Dr.

Shweta

SQL
(Structured Query Language)

SQL (Structured Query Language) is the standard language used to communicate with
databases. It allows users to retrieve, insert, update, and delete data stored in a relational
database.

Relational Database Concept

A relational database organizes data into tables (rows and columns), where each row
represents a record and each column represents a field. Tables are related to each other by
unique identifiers, often called primary keys.

Data Types in SQL

Before creating a table, understanding data types is essential because each field must be
assigned a specific data type.

Common Data Types in SQL

1. INT: Used for storing integer values (e.g., 10, 200).

2. VARCHAR(n): Stores variable-length strings, where ‘n’ is the maximum length (e.g.,
names, emails).
3. CHAR(n): Stores fixed-length strings.
4. FLOAT: Used for decimal numbers (e.g., 10.5, 200.75).
5. DATE: Used to store dates in the format YYYY-MM-DD.
6. BOOLEAN: Stores TRUE or FALSE values.

Creating Tables
Syntax for Creating a Table
CREATE TABLE table_name (
column1 datatype,
column2 datatype,
...
);

Example
CREATE TABLE Students (

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StudentID INT,
FirstName VARCHAR(50),
LastName VARCHAR(50),
BirthDate DATE
);

Inserting Data into Tables

INSERT INTO Students (StudentID, FirstName, LastName, BirthDate)
VALUES (1, 'Seema', 'chhikara', '2000-05-10');

Inserting Multiple Rows

INSERT INTO Students (StudentID, FirstName, LastName, BirthDate)
VALUES
(2, 'Happy', 'chhikara', '1999-07-20'),
(3, 'Parikshit', 'chhikara', '2001-01-15');

Checking structure of table:

Describe students;
Desc students;

Retrieving Data with SELECT

SELECT * FROM Students;

This query retrieves all columns from the Students table.

SELECT FirstName, LastName FROM Students;

Retrieving Specific Columns

Filtering Data with WHERE Clause

SELECT * FROM Students

WHERE BirthDate > '2000-01-01';

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SELECT * FROM Students

WHERE FirstName = 'happy' AND LastName = 'chhikara';

Updating Data in Tables

To modify existing data, the UPDATE statement is used.

UPDATE Students
SET LastName = 'Sheoran'
WHERE StudentID = 3;

Deleting Data

DELETE FROM Students

WHERE StudentID = 3;

Deleting All Rows

DELETE FROM Students;

Now check
select * from students;

Using Aggregate Functions

SQL provides several aggregate functions to summarize data.

Common Aggregate Functions:

1. COUNT(): Returns the number of rows.

2. SUM(): Returns the total sum of a numeric column.
3. AVG(): Returns the average value of a numeric column.
4. MAX(): Returns the largest value.
5. MIN(): Returns the smallest value.

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Example: Using COUNT

SELECT COUNT(*) FROM Students;

Using AVG
SELECT AVG(StudentID) FROM Students;

Grouping Data with GROUP BY

The GROUP BY clause groups rows that have the Time values in specified columns.

Syntax for GROUP BY

SELECT column, aggregate_function(column)
FROM table_name
GROUP BY column;

Example: Grouping by Last Name

SELECT LastName, COUNT(*)
FROM Students
GROUP BY LastName;

This counts how many students share the Time last name.

Joining Tables
JOIN is used to combine rows from two or more tables.

Types of JOINs

1. INNER JOIN: Returns rows with matching values in both tables.

2. LEFT JOIN: Returns all rows from the left table, and matched rows from the right
table.
3. RIGHT JOIN: Returns all rows from the right table, and matched rows from the left
table.

Syntax for JOIN

SELECT columns
FROM table1

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JOIN table2
ON table1.column = table2.column;

Example: Joining Two Tables

Suppose we have another table called Courses:

CREATE TABLE Courses (

CourseID INT,

CourseName VARCHAR(50)

);

Now, we can join Students and Courses:

SELECT Students.FirstName, Students.LastName, Courses.CourseName

FROM Students

JOIN Courses

ON Students.StudentID = Courses.CourseID;

Subqueries
A subquery is a query inside another query.

