P1 P2 ) P3 P2 P3 P1 and so on.
P1 (P2 P3 ) (P1 P2 ) P3
The element P1 is the identity element w.r.to ‘ ’.
Inverse: P2 and P3 are inverse of each other P4,P5,P6 have self inverses. (S3, ) is a group.
1 2 3 4 5
2. Consider the permutations on S={1,2,3,4,5} given by = ,
2
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
= ,=
1 4 5
2 3 5 4 3 1 2
Compute , . Also solve the equation, x
Solution:
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
=
2
1 2 3 4 5
=
2 3 1 5 4
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
=
1
1 2 3 4 5
=
5 4 3 2 1
x
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x 1
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
=
3 1 2 4 5 1 2 3 5 4
1 2 3 4 5
=
3 1 2 5 4
Note:*(S3, ) is a group but not abelian since P3 P4 P4 P3
Dihedral Group (Dn):
By considering the symmetries of a regular polygon of n sides, we obtain a set of permutations
and the set of these permutations forms a group w.r.to the product of permutations.
This permutation group is called the dihedral group (Dn, ). The dihedral group (Dn, ) is a
subgroup of the symmetric group (Sn, ) whose elements are the permutations obtained by symmetries of
a regular polygon.
1. List the elements of the dihedral group (D4, )
Solution:
The elements of (D4, ) are obtained by the symmetries of a square.
Consider a square with vertices labeled 1,2,3,4 O be the centre of the square. We perform
rotations about angles 900,1800,2700 and 3600 about the point O. The following permutations are obtained
P2= 1 2 3 4 ; P3=1 2 3 4
1 2
;
2 3 4 3 4 1
P4= 1 2 3 4 ; P1=1 2 3 4
3 4
;
4 1 2 1 2 3
A permutation obtained by a reflexion about the line L is
1 2 3 4
P5
2 1 4 3
The permutation obtained by a reflexion about L’ is
1 2 3 4
P6
4 3 2 1
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The permutations obtained by a reflexion about the diagonals are
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
P7 1 4 3 2 ; P8 3 2 1 4
These 8 permutations P1, P2...P8 are the elements of (D4, 0). The composition table for
the dinedral group (D4,0) is given as follows.
This table shows that the operation is associative since the composition of functions is
Associative.
ie. P1 (P2 P3) P1 P4 P4
(P1 P2) P3 P2 P3 P4 and soon.
P1 (P2 P3 ) (P1 P2 ) P3
Identity Element:
The element P1 is the identity element w.r.to ‘0’.
Inverse Element:
P1, P3, P5, P6, P7 and P8 have self inverses. P2 and P4 are inverses of each other.
(D4, 0) is a group.
Cyclic Permutation:
The permutation f defined on S a1, a2 ,...... an is said to be cyclic
if f (a1) a2, f (a2 ) a3 , .... f (ar1 ) ar and f (ar ) a1 and f (b) b for all other elements.
Eg :
1 2 3 4 This is a cyclic permutation. It is represented by a cycle (1 3 2)
1. f
3 1 2 4
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1 2 3 4 5
2. g It is represented by (1 3 4) G is cyclic permutation
3 2 4 1 5
Both f and g are represented by a cyclic of length 3. The number of 25 elements in the cycle gives
the length of the cycle.
Disjoint cycles:
Two cycles are said to be disjoint if they have no elements in common.
The cycles (1 3 6) and (2 4 5 ) are disjoint.
Transposition:
A cycle of length two is called a transposition.
Eg: The permutation (1,3) is a transposition. Facts about Transpositions:
1. The product of two transpositions is not a transposition.
2. The inverse of a transposition is itself ie. Every transposition is its own inverse
3. Every cycle of length r is expressed as a product (r-1) transpositions
ie. (a1, a2, ... ar) =(a1 ar) (a1 ar-1) ... (a1 a2)
4. Every permutation is expressed as a product of transpositions.
Even and odd permutations:
A permutation is said to be an even permutation if it is expressed as a product of even number of
transpositions. Otherwise it is said to be an odd permutation
Important Results:
1. The Product of 2 even permutations is even.
2. The Product of 2 odd permutations is even.
3. The product of even and odd permutation is an odd permutation and vice versa.
4. The inverse of even permutation is even.
5. The inverse of odd permutation is an odd.
Alternation Group:
If An is the set of all even permutations of degree n. Then An is a group w.r.to the operation
product of permutations. The group (An, ) is called alternating group of degree n. Further, order of
n!
An .
2
Problems:
1. Examine whether the following permutation is even or odd.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
f
2 5 4 3 6 1 7 9 8
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Solution: f = (8 9) (3 4) (1 2 5 6) These are transpositions = (8 9) (3 4) (1 6) (1 5) (1 2)
F is expressed as a product of 5 transpositions.
Hence f is a odd permutation.
1 2 3
2. S.T. The permutations e
1 2 3
1 2 3
1 2 3 forma group.
2 3 1 3 1 2
Solution:
Consider the set S e, , The operation table defined on the set S is as follows:
S is closed for the operation permutation multiplication.
The composition of functions is associative, permutation multiplication is associative in S.
e s is the identity element. The inverse of is and is
S e, , is a group w.r.to. the product of permutations.
Sub-Structures Sub-Semi group
Let (S ,) be a semi group and T S. If the set T is closed for the operation then T , is
called sub semi group of S, .
Eg: (E,+) is a sub semi group of (Z,+) where E= set of even integers.
(E+,+) is also a subsemigroup of (N,+). Where E+ = set of positive even integers.
Sub Monoid:
Let M ,, e be a monoid and T M . If T is closed under the operation and eT. Then
T , is called a submonoid of M , .
Eg: Let T = Set of odd integers, then T , is a submonoid of Z , Where is the usual
multiplication.
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Subgroup:
Let (G,*) be a group and H G. (H,*) is called a subgroup of (G,*) if H itself is a group w.r. to
*.
Trivial Subgroup:
For any group (G,*), {{e}, *} and (G,*) are subgroups, called trivial subgroups. All other
subgroups are called non-trivial subgroups.
Examples:
For the group (Z12, +12), (H, +12) is a subgroup where H = {[0], [3], [6], [9]} or H = {[0], [4], [8]}.
Necessary and sufficient condition for a group: A non- empty subset H of a group (G,*) is a subgroup of
G if and only if a*b-1 H for all. a, b H.
Theorem:
Prove that the intersection of two subgroups of a group G is also a subgroup of G.
Proof: Let H and K be two subgroups of group (G,*). Clearly, e H K where e is the identity
element of G. So H K is non-empty.
Let a, b H K .
To prove. ab1 H K
a, bH K implies aH , bH and aK and bK.
Since H is a subgroup of G.
aH,bH ab1H
Also K is a subgroup of
G, aK,bK ab1K ab1H K a,bH K. H K is asubgroup of G.
Hence the intersection of two subgroups of group G is also a subgroup.
Note: The union of two subgroups need not be a subgroup.
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Example:
Consider the additive group (z, +) then H1 = (2z, +), H2 = (3z, +) are subgroups of (z, +).
Consider H1 H2
Now, H1 = {.....-4, -2, 0, 2, 4 ...}
H2 = {.....-6, -3, 0, 3, 6 ...}
For 2, 3H1 H 2 .
2 3 5H1 H2
H1 H2 Is not closed for the operation +. H1 H2 Is not a subgroup of (z, +).
