Formulae

is convergent Or divergent if
Series :
1. Sequence and Infinite -1|| > 1 or < 1. When
lim n
A. Geometric series : n’ Un+l
l=1then the test fails.
" is convergent if -1 <x < 1
F. Gauss' Test :
displace and by divergent ifx 2 1 and
oscillatory if xS -1.
If>u, be a series of positive terms,
B. The p-series : n=l
such that =1 +
The infinite series Un+1 