[1 no question] 1.Define dynamic RAM Ans:- Dynamic random access memory (DRAM) is a type of semiconductor memory that is typically used for the data or program code needed by a computer processor to function. 2.What is direct addressing mode? Ans:- In the direct address mode, the address part of the instruction is equal to the effective address. 3.Define pipelining Ans:- Pipelining is the process of accumulating instruction from the processor through a pipeline. 4.What is associative memory ? Ans:- An associative memory is one in which any stored item can be accessed directly by using partial contents of the item in question. 5.What is the function of AC? Ans:- In computer organization and architecture, AC usually stands for the Accumulator, a register within the CPU used for arithmetic and logic operations, data movement, and temporary storage of results during instruction execution. 6.What is the difference between fetch eyele and execution cycle? Ans:- In some CPUs, the operands needed for an instruction are fetched during a separate cycle before the execute cycle. 7 What is micro-operation? Ans:- A microoperation is an elementary operation performed on the information stored in one or more. registers. 8.What is register transfer language? Ans:- Register Transfer Language, RTL, (Sometimes called register transfer notation) is a powerful high level method of describing the architecture of a circuit VAY lOO)[2 no question] PAT Neola Nore ata 2}D) What is the difference Ll Ta len lule kel Sexg Pia RISC and CISC are two types of microprocessor architectures that Collie a Malem laitge lol (olor performance, and design. Let's compare them briefly: - RISC stands for **Reduced Instruction Set Computer**. It uses a small set of simple and uniform instructions that can be executed in one clock cycle. RISC processors are faster, cheaper, and simpler to design than CISC processors. However, they may require more instructions and memory cycles to perform complex tasks. Examples of RISC processors are SPARC, PowerPC, and RISC-V". - CISC stands for **Complex Instruction Set Lovolan) 10] laeiemm ae B-1fe| Bi ae) complex and variable-length instructions that can perform multiple operations in one instruction. CISC processors can reduce the program size and the number of memory cycles, but they are slower, more expensive, and more difficult to design than RISC processors. Examples of CISC processors are Intel x86, AMD, and EPIC’. Some of the Taare LLAKcICInleLo8 oC NL Les and CISC are: | RISC | CISC || --- | --- || Small and simple instruction set | Large and complex instruction set | | Fixed-length and mostly register-based instructions | Variable-length and memory-based instructions | | One instruction per clock cycle | Multiple operations per instruction || Faster and cheaper to design | Slower and more expensive to design | | Requires more instructions and memory cycles | Reduces program size and memory cycles | | Function is more important than data | Data is more important than function | | No access specifiers | Has access specifiers like private, public, and protected | | Provides data hiding and security | No proper way of hiding data; less secure | | Supports overloading | Does not support overloading | In summary, RISC and CISC are two different approaches to microprocessor design, each with its own advantages and disadvantages. 2}C) What is handshake-based communication? Pita 2}D)State the difference between hardwired control and micro-programmed control? Ct The main difference between hardwired and microprogrammed control units is how they generate the control signals for the CPU. A Lilo listo ReXela OMe laa US eRe) set of logic circuits to produce the control signals, while a microprogrammed control unit uses a set of instructions stored in memory to produce the control signals. Some advantages of hardwired control units are that they are faster, simpler, and cheaper than microprogrammed control units. However, they are also less flexible, harder to modify, and more difficult to implement complex instructions. Some advantages of microprogrammed control units are that they are more flexible, easier to modify, and better suited for complex instructions. However, they are also slower, more complex, and more expensive than hardwired Coron cela Ce If you want to learn more about the differences between hardwired and microprogrammed control units, you can check out ASB os - [Hardwired v/s Micro-programmed Control Unit - GeeksforGeeks] (*1%) ~ [Hardwired Vs. Micro-programmed Control Unit - Javatpoint](*2%) - [10 Differences Between hardwired and microprogrammed control unit](*3%) - [Difference Between Hardwired and Microprogrammed Control Unit] (*4%) Perea(2no question) 7A) =A are a Kolo tet) (elo OU oli Pad A three-state buffer is a type of digital buffer that has three stable states: a high output state, a low output state, anda high-impedance state. A high-impedance state means that the buffer is disconnected from the output and does not affect the signal on the line. This allows multiple buffers to share a single bus without interfering with each other. A three-state buffer can be