Necessary and sufficient condition for a subgroup:
A non-empty subset H of a group (G, *) is a subgroup of G if and only
if ab1H for all a,bH.
Proof: Necessary Part
First we assume that H is a subgroup of G.
Let a, bH Since H is a subgroup. bH b1H. Further H is closed for * then
aH , b1H implies a b1H
a b 1 H a, bH
Sufficient Part:
We suppose that H is a non-empty subset of G with the condition
aH, bH implies a b1H
We shall show that H is a subgroup of (G, *).
For aH , a1H we have
a a1 eH. taking b ainthe condition
The identity element eH .
For aH , eH , e .a1 a1H taking a e &b a
For every a H , a1H
consider bH then b1 H
For aH , b1 H .
a (b1)1 a bH
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H is closed for the operation *.
The elements of H are also the elements of G and * is associative in G.
a (bc) (a b)c a, b, cH.
We have
* is associative in H.
H is a group for the operation *.
Hence (H, *) is a subgroup of (G.*).
Problems
1. Show that the set of all elements ‘a’ of a group (G,*) such that a*x = x*a, V x G is a subgroup
of G.
Solution:
Let H= a G a * x x * a V x G
To Prove: H is a subgroup of (G, *)
[Such a subgroup is called the centre of the group G]
Clearly, e * x x *e x V x G
e H
H is a non-empty
Let a, b H
To Prove: a *b1 H
a H a * x x * a , V x G
b H b * x x *b , V x G
Consider b* x x*b
1
Premultiplying by b , we get,
b1 *(b* x) b1 (x *b)
(b1 *b)* x (b1 * x)*b [ Associative]
e * x (b1 * x)*b
x (b1 * x)*b
1
Postmultiplying by b
x *b1 (b1 * x)*b*b1 x *b1 b1 * x
Consider (a *b 1 )* x a *(b1 * x) a *(x *b1) (a * x)*b 1
(x * a)*b 1 x *(a *b1)
(a *b 1 )* x x *(a *b1) V x G
a *b1 H
For a, bH wehavea *b1 H
Hence H is a subgroup of (G,*)
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2. Find all the subgroups of Z12,t12
Solution: Z12 0,1, 2, ........ 11
The operation is addition modulo 12.
Consider the subsets.
H1 0, 6, H2 0, 4,8, H3 0, 3, 6, 9
H4 0, 2, 4, 6,8,10
Theimproper subgroups of Z12, 12 are
0 , 12 and Z12, 12 .
(H1 isclosed) (H2 is closed )
(H3 is closed ) (H4 is closed )
The Operation Shpw that H1 , H2, H3, & H4 are closed for 12
The possible proper subgroups of Z12 , 12 are H 1 , 12 H 2 , 12 H 3 , 12 and H 4 , 12
3. Find all the subgroups of Z7 *, X 7
Solution:
Z7* 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.The operation Z7 *is multiplication mod ulo 7.
The operation table for X 7 is as follows:
*
The identity element of group (Z 7 , X 7) is 1.
Consider the Subsets
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H1 1, 2, 4, H2 1, 3, 5, H3 1, 6
H 1, H Z *
4 5 7
Clearly,(H1, X 7 ), (H 2 , X 7 ) and (H3 , X 7 )
are proper subgroups.
The two improper subgroups are
H 1, X , H (Z *, X )
4 7 5 7 7
HOMOMORPHISM OF SEMIGROUPS AND MONOIDS
Semigroup homomorphism
Let (S,*) and (T, ) be two semi groups. A mapping g:S T is called a semigroup homomorphism
If g(a*b)=g(a).g(b) V a,bS.
Note:
If g is one-to-one, then g:S T is called semi group monomorphism
If g is onto, g:S T is called semi group epimorphism
If g is both 1-1 and on to then g:S T is called semi group isomorphism
Properties
Property : 1
A semigroup homomorphism preserves the property of associativity
Proof:
Let a,b,cS
g[(a*b)*c] = g (a*b) g(c)
=[g(a) g(b) ] g(c) (1)
g[a*(b*c)]=g(a) [g(b*c)]
=g(a) [g(b) g(c) ] (2)
But in S,
(a*b)*c=a* (b*c) V a,b,cS
g[(a*b)*c]=g[a*(b*c)]
[g(a) g(b)] g(c)=g(a) [g(b) g(c)] The property of associativity is preserved.
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Property: 2
A semi group homomorphism preserves idempotency and commutativity
Proof :
Let as be an idempotent element
a*a = a
g(a*a) = g(a)
g(a) g(a)=g(a)
This shows that g(a) is an idempotent element in T.
The property of idempotency is preserved under semi group homomorphism
Let a,b s
Assume that
a*b = b * a
g(a*b) = g(b*a)
g(a) g(b)=g(b) g(a)
This means that the operation is commutative in T
The semigroup homomorphism preserves commutativity
Monoid Homomorphism
Definition:
Let (M*,e) and (T, ,e) be any two monoids. A mapping g:M T is called a monoid
homomorphism If
(i) g(a*b) = g(a) g(b) a,b M
(ii) g(e) = e1
1. If g:M T is a monoid homomorphism of (M,*, e) on to (t, , e1) then it preserves the zero
elements.
Solution: Let ZM be a zero element of M.
Ie. Z*x= x*Z=Z V xM
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Z*x=Z
g(Z*x)=g(Z)
g(Z) g(x)=g(Z)
also g(x*Z)= g(Z)
g(x) g(Z)=g(Z)
for any tT, We can find TM such that t=g(b)
g(Z) T has a pre image zM , since Z is zero element of M, g(z) is a zero element of T.
A monoid epimorphism preserves the zero element of M, g(z) is a zero element of T.
A monoid epimorphism preserves the zero element, if it exitsts.
Theorem:
Let (S, *) be a semigroup. Then there exists a homomorphism g :s s s , where (ss , ) is a
semigroup of functions from S to S under the operation of (left) composition.
Proof:
To prove g : s ss is a homomorphism
ie. g(a *b) g(a) g(b) for all a, bS
We define : g : S S s by g (a) f a for aS
where fa:S S suchthat f a( b ) for a,bS.
Since a bS , g (a *b) fa*b for a,bS
We first prove that fa*b fa fb
Consider fa*b (c)
= (a*b)*c
= a*(b*c) since * is associative
=a*fb(c)
= fa[fb(c)] = ( fa fb )(c)
fa*b fa fb a,bS
Proof:
f: G G1 is a group homomorphism a b f (a) f (b) a, b G
We finally prove g is a homomorphism .
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consider, g a b f ab
fa fb
g a b g a g b for all a, b s
Hence g: s ss is a homomorphism.
Group Homomorphism:
Let G, and G1 , be two groups.
A mapping g: G G1 is called a group homomorphism if g a b g a g ba,b G.
Eg: Consider the groups R, and R, . We define a mapping f: R R by f x exx R.
This mapping is a group homomorphism for,
Let x, y R.
To prove: f x y f x f y
f x y ex y
ex e y
f x f y
f x y f x f y x, y R.
Properties of Group Homomorphism
A group Homomorphism Preserves identities, inverses and subgroups
Theorem:
If f : G G1 is a group homomorphism
then (i) f e e1 where e and e1 are the identify elements of G and G1 respectively.