Example of a Subquery

SELECT * FROM Students

WHERE StudentID IN (SELECT StudentID FROM Courses);

Example: Combining Multiple Queries

SELECT Students.FirstName, COUNT(Courses.CourseID)

FROM Students

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JOIN Courses ON Students.StudentID = Courses.CourseID

GROUP BY Students.FirstName;

SQL Constraints
Constraints are rules applied to table columns to ensure the validity, consistency, and
accuracy of the data.

Types of Constraints

1. NOT NULL: Ensures that a column cannot have a NULL value.

2. UNIQUE: Ensures that all values in a column are unique.
3. PRIMARY KEY: Uniquely identifies each record in a table.
4. FOREIGN KEY: Links two tables and ensures referential integrity.
5. CHECK: Ensures that a column’s value satisfies a specific condition.
6. DEFAULT: Sets a default value for a column if none is specified.

Creating the Students Table

CREATE TABLE Students (

StudentID INT PRIMARY KEY,
FirstName VARCHAR(50) NOT NULL,
LastName VARCHAR(50) NOT NULL,
Email VARCHAR(100) UNIQUE,
DateOfBirth DATE,
CourseID INT,
FOREIGN KEY (CourseID) REFERENCES Courses(CourseID)
);

Creating the Courses Table

CREATE TABLE Courses (
CourseID INT PRIMARY KEY,
CourseName VARCHAR(100) NOT NULL,
Credits INT CHECK (Credits > 0)
);

Inserting Data into the Courses Table

INSERT INTO Courses (CourseID, CourseName, Credits)

VALUES

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(1, 'Mathematics', 3),

(2, 'Physics', 4),

(3, 'Chemistry', 3),

(4, 'Computer Science', 5);

Inserting Data into the Students Table

INSERT INTO Students (StudentID, FirstName, LastName, Email, DateOfBirth, CourseID)

VALUES

(1, 'Dennis', 'Ritchie', '[email protected]', '2001-04-10', 1),

(2, 'Bill', 'Gates', '[email protected]', '2000-07-22', 4),

(3, 'Tim', 'Berners', '[email protected]', '2002-03-18', 2),

(4, 'Charles', 'Babbage ', 'Charles.Babbage @example.com', '2001-11-12', 3),

(5, 'Vinton', 'Gray', '[email protected]', '1999-09-30', 1);

SQL Constraints with Students Table

1. NOT NULL Constraint

This constraint ensures that a column (e.g., FirstName and LastName) cannot contain
NULL values.

Example: Querying Students with Non-NULL Last Names

SELECT * FROM Students

WHERE LastName IS NOT NULL;

UNIQUE Constraint

Ensures that no duplicate values exist in a column, like Email.

Example: Trying to Insert a Duplicate Email (This Will Fail)

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INSERT INTO Students (StudentID, FirstName, LastName, Email, DateOfBirth, CourseID)

VALUES (6, 'James’', 'Gosling', '[email protected]', '2003-05-21', 2);

Since Email must be unique, this query will raise an error.

Foreign Key Constraints

A Foreign Key links the Students table to the Courses table, ensuring that students can only
enroll in valid courses.

Example: Inserting a Student with an Invalid Course ID

INSERT INTO Students (StudentID, FirstName, LastName, Email, DateOfBirth, CourseID)

VALUES (6, 'James’', 'Gosling', '[email protected]', '2003-05-21', 10);

ORDER BY Clause to Sort Students by Last Name

SELECT * FROM Students
ORDER BY LastName ASC;

Modifying the Students Table

1. Adding a New Column to the Students Table
ALTER TABLE Students
ADD PhoneNumber VARCHAR(15);

Updating Data in the Students Table

Let’s say we want to update Tim Berners’s email address.

UPDATE Students
SET Email = '[email protected]'
WHERE StudentID = 3;