controlled by an enable input that eT a Rata OLS) active or inactive. When the enable input is high, the buffer passes the input signal to the COU Tole Lom Naam R—ar]el Min ell a) low, the buffer goes into the high-impedance state and isolates the input from the output. Bel R ee Oe Riolg connecting multiple data sources to a single bus, such as memory, registers, or I/O devices. They can also be used to implement multiplexers, demultiplexers, and LoTUTSH Oe Ta STONE LoaD Co] buffers are also known as tri-state LoD TeMol mca) 1M OUI If you want to learn more about three-state buffers, you can check out these links: - [Three-State Bus Buffers - GeeksforGeeks] (“1”) - [Digital Buffer and the Tri-state 1ST ha c-vam NU) colar 111 ayaa) - [Three-state logic - Wikipedia] (9) - [Tri-state buffers - CPUville] (2) 2}F) What is polling? rated Polling is a method of communication between the CPU and a device, where the CPU repeatedly checks the status of Bat Me Mle ORM MIN EIN service. Polling can be useful for devices that have unpredictable or infrequent data availability, such as keyboards or mice. However, polling can also waste CPU cycles and cause delays if the device is not ready or the polling frequency is too low. If you want to learn more about polling, you can check out these Tal est - [Difference between Interrupt and Polling - GeeksforGeeks] (1p) - [Polling (computer science) - Wikipedia] (“3”) - [Implementing HTTP Polling - Abhinav Pandey's Blog] (*4%) 2}G)What is stack pointer and top Col Ei c-le.a4 Natal BIE CCo aol mete mL keeps track of the top of the stack in a computer's memory. The top of the stack refers to the memory location where the next piece of data will be pushed onto or popped off of the stack during program execution. In a LIFO (Last In, First Out) data structure like a stack, the stack pointer helps manage the order of operations. 2}H)Describe the given micro-operation: RI<-RI+R2? rN athe MUNN Cee -te lim crac mne) cee) that describes an arithmetic micro-operation. It means that the contents of register R1 are added to the contents of register R2, and Stal MSIL ce) (ol k-Te 8A C1e] 1a The original value of R1is COZ -Ta lta OY UMA m SY operation can be used to perform addition of two numbers stored in Fe-Yel (cls PGT UaT alii (od Micro-operations in Registers - GeeksforGeeks](*3%) ?: [Register Transfer Language (RTL) - GeeksforGeeks](*4%) Pee]r \ Bate. / ae KSAatny St , andhane ~ based nammanica tty). ona “| \ ai : sailed aa Hand shake __ ased —Commung cation fs apres tiheve "Fro devieet 97 ry 4 fo eb Labi rules and agit tae | o | aA Communicatitr in he ye the the _| act aby ta vonstey. | Hand shaking Can help — synchronize , outhen tfake , secure, and ophi- ~_# anit =r {he >emmM™uni Catton L ptween = ® he % salethaadaeit ak ‘ ee ces TY) hich Orn | Lendg {0 atcess[5 no question] )F-) MU ar-l meee Meee eel processes? Compare and contrast i/ o-mapped i/o and memory mapped i/o. Ans:~ **I/O Processes:** 1. **1/0-Mapped I/0:** - **Address Space:** Uses a separate address space for I/O fol Nfl - **Instructions:** Special I/O instructions are needed. - **Control Signal:** Requires specific I/O control signals. - **Protection:** Typically requires explicit protection mechanisms. - **Overhead:** May have lower overhead for memory accesses. 2. **Memory-Mapped I/0:** - **Address Space:** Shares the address space with regular cela - **Instructions:** No special I/O instructions; regular load/store instructions used. ~ **Control Signal:** Utilizes memory control signals for I/O. - **Protection:** Relies on memory protection mechanisms. - **Overhead:** Can have higher overhead due to potential contention with regular memory lel oe In summary, I/O-mapped I/O and memory-mapped I/O differ in their approach to addressing, instructions, control signals, protection mechanisms, and overhead. The choice between them depends on the specific requirements of the system and the trade-offs deemed most suitable. 3)b)What is interrupt? Discuss the various types of interrupts. Ans:- *Interrupt:** An interrupt is a mechanism by which a device or process can temporarily halt the normal execution of a computer program and transfer control to a specific routine, often referred to as an interrupt handler. Interrupts play a crucial role in handling asynchronous events and improving overall system ro oe **Types of Interrupts:** 1. **Hardware Interrupts:** aie =<) A (0 tia Generated by external hardware devices, such as I/O devices or Aue - **Priority:** Can have different priority levels to manage simultaneous requests. 2. **Software Interrupts:** - **Generated by Software:** Triggered by executing a specific software instruction (e.g., system calls). - **Used for Exception Handling:** Enables the operating system to respond to exceptional conditions. 3. **Maskable Interrupts:** - **Can be Disabled:** The processor can be configured to ignore certain interrupt requests. - **Program Control:** Allows the program to control the response to specific interrupt ol fel 4. **Non-Maskable Interrupts. (ONY) ial - **Cannot be Disabled:** These interrupts take precedence over maskable interrupts. - **Critical Situations:** Typically used for handling critical and unrecoverable events. 