(ii) f a 1 f a 1
(iii) If H is a subgroup of G1 then f H is a subgroup of G1 .
Proof of (i).
Let a G1 then a e e a a.
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a e = a
f a e f a
f a f e f a e1 [ e1 G1 is the identity element and f a G1 ]
By left cancellation law,
f e e 1
Similarly, f e a f a
f e f a e1 f a
By right cancellation law,
f e e1
Proof of (ii)
Let a G, then a1 G and a a1 a1 a e
a a1 e
f a a1 f e
f a f a1 e1
f a 1 f a
1
Similarly,
a1 a e
f a1 a f e
f a 1 f a e1
This shows that f a 1 f a a G.
1
Proof of (iii)
Let H be a subgroup of G.
For a, b H ; a b1 H H is a subgroup
Let f a f H and f b f H .
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1
To prove: f a f b f H
Consider f a f b
1
f a f b 1 by (ii)
f a b1
Since a b1 H implies f a b1 f H .
f a f b f H f a f H and f b f H .
1
f H G1 is a subgroup of G1 . Hence a group homomorphism preserves identities, inverses and
subgroups.
Kernel of a Homomorphism
Let f: G G1 be a group homomorphism. Then the set of all elements of G which are mapped
into the identity element e1 of G1 is called the kernel of the homomorphism f and is denoted by the
symbol ‘kerf’.
Kerf x G f x e1 where e1 G1 is theidentity element
Theorem:
If G G1 is a group homomorphism then kerf is a subgroup of G.
Proof:
By definition kerf x G f x e1
Clearly, kerf is a subset of G. By property of group homomorphism, we have f e e1 where e and e1
are the identity elements G and G1.
So, e ker f is non- empty
Since a,b kerf
f a e1 and f b e1
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f a b1 f a . f b1
= f a . f b 1
= e1 .e11
e1.e1 e .
a b1 kerf for a, b kerf.
kerf is a subgroup of G.
GROUP ISOMORPHISM
DEFINITION:
Let f: G G1 be a group homomorphism. Then f: G G1 is called a group isomorphism if
(i) f is one-to-one and
(ii) f is on to.
Equivalently a bijection f: G G1 is called a group isomorphism of f a b f a f b for all
a,bG
Two groups are said to be isomorphic if there exists an isomorphism between them.
f :G G1 is a group isomorphism then we write
G G1 (G is isomorphic to G1 )
Problems
1. P.T. any finite cyclic group is isomorphic to the additive group of integers Z , .
Solution:
Let G be an infinite cyclic group generated by the element a G.
Then G .. a3, a2 , a1, a0 e, a1,a2,a3, ...... .
The additive group of integers is Z , where
Z .... 3, 2, 1,1, 2, 3,...
Define a function f: Z G by f n ann Z.
Clearly, f is well defined and it is both one-to-one and onto.
f is abijection.
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It remains to prove f a b f a f b
Consider,
f m n amn
am an
f m n f m f nm, n Z
f is a homomorphism.
Further, f: Z G is both one-to-one and onto.
f: Z G is an isomorphism.
Z is isomorphic to G.
Hence an infinite cyclic group is isomorphic to additive group of integers Z , .
CAYLEY THEOREM
Statement
Every finite group of order n is isomorphic to a permutation group of degree n.
Proof
Let G, be a finite group of order n. Then the operation is completely described by means
of an operation table.
Then every row and column in the composition table of G, represents the permutation of the
elements of G.
For every column 1 we define permutations of the elements G.
Let P denote the set of all such permutations. Clearly P, has n elements. We shall prove that P is a
group w.r.to. o, the operation product of permutations defined on P.
We note that the permutation Pe P since eG.
Further, Pa Pe Pe Pa Paa G
Also for any a G ,
Pa 1 Pa Pa Pa1 pe and
Pa Pb Pab
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Since Pa Pb c Pb Pa c Pb c a
c a b
c a b Pab c
The operation is associative in P also
(P, ) is a group.
Finally we prove that G, is isomorphic to (P, ).
Consider a mapping f: G P defined by
f a Pa for any a G
Clearly, f a f b
Pa Pb
Pa c Pb c for any C G
c a c b
a b by left cancellation law.
f is one-to-one.
Also corresponding to every permutation Pa P there exists an element a G such that f a Pa .
f is onto also
f is both one-to-one and onto.
For a,bG
f a b Pab
Pa Pb
f a f b
f a b f a f ba, b G
f : G P is a homomorphism.
f : G P is an isomorphism
G, is isomorphic to the permutation group of degree n.
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Cosets and lagrange’s theorem
Cosets:
Let (H ,) be a subgroup of a group (G,) and Let a G we define.
aH a h hH
H a h a hH
a H is called the left coset of H
H a is called the right coset of H in G.
The element a G is called the representative element.
Problems:
1. Find all the left cosets and right cosets of H 0 3 6 9 in the group Z12 , 12 .
Solution:
0 12 H 0 3 6 9
1 12 H 1 4 7 10
2 12 H 2 5 8 11
3 12 H 0 12 H
4 12 H 1 12 H
5 12 H 2 12 H
The distinct left cosets of H are 0 12 H , 1 12 H and 2 12 H .
Similarly the right cosets of H are H 12 0, H 12 1, and H 12 2 .
Lagrange’s Theorem
Statement
The order of a subgroup of a finite group is a divisior of the order of the group.
i.e if H is a subgroup of a finite group G, , then O (H) divides O (G).
Proof:
Let G, be a finite group of order n, and H a subgroup of G with O (H)=m.
Here O (G)=n.
We have to show that m divides n.
Since H contains m distinct elements, every left cosets of H contains exactly m elements.
We know that any two left cosets of H are either identical or disjoint and the collection of distinct
left cosets of H is the group G. Since G is a finite group , G has a finite number of distinct left
cosets of H.
Let a H , a H ,....a H , be the distinct left cosets of H.
1 2 k
Then G= O(G) a H a H ..... a H .
1 2 k
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O(G) O(a1 * H ) O(a2 * H ) O(a3 * H ) ....... O(ak * H )
O H O H ...... O H k times
m m .... m k times
n mk .
n
k
m
m divides n.
This means that O(H) divides O(G),
Hence the proof .
Theorem:
If G, is a finite group of order n and a G then O(a) divides O (G).
Proof:
O (G)= n and a G
Since G is a finite group the element a G is of finite order .
If O(a)=m then am e, e is identity element of G.
Consider the set H a1 , a 2 , .. , a m e
Then H is cyclic subgroup generated by the element a.
H is a subgroup of G such that O(H)=m.
By Lagrange’s theorem O(H) divides O(G)
i.e m divides n.
O(a) divides O(G).
Normal subgroup
Definition:
A subgroup H , of a group G, is called a normal subgroup of G .
If a H H a a G i.e every left coset of H is identical with the right coset of H.
Example :
Consider the group (Z, +)
H n z ....., 3n, 2n, n, 0, n, 2n,...
Then H is a normal subgroup of (Z, +).
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Problems:
1. P.T every subgroup of an abelian group is a normal subgroup
Proof: Let G, be an abelian group and H a subgroup of G.
We claim that a * H H * a
Let x a*H then x a * h for some element h H .
h*a G is abelian and a, h G
xH *a
a* H H * a 1
Also let y H * a then y h1 *a
a h1 G is abelian
ya*H
H *a a* H 2
From (1)and (2) a*H = H *a H is normal subgroup .
Every subgroup of an abelian group is normal.
Problems:
1. Prove that the intersection of two normal subgroups is also a normal subgroup.
(or)
Prove that the intersection of two normal subgroups of a G, is a normal subgroup of a
group G,
Solution:
Let H and K be two normal subgroup of a group G,
To proof: H K is a normal subgroup.
Let xH K
xH and xK
Since, H is normal, g x g1H for some g G
Also K is normal subgroup g x g1K for g G
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g x g 1 H K
For, xH K , g G
g x g 1 H K
H K is a normal subgroup.
Hence the intersection of two normal subgroup is also a normal subgroup.
2. If f : G, G, is a group homomorphism then the kernel of f is a normal subgroup of G
(or)
Let G, and H , be two groups and g : G, H , be group homomorphism.
Then prove that the kernel of g is a normal subgroup of G,
Solution:
By definition
Kernel of f xG e1 where e1 is theidentity element of G1
f x
Clearly e ker f , so ker f is non-empty.
Let a, b ker f
f (a) e1 and f (b) e1
Consider f a b 1
f (a) f (b1)
f (a) f (b)1
e1 e11 e1
a b1ker f
For a,bker f , ab1 ker f
Ker f is a subgroup of G.
To proof: Ker f is a normal subgroup of G.
Let g G and xKer f
To proof: g x g1ker f
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Consider, f g x g 1 f (g) f x g 1
f (g) f (x) f (g 1)
f (g)
1
f (g) e1
f (g) e1
1
f (g)
g x g1ker f for g G and xker f Ker f is a normal subgroup of G.
Factor group (or) Quotient group
Definition
Let G, be a group and H , is a subgroup of G. The set of all left cosets of H in G is denoted
by the symbol G/H.
i.e G / H a * H : for a G
In G / H , we define a binary operation , called the induced binary operation on left cosets by
a H b H a b H
Then G / H is a group w.r to this induced binary operation .
This group G / H , is called the factor group or Quotient group.
Natural Homomorphism
The mapping defined by f : G G / H defined by f a a H , a G is a
homomorphism, called the natural homomorphism. f is a homomorphism since
f a b a b H
a H b H
f a f b a,b G
This mapping g is clearly onto
It is an epimorphism
Fundamental theorem of Group Homomorphism
Statement:
Let g :G H be a homomorphism from a group G, to a group (H, ). Let K be the kernel of
the homomorphism g and H1 H be the image set of g in H. (ie. g(G) H1 ). Then G/K is isomorphic
to H 1 .
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Proof:
Then kernel K of the group homomorphism g :G H is a normal subgroup of G.
We define a mapping f :G G K , which is an epimorphism from the group (G, *) to the factor
group G K , where the induced binary operation on cosets is defined by
a H b H a b H
ie. we have the mapping f :G G K
Defined by, f(a) = ak for any aG
Let us define a mapping h:G K H 1 by h(ak) = g(a), ak G K
Consider, h a K b K
h a b K
g a b
g(a) g (b) a, bG and g is a hom omorphism
h(aK ) h(bK )
h (a * k ) (b* k ) h ((a * k ) h(b * k ) a,bG
h:G \ K H ' is a group homomorphism
The image set of the mapping h is the same as the image set of the mapping
h:G \ K H ' is on to.
Nest we prove that the mapping h:G \ K H ' is one-to-one.
Consider a* k = b * k
For some k1, k2 K
a * k1 = b * k2
Assume that g (a * k1) = g (b * k2)
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g(a) ◦ g(k1) = g (b) ◦ g(k2)
g(a) ◦ eH = g (b) ◦ eH where eH is the identity of H.
g(a) = g(b)
h (a * k) = h(b * k)
h:G \ K H ' is one-to-one
The mapping h:G \ K H ' is both one-to-one and onto and it is also a homomorphism.
h is an isomorphism between G\K to H’.
Hence G\K is ismorphic to H 1.
Direct product of two Groups
Let (G1, 1 ) and (G2, 2 ) be two groups.
Let G = G1 X G2
In G, the binary operation * is defined as follows.
Let (a, b) and (x, y)G1 G2 where a, xG1 and b, yG2.
(a, b) * (x, y) is defined by
(a 1 x, b2 y) G1 x G2
(G1 x G2, *) is a group, called the direct Product of G1 and G2.
Problems
1. Find the direct product of (Z 3, +3) and (Z3*, X3) where Z3 = {0, 1, 2} and Z3* = {1, 2}
Solution:
Z3 x Z3* has the elements (0, 1, 2) x (1, 2) = (0, 1) (0, 2) (1, 1) (1, 2) (2, 1) (2, 2)
The operation * defined on Z3 x Z3* is given by
(a, b) * (x, y) = (a +3 x, b x3 y)
The Operation table for * is given as follows.
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The operation * is clearly associative since +3 is associative in Z3 and X3 is associative in Z3*.
The element (0, 1) is the identity (0, 2) has self inverse (0,2). (2,1) and (1, 1) are inverses of each other.
(1, 2) and (2, 2) are inverse of each other.
Z3 Z 3 is a group which is a direct product Z 3and Z *3 .
Algebraic systems with two Binary operations
Ring:
A non-empty set R with two binary operations ‘ + ‘ and ‘ ◦ ’ (addition and Multiplication) is
called a ring if the following conditions are satisfied.
(1) (R, +) is an abelian group
(2) (R, ◦) – is a semigroup
(3) The operation multiplication is distributive over addition.
i.e. a, b, c R a◦ (b + c) = (a ◦ b) + (a ◦ c)
and (b + c) ◦ a = (b ◦ a) + (c ◦ a).
Types of Rings
Ring with unity:
If in a Ring R, an element denoted by 1 such that 1◦ a = a ◦ 1 = a aR then R is called a
ring with unit element.
The element 1 R is called the unit element of the ring. Clearly 1 R is the multiplicative
identity.
A ring possesses multiplicative identity is a ring with unity.
Commutative Ring
If in a Ring R, the multiplication operation is also commutative.
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i.e. a ◦ b = b ◦ a a, b R.
Then R is called a commutative ring.
Properties of a Ring: If R is a ring then a, b, c R we have,
(i) a ◦ 0 = 0 ◦ a = 0
(ii) a (-b) = (-a) b = -ab
(iii) (-a) (-b) = ab
(iv) a (b – c) = ab – ac
(v) (b – c) a = ba – ca
Problems
1. If R is a ring such that a2 a aR Prove that
(i) a + a = 0, a R ie. each element of R is its own inverse
(ii) a + b = 0 a = b
(iii) R is a commutative ring
Solution:
(i) a R a + a R
(a+a)2 = a + a
(a + a). (a + a) = a + a
(a + a) . a + (a + a) .a = a + a
i.e. a2 + a2 + a2 + a2 = a + a
(a + a) + (a + a) = (a + a) + 0.
By left cancellation Law, for addition we have a + a = 0.
(ii) a + b = 0.
By (i) a + a = 0
a + b = a + a.
b = a [ by left cancellation]
(iii) To Prove: a ◦ b = b ◦ a
Consider, (a + b)2 = a + b.
Then (a + b) ◦ (a + b) = a + b
(a + b) ◦ a + (a + b) ◦ b = a + b
a◦a + b◦a + a◦b + b◦b = a + b
a2 + b◦a + a◦b + b2 = a + b
a + b◦a + a◦b + b = a + b since a2 = a & b2 = b
(a + b) + (b◦a + a◦b) = (a + b) + 0. [By commutativity & associativity of addition].
b◦a + a◦b = 0
By (ii), a◦b = b◦a [since (a + b) = 0 a = b] R is a commutative Ring.
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Boolean Ring: Definition:
An element a of a ring R is said to be idempotent if a2 = a. A ring R is called a Boolean ring If a2
= a a R A Boolean Ring consists of elements all are idempotent.
Examples of Rings
1. Ring of Integers.
Consider the set I of integers. Then I is a commutative ring with unit element for the
binary operation ‘+’ and ‘ ’ Where + is the usual addition and ‘ ’ Is the usual multiplication.
2. (Q, +, ) is a ring with unit element where Q is the set of rational numbers, ‘+’ usual addition, ‘.’
Usual multiplication.
Example for a non-commutative ring
M2 (R): set of all 2 2 real matrices.
+ : matrix addition
: matrix multiplication
M2(R),, is a non-commutative ring with unity, where unit element is identity matrix.
Zero Divisors:
Let R be a ring. A non-zero element, a R is called a zero divisor (or) a divisor of Zero.
If an element b ≠0 R such that a.b=0 (or) b.a= 0 Ie., for a≠0, b≠0, ab=0 (or) ba=0 then b is
Called a zero divisor of a.
Ring without zero divisors:
A ring R is without zero divisors if the product of no two non-zero elements of R is 0.
i.e. If ab=0 => a=0, b=0.
Example:
In the ring (Z6,+6, X6) the elements 2 and 3 are zero divisors since 2 X63=0 and 3X62=0
Ring with zero Divisors:
If in a ring R, there exists non-zero elements a and b such that ab=0 then R is said to be
Ring with zero divisors.
Theorem:
A ring R is without zero divisors iff the cancellation laws hold in R.
Proof:
Suppose if R has no zero divisors. Let a,b,c be any three elements of a ring R such that
a≠0, ab=ac.
We have ab=ac.
ab ac 0
a (b c) 0
R has no zero divisors, a (b- c) = 0, and a ≠ 0
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b–c=0
b=c
Hence, ab = ac b = c
Left cancellation law holds in R.
Similarly, we show that right cancellation law holds in R.
Conversly, Suppose that the cancellation laws hold in R. If possible, let ab=0, a≠0, b≠0
Then we have ab=0 => ab=a.0
a≠0 by cancellation law b=0.
ab=0 => a≠0 but b=0.
This is a contradiction
Hence R is without zero divisors.
Integral Domain
Definition:
A commutative ring (R,+,°) with identity having no zero divisors is called an integral domain.
Ie., A ring (R,+,°) is said to be an Integral Domain if
(i)R is commutative , ie. ba=ab.
(ii)R has multiplicative identity
(iii)For a≠0, b≠0, a.b ≠0.
Example:
The ring of integers (I,+,°) is an integral domain since this is a commutative ring with unity
And for a≠0, b≠0 we have ab≠0.
Example of non-Integral Domain:
The ring (Z6,+6,X6) is not an integral domain since for 2 Z6 and 3 Z6 we have 2X63=0.
Field
Definition:
A ring R with at least two elements is called a field if.
(i) R is commutative
(ii) R has the multiplicative identity.
(iii) Every non-zero element of R has multiplicative inverse in R.
(Or)
A non-empty set F with atleast two elements is called a Field with two binary operations ‘+’
‘°’ defined on it if.
(i) (F,+) is an abelian group.
(ii) (F-{0}, ) is a commutative group (or) abelian group.
(iii) Multiplication ‘°’ is distributive over addition ‘+’.
a.(b c) (a.b) (a.c)
i. e, a,b, cF
(b c).a (b.a) (c.a)
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Example of Field:
The ring of rational numbers (Q,+, ) is a field since it is a commutative ring with unity and each
non-zero element is invertible.
Problems
1. P.T. The set R={0,1,2} is a field w.r.to addition modulo 3 and multiplication modulo 3.
Solution:
The operation table for +3 and X3 on R={0,1,2} are given in the following tables.
From the composition table, we see that R is closed for +3. The operation +3 is clearly associative and
Commutative.
i.e. (a +3 b) +3 C= a +3 (b +3 C)
and a +3 b = b+3 a V a,b,c R
i.e. 0 R is the zero element (additive identity) 2 and 1 are inverses of each other.
(R,+, ) is an abelian group. From the operation table for X3.
Further, a X3 (b X3C) = (a X3 b) X3C
a X3C = b X3 C
1 R is the multiplicative identity. The elements 1 and 2 have self inverses w.r. to . X3.
(R, X3) is a commutative group.
It is a clear that the operation X3 is distributive over +3.
i.e. a X3(b +3 C) = (a X3 b) +3 (a X3 C)
(b +3 C) X3 a = (b X3 a) +3 (C X3 a)
For example,
1 X3 (0 +3 2) = 1 X3 2 = 2.
(1 X3 0) +3 (1 X3 2) = 0 +3 2 = 2.
1 X3 (0 +3 2) = (1 X3 0) +3 (1 X3 2)
Thus (R, +3, X3) is a commutative ring with identity and each non-zero element R is invertible. Hence (R,
+3, X3) is a field.
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UNIT-V
LATTICES AND BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
PARTIAL ORDER RELATION
A relation R on a set A is said to be a partial order relation, if R is reflexive, anti symmetric and
transitive.
Examples
Consider Z , set or positive integers
(i) Then the relation of divisibility, R defined by R ={(a, b)|a divides b} is a partial order relation on
Z
(ii) The relation “set inclusion” is a partial order relation on P(A), the power set of a given set A
Problems:
1. Let N be set of all natural numbers. Prove that the relation R in N defined by aRba
Divides b is a partial order relation
Solution
(i) Reflexive
a R a, a N
since every natural number divides itself
(ii) Symmetric:
Let aRb and bRa
a divides b and b divides a
This is possible only when a = b
(iii) Transitive
Let aRb and bRc Then a divides b and b divides c
There exists natural number m and n such that b=ma and c=nb
c = nb c= n(ma)=(nm)a
a divides c and so aRc
R is transitive
Hence R is a partial order relation
PARTIALLY ORDERED SET (POSET)
A set P together with a partial order relation is called a partially ordered set and is denoted by
(P, ) . The standard symbol is used to denote a partial order relation.
We denote a poset by means the symbol (P, )
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Interpretation of posets and Relations
Poset Relation( )
Divides
[Z ,/]
Less than or equal to
[ R,]
Greater than or equal to
[ R,] Set inclusion
[P( A),]
Comparability
The elements a and b in a poset (P,) are called comparable if either a b or b a . If a and b are
elements of P, such that neither a b nor b a , then a and b are called incomparable.
Example:
In the poset (Zt ,/) the integers 3 and 6 are comparable while 3 and 5 are incomparable.
Totally ordered set (or) linearly ordered set
If every two elements of a poset (P, ) are comparable, then P is called a totally ordered set or
linearly ordered set and the relation is called a totally ordered set (or) Linearly ordered set.
Example: The Poset (Z , ) is a totally ordered set [Here is a a b] whereas poset (Z , /) is not
totally ordered.
Chain: The totally ordered set is also called a chain. A poset (P, ) is such that every pair of
elements of P are comparable is called a chain
Well ordered set:
A poset (P, ) is called a well ordered set if it is a totally ordered set and every non-empty subset P has
a least element.
Hasse Diagram [To representing a poset]
In this diagram the elements of the poset represented by means of dots. If ‘a’ and ‘b’ are two
elements of A and a b, then the dot for a is drawn below the dot for b, then there is a Line segment
between ‘a’ and ‘b’
If a b and b c then there is Line segment from a to c but there are Line segments from a to b from b
to c such a Graphical representation of a poset is called a hasse diagram
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Example
Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 12} consider the partial order of divisibility on A. Draw the Hasse diagram for the
poset (A, /)
Problems
1. Draw the hasse diagram (s, /) where S={1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12} and Relation is divisibility
Sol:
2. Draw the hasse diagram for (D30 , /) where D30 {1, 2,3,5, 6,10,15,30}
Soln:
3. Draw the hasse diagram for the poset (P( A), ) where P(A) is the power set of a set A={X,Y}.
Soln: A collection of a subset is called a power set Given that A={X,Y}
Then P( A) {,{x},{y},{xy}}
Hasse diagram:
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4. Draw the hasse diagram for the poset (P( A), ) where P(A) is the power set of a set A={1,2,3}
Soln: P A {,{1},{2},{3},{1, 2},{2, 3},{3,1},{1, 2, 3}}
External elements of a poset
An element a A is called a maximal element of A if there is no element in A such that a<c.
An element b A ia called a minimal element of A if there is no element in A such that C<b.
If ( A, ) is a poset then its dual poset is ( A, ) .
: Divides : a multipleof
: LE : GE
If a is the maximal element of a poset ( A, ) then it must be the minimal element of the dual poset
( A, )
Similarly if a is a minimal element of a poset ( A, ) then a is the maximal element of the dual
poset ( A, )
Greatest element and least element
An element a A is called the greatest element of A if x a x A
An element a A is called a least element of A if a xx A
In the poset [P( A), ] the least element is and the greatest element is A.
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We can observe from the hasse diagram, the least element is at the lower level and the greatest element
is at higher level.
Upper bound and lower bound of a set:
Consider a poset ( A, ) and a subset B of A. The element a A is called an upper bound of B if
b a for every b B
An element ‘a’ is called a lower bound of B if a b, b B
Least upper bound (LUB) (Or) supremum
An element a A is called least upper bound of B if ‘a’ is an upper bound of B and a a ' whenever
a’ is an upper bound of B.
Greatest lower bound (GLB)(or) infimum.
An element a A is called a greates lower bound of B if ‘a’ is a lower bound of B and a ' a
whenever a’ is a lower bound of B.
Eg: Let X={2,3,6,12,24,36} and the relation be such that x y if and only if x divides y.
Clearly (x, ) is a poset. The hasse diagram of x, is given by
UB {2, 3} = {6,12,24,36} LUB (2, 3} ={6} UB (24, 36} =does not exist
LUB {24, 36} = does not exist LB {2, 3}= does not exist GLB {2, 3} = does not exist
LB {24, 36} ={2,3,6,12} GLB {24, 36} ={2}
PROBLEMS:
1. Let A={1,2,3,…11} be the poset with a following hasse diagram find the LUB and GLB of
B={6,7,10} if they exist
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Soln: By examining all upper paths of B={6,7,10}
We find LUB(B)=10.
By examining all downward paths from {6,7,10} we find GLB(B)=4
2. Find the LB and UB of sets{1,2,3} and {1,3,4,6} in the poset with hasse diagram
Solution:
Let A={1,2,3} UB(A)=5,6,7,8 LB(A)=1
Let B={1,3,4,6} UB(B)=6,8,9 LB(B)=1
Lattices:
A partially ordered set {L, } in which every pair of elements has a least upper bound and a greatest
lower bound in L is called a lattices and it is denoted by (L, , ) . Here is denoted by greatest lower
bound and denoted by least upper bound.
Example:
The Poset { N, } is a Lattices in which a and b ( a b) = min { a, b } and
(a b) = max { a, b} where N is set of Natural numbers.
If S is any set then the poset { [P(S)], } is a lattices with A B = A B and
A B = A B for any 2 subsets A, B P(S).
Eg: Consider the poset by the following Hasse diagram.
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Here Least upper bound L B { b, d} = b Here Greatest Lower bound G L B { b, d} = d
L B { c, d} = c G L B { c, d} = d
L B { b, a} = a G L B { b, a} = b
L B { a, c} = a G L B { a, c} = c
L B { a, d} = a G L B { a, d} = d
L B { b, c} = a G L B { b, c} = d
Here every pair of elements has G L B and L B.
The given poset is a Lattices.
The following hasse diagrams are examples for lattices
(i) (S6, D)
Soln: S6 = { 1, 2, 3, 6 }
(ii) (S24, D) S24 = {1, 2, 3,4, 6, 8, 12, 24 }
(iii) (S30, D) S30 = { 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 10, 15, 30 }
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Sub-Lattices
Let ( L, ) be a Lattice. A non-empty subset S of L is called a sublattices
If a b S and a b S whenever a S and b S.
Ie. S is closed for the operations of meet and join. The Lattice (D 30, /) is a sublattice of the lattice
+
(Z , /) under the relation of divisibility.
Principle of Duality:
In a Lattice (L, ) If we replace by and by in any expression, the resulting expression
is also true. The resulting expression is called the dual statement of the given statement.
Dual Lattice:
If (L, ) is a Lattice, then the lattice defined by (L, ) where the partial ordering is the dual of
the partial ordering is called the dual Lattice.
Example:
( P (s), ) is a lattice, then its dual lattice is ( P(s), ) where (is contained in) and (is
contains). Further in the dual lattice, ( P(s), ) the join A B is the set A B and the meet A B is
the set A B.
Properties of Lattices:
Let (L, ) be a lattice. Then the following properties hold.
1. Idempotent property
a a= a; a a = a
2. Commutative property
a b = b a ; a b = b a
3. Associative property
(a) a (b c) = (a b) c;
(b) a (b c) = (a b) c
4. Absorption property
(a) a (a b) = a;
(b) a (a b) = a.
Let (L, ) be a lattice. The for every a and b in L.
(a) a b biff a b (or) a b b Iff a b
(b) a b a iff a b (or) a b a Iff a b
Proof:
(a) Suppose that a b = b.
Since a a b a b We have a b
Conversely If a b then b b
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b is an upper bound of a and b.
a b is LUB of a and b.
a b b (1)
Since a b is an UB,
b a b (2)
From (1) and (2), a b = b
a b = b Iff a b
(b) Suppose that a b = a
Since a b b a b
Conversely If a b, then
a a, a a b -------------------------- (3)
since a b is a Lb.
a b a (4)
From (3) and (4), a b = a
a b = a If a b.
Theorem: Consistency Laws.
Let (L, ) be a Lattice. Then for a, b L a b a b = a a b = b.
Proof:
First we prove a b a b = a
We assume that a b
a b, a a, a a b ---------------- (1)
since a b is the GLB of a and b
a b a ------------------- (2)
From (1) and (2)
a b=a
a b a b = a.
Conversely, assume a b = a.
This is possible only when a b.
a b=a a b
Hence a b a b = a
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We next prove a b = a a b = b.
Suppose a b = a, then
b = b (a b) [ by absorption Law]
= b a.
a b = b.
Conversely, assume a b = b.
a = a (a b) [ by absorption Law]
=ab
a b=a
a b = a a b = b
Hence a b a b = a a b = b.
Isotonicity Property:
Let L, be a lattice. For any a, b, cL
a b a c a b a c
b c a b a c (or) b c
a b a c
Proof: Assume that b c
We know that b c b c b ( by previous theorem)
Consider, a b a c
a b a c
a a b c
a a b c a b.
a b a c a b
a b a
a b
a b a c
Hence, bc a ba c
We know that b c b c c
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Consider, a b a c
a b a c
a a b c
a a b c
ac
a b b
a b a c a c
a b
a b a c
Hence , b c a b a c
Theorem: Distributire Inequalities.
Let L, be a lattice. For any a, b, cL
then, a b c a b a c
and a b c a b a c
Proof:
From the definition of LUB a a b and a a c
a a b a c (1)
but, b c b a b
and b c c a c
b c a b a c (2)
From (1) and (2)
a b c a b a c (3)
By Using the principle of duality (3) becomes
a b c a b a c
a a b a c (4)
but,
b c b a b
bc c ac
b c a b a c (5)
From (4) and (5)
a b c a b a c Hence the proof
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Theorem:
Let L, be a lattice. Then for a, b, c, d L
We have,
(i) a b a c b c (iii) a band c d a c b d
(ii) a b a c b c (iv) a band c d a c b d
Proof:
(i) Assume that a b.
Then a b a and a b b (by theorem)
consider, a c b c
a b c
b c
a c b c
(ii) a c b c
a b c
a c
a c b c
(iii) a b a b b and c d c d d
Consider, a c b d
a c b d
a b c d
a b c d
b d
a c b d
(iv) a b a b a
cd c d c
Consider, a c b d a c b d
a b c d a b c d a c
a c bd
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Theorem:
Let L, be a distributire lattice. Then
a b a c and a b a c b c a,b, cL (This is called cancellation property)
Proof:
a b c a c c c (by absorptionlaw)
a b c a c b c
a b b c (given)
b a b c
b a c
b a b
b
b c
Theorem: Modular Inequality
Let, L, be a lattice, then P.T. a c a b c a b c (or) a b c a b c
Proof:
Assume that a c a c c by distributive inequality.
a b c a b a c
a b c
a b c a b c
Conversely, Assume that
a (b c) (a b) c
(a b) (a c) (a b) c
By Left cancellation law a c c (1)
By definition of LUB of a c c a c (2)
From (1) and (2)
ac c
This is possible only when a c Hence a c a (b c) (a b) c
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Show that a chain is a lattice.
Solution:
Let (L,) be a chain
If a, bL, a b (or)b a
If a b, a b a and a b b
LUB and GLB of a,bexists
If b a, ba b and b a a
LUB and GLB of a, b exists.
Hence every pair of elements has a GLB and LUB.
Every chain is a lattice.
LATTICE HOMOMORPHISM
Let(L,, ) and (s, , ) be two lattices. A mapping g : L S is called Lattice
homomorphism. If it preserves the operation of meet and join.
ie. g(a b) g(a) g(b)
g(a b) g(a) g(b) a, bL
Special Lattices
Complete Lattice
A lattice L is called complete lattice. If each of its non-empty subset has GLB & LUB. Every
finite lattice must be a complete lattice.
Lower Bound and Upper Bound:
A Lattice L is said to have a LB ‘ 0’ if for every xL we have 0 x. An element 1L is called
an UB of L if x 1, xL.
Bounded Lattice:
A lattice L is said to be bounded if it has both LB & UB. If L is a bounded Lattice
then aL, 0 a 1, a 0 a; a 0 0, a 11, a 1 a.
Example:
The Lattice (D30, /) is a bounded Lattice with LB ‘1’ and UB ’30’.
Distributive Lattice:
A Lattice L is called distributive Lattice if for a,b,c L.
a (b c)= (a b) (a c) ; a (b c)= (a b) (a c) (or)
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Examples of Non-Distributive lattices
b1 (b2 b3 ) b1 1 b1
(b1 b2 ) (b1 b3 ) 0 0 0
b1 (b2 b3 ) (b1 b2 ) (b1 b3 )
Hence the lattice represented by figure is not distributive.
Example of Distributive Lattice :
L.H.S b (a c) b a b
R.H.S (b a) (b c) b c b L.H.S= R.H.S
The lattice represented by figure is distributive.
Problems:
1. Prove that every chain is a distributive lattice.
proof:
Let (L, ) be a chain (every pairs of element is comparable)
Let a, b, c L
case (i) suppose that a b or a cthen a b c
a (b c) a
(a b) (a c) a a a
(a (b c) (a b) (a c)
The distributive law holds.
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Case (ii) suppose that a b (or) a c so that
b c a
a (b c) b c
(a b) (a c) b c a (b c) (a b) (a c)
Using principle of duality in both cases.
The other form of distributive law
a (b c) (a b) (a c) also holds good.
Every chain is a distributive lattice
Complement of an element:
Let L be a bounded lattice with LB=0 and UB=1. Let aL .The element x L is called the
complement of a L if a x=0 and a x=1
Complemented Lattice
A lattice L is said to be complemented if it is bounded and every element in it has at least one
complement.
Example: (D30 ,/ ) is a complemented lattice Where D30 = {1,2,3,5,6,10,15}
Soln: Since every element of D30 has complement ( D30 ,/) is a complemented lattice
( D30 ,/) is complemented
Problems:
1. Prove that in a bounded distributive lattice, the complement of any element is unique .
Solution:
Let L be a bounded distributive lattice Let b&c be complements of an element a L
To prove: b=c
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Since b& c are complements of a we have
a b 0, a b 1, a c 0,& a c 1
Now b b 1
b (a c)
(b a) (b c)
(a b) (b c)
0 (b c) (a c) (b c)
1 c
c
b c
complement of an element is unique
2. Prove Demorgan’s laws in a bounded, complemented and distributive lattice.
Solution:
Demorgan’s law are given by
(a b) ' a ' b ' (or) (a b) ' a 'b '
(a b) ' a ' b ' (or) (a b)' a ' b '
To prove (a b) ' a ' b '
We note that a a ' 1, a a ' 0 b b ' 1 b b ' 0 and 1 x 1 and 0 x 0
For any element x.
Consider,
(a b) (a ' b ') (a b) (a ' b ') (a b a ') (a b b ')
(1 b) (a 1) v 1
Also, (a b) (a ' b ')
(a a ' b ') (b a ' b ') (0 b ') (a ' 0) 0 0 0
a’ b’ is the complement of a b Hence a b ' = a ' b '
Modular lattice:
A lattice L is said to be a modular lattice if for all a,b,c L,
a c a (b c) (a b) c
Theorem: Prove that every distributive lattice is modular.
Proof: Let (L, ) be a distributive lattice.
Let a, b, c L such that a c
To prove: a (b c) (a b) c
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a c a c c
a b c a b a c
a b c
a c a b c a b c
L is a mod ular lattice.
Problems.
1. If L is a distributive lattice. Prove that
a b b c c a a b b c c a
Solution:
R.H.S a b b c c a
a [b c c a]b [(b c) (c a)]
a (c a) (b c) b (b c (c a)
= a (b c) b (c a)
(a b) (a c) (b c) (b a)
(a b) (b c) (c a)
Boolean Algebra
A complemented distributive lattice is called a boolean algebra.
Definition:
Let B be a non-empty set that contains two special elements 0 (0element) &1 (the unity) and on which
we define closed binary operations +, and a unary operation
“-“(complementation) then (B, +, -, 0, 1) is called a boolean algebra, if the following conditions are
satisfied
For all x, y, z B
(i)x+y = y+x; x.y=y.x (ii) x+(y.z)= (x+y).(x+z); x.(y+z)= (x.y)+(x.z)
(iii) x+0=x; x.1=x (iv) x+ x =1; x. x =0 (v) 0 1
Laws of Boolean algebra:
In every Boolean algebra B, if x, y, zB then the following laws hold good.
(i)x.0=0 x+1=1 (Dominance Laws)
(ii) x.(x y) x
(Absorption laws)
x (x.y) x
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x y x z
(iii) xy z y=z (Cancellation Laws); y=z
xy xz x y x z
(iv) x.(yz)=(x.y).z (Associative Laws); x+(y+z)= (x+y)+z
(v) x+y=1; x.y=1; X= y (or) y= x (vi) x = x
(x y) x.y (Demorgan’s Law) (viii) 0 =1; 1=0
(vii)
x.y x y
Two elements Boolean Algebra
Consider a set B={0,1}. We define the operation +, , - for the elements of B by
+ 0 1 . 0 1 x x
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1
1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0
Then (B,+, , -, 0, 1) is a Boolean Algebra called two element boolean algebra.
Problems
1. Absorption Laws in Boolean Algebra
If a and b are two elements of a Boolean Algebra, Prove that
a+(a.b)=a; a.(a+b)=a
proof: a+(a.b)= a.1+a.b = a.(1+b) = a.1=a
a.(a+b)=a.a+a.b = a+a.b = 1.a+a.b = a.(1+b) = a.1= a
’ ’ ’ ’ ’ ’
2. In a Boolean algebra, prove that (a+b) =a .b and (a.b) =a +b (Demargan’s law)
Solution:
Consider (a+b). (a’.b’) = (a’.b’). (a+b) = a’.b’.a+ a’.b’.b = (a’.a).b’+ a’ .(b’.b) = 0.b’+a’.0 = 0
(a+b)+ (a’.b’)= (a+b+a’). (a+b+b’) = (a+a’+b). (a+b+b’)= (1.b).(a+1) = 1.1=1
(a+b)’=(a’.b’)
(a.b)+ (a’+b’)=a’+ b’+(a.b)
=( a’+ b’+a). (a’+ b’+b) =( a’ +a+ b’). (a’ +b+ b’) =(1+ b’).( a’+1)
=1.1=1 (a.b)’=(a’+b’)
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3. In a boolean algebra, show that the following statements are equivalent for any a and b.
(i) a+b=b (ii) a.b=a (iii) a’+b=1 (iv) a.b’=0 (v) a b
Solution:
(i) (ii) Assume that a+b=b
a=a.(a+b) = a.b
a.b=a
(ii) (iii) Assume that a.b=a
a’+b=(a.b’)+b = a’+b’+b
a’+b=a’+1
a’+b=1
(iii) (iv) Assume that a’+b=1
(a’ + b) 1 = (1) 1
=0
(a. b) 1 = 0
(iv) (v) Assume that a.b’ = 0
Then a. b = a. b + 0 = a. b + a. b’ = a. (b + b’)
a.b = a
ab
(v) (i) Assume that a b
a + b = b and a. b = a
a+b = a. b + b = a. b + 1. B = (a + 1).b =1. b = b
Hence (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (i)
4. Prove that in a Boolean algebra,
(a + b). (a ’+ c) = ac + a’b =ac + a’b+ bc
Solution: (a + b). (a’ + c) = (a + b). a’ + (a + b).c
= a’. (a + b) + ( a + b) .c
= a’. a + a’. b + a. c + b. c
= 0 + a’. b + a. c + b. c
= a’. b + a. c + b. c = a. c + a’. b + b. c
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= a. c (b + b’) + a’. b (c + c’) + b. c (a + a’)
= abc + ab’c + a’bc + a’bc’ + abc + a’bc
= abc + ab’c + a’bc + a’bc’
= abc + ab’c + a’b (c+c’)
= ac(1) + a’b(1) = ac + a’b
5.P.T in a Boolean Algebra (a + b’) . (b + c’). (c + a’) = (a’ + b). (b’ + c). (c’ + a)
Solution:
LHS = (a + b’). [(b + c’).c + (b + c’).a’]
= (a + b’). [(b.c) + (c.c’) + (a’.b)+(c’.a’)]
= (a + b’). [(b.c) + (a’.b) + (c’.a’)]
= (a + b’). bc + (a + b’) ba’ + (a + b’) c’a’
= abc + 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 + a’b’c’
= abc + a’b’c’ (1)
RHS = (a’+ b)[b’c’ + 0 + ab’ + ac]
= (a’ + b). b’c’ + 0 + (a’ + b). (ab’) + (a’ + b). ac
= a’b’c’ + 0 + 0 +0 + 0 + abc
= a’b’c’ + abc (2)
From (1) & (2)
(a+ b’). (b + c’). (c + a’)=(a’ + b). (b’ + c). (c’ + a)
6. Simplify the Boolean expression a’b’c + ab’c + a’b’c’ using identities.
Solution:
a’b’c + ab’c + a’b’c’ = a’b’c + a’b’c’ + ab’c = a’b’(c + c’) + ab’c
=ab’ + ab’c = b’ (a’ +ac)= b’ (a’ + a) (a’ + c)
= a’b’ + b’c
7. Prove that D42 = (S42, D) is a complemented lattice by finding the complements of all elements.
Solution: D42 1, 2, 3, 6, 7,14, 21, 42
The Hasse Diagram of D42 is shown below.
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The zero element of the lattice is 1 and the unit element of the lattice is 42.
1 42 LCM 1, 42 42
1 42 GCD1, 421
The complement of 1 = 42
2 21 42 and 2 211 21 21
6 7 42 and 6 7 1 61 7
314 1and 314 4231 14
Also 421 = 1; 211 = 2; 71 = 6 and 141 = 3.
Since every element of D42 has a complement D42 is a complemented lattice.
8. Show that the direct product of any two distributive lattices is a distributive lattice.
Sol: Let L1 and L2 be two distributive lattices. Let x, y, z L1 x L2 the direct product of L1 and
L2.Then x = (a1, a2), y = (b1, b2) and z = (c1, c2) for some a1b1c1 L1 and a2b2c2 L2
Now x ( y z)
(a1 , a2 ) (b1 , b2 ) (c1, c2 )
(a1 (b1 c1 ), a2 (b2 c2 ))
((a1 b1 ) (a1 c1 ), (a2 b2 ) (a2 c2 ))
as L1 & L2 are distributive
((a1 b1 ), (a2 b2 )) (a1 c1 ), (a2 c2 ))
(a1 , a2 ) (b1, b2 ) (a1, a2 ) (c1, c2 ))
(x y) (x z)
For all x, y, zL1 L2 x ( y z) (x z) ( x z)
Thus if L1 & L2 are distributive then L1 & L2 also distributive.
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