5. **Software Trap (Exception):** - **Generated by Software:** Similar to software interrupts but used for exceptional conditions. - **Examples:** Divide-by-zero, page faults, or illegal instructions. Interrupts enhance the flexibility and efficiency of a computer system by allowing it to respond promptly to external events and manage various tasks concurrently. 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There are nan Degen ere et Eo ed pete Ee ae ae Te a Cu Bn se UCT Pee ey eee uae eo er Eo Gooner) Creo ae eed Dee a ese en Coe Ee ce Td CeCe eee eL) Cn a ec TS eC eee Cree Reese oe ed Cer oe ed Itsneighbors is loaded into the Co ee Te aaa ee een) Career MCC) Cree ny Ceo neg ceed rcs Cee eens eas eee uaa) strategies for deciding which data nee ac Cone cy Pee ee oy Peer Cena Ree Oe een ed Ce eg Cee ocd Cet mE eee ee Cenene] ea N eer rol fie Roe tO et Eee Coe Re aCe Pores se En Pee Rees n acted Ge Sera Ree a ake eke eee seed nee oitur eho ey dictate how data is stored in cache memory. Here are various techniques: Dee Pigtas elec Se Cn cae) Cone io meal) Ca rena Scot eT le take eeu ef to locate. See ae) cela Maurer) may compete for the same cache era rane acu Reon PD eee eer Bade Velie sade al(ela) flexibility. Each block in main memory can be placed in any Crore arte meRcomiece at! allowing efficient use of cache space. Bee Cee ar Cement eC due to the need for associative Ca RA ater Rare Meccan Tip este et eiele Ne elolsli Te Ha - This is a compromise between Cee ae Search The cache is divided into sets, each containing multiple lines (era) Beer ae) Re meme etal anh flexibility of associative mapping. See Seana) Comicon en ROk tas mapping, and potential for eee ce UES Oe No aaa Ne cers Saeko e aol eerste Mel late Rate? Cee aaa Ce Teco Eee Peer a Smee 10) (1° tale Da fie AES ere ee Pee MEM Reese a rere - **Disadvantages:** Higher ele WeeNetlulserinaeure Rees due to fully associative lookup. Nae ed eae) PCM eae CeMaice] (orn tad Beane rl Cee ogee eer Ti] with a single set. cee ne limiting case of set-associative lathe Keenan the entire cache (one set with all Ta} ar Aelia seh Rake ace Presonus Ta) ree eae un od NT the cost of complexity. Sees ae oe goo Peeing Pei euenio NAM Er Sata ica [2=> What do you mean by DMA CaN SSC Pera ee ES rg] DNAS nn ied a MCR Ic tad Wenn sees a) Seen MR aren iS to transfer data directly to or from Supe aon TUM eee CRC eer emma KOMI) OE Cu neau es SaaS mcd Croc SIS mercets when large blocks of data need to Pere E een ar Cee Ua us AST CESS Otte Resa Ree ee c) eS ee nN Car Veena Ree Tea DM bree eser re) Ca Sake velesccrlnte Pm ae UL ern ce mm UAE SS CPU's access to the system bus to transfer one word or one byte (lme ieee ag me Cre Nol 9 sro n Reg U Re Mitek cone) transfer. eC Rk 2 Ec) roy ta Diane eel ul oko eraae Since only a single cycle is stolen Bene sO eed nog eS Smt Cae ores suitable for real-time systems SCRA Retz) interruption is crucial Sea NCU Cle ROO fol ESC] oy ta Dasa MCAS cam RNa a Sg Conn en Rue Cone oe One Ke ee] Crees Pied ecu am Le) aoa ne Matt ela) OMe reno Ve oC Cee enmarae ene oy rico STC aoe oct PAS EP NUN m cena CA Rene acu cry oT le ec) Oe en CRS m CMe EM Maceo Temenos Oe eMac sh) Oras Poel(10 no question) [3=> Explain register stack and memory stack with neat diagram? Ans:- i can describe the concepts for you, but unfortunately, | cannot provide diagrams as the current platform supports only text-based responses. However, I'll explain both the register stack and memory stack in detail. **Register Stack:** - **Definition:** A register stack is a type of stack structure implemented using a set of registers in the CPU. - **Diagram (Schematic):** - **Functionality:** - The registers act as a stack where data can be pushed onto or popped off. - Operations like PUSH and POP manipulate data in these registers. - Useful for fast access to small, frequently used data. **Memory Stack:** - **Definition:** A memory stack is a region of memory allocated for a program's execution where data is pushed or popped in a last-in, first-out (LIFO) manner. - **Diagram (Schematic):** | <- Stack Bottom - **Functionality:** - The memory stack grows and shrinks dynamically during program execution. - PUSH and POP operations are performed to manage data on the stack. - Often used for function calls, local variables, and managing program flow. **Comparison:** - **Location:** ~ Register stack operates within the CPU using internal registers. - Memory stack resides in the system's memory. - **Access Speed:** - Register stack offers faster access since it's part of the CPU. - Memory stack has slower access times due to fetching from RAM. ees - Register stack is limited by the number of available registers. - Memory stack can dynamically grow and shrink based on available memory. In summary, both register stacks and memory stacks implement the LIFO principle, but register stacks are internal to the CPU, providing faster access to a limited number of registers, while memory stacks operate in system memory and offer more flexibility but with slower access times Play Z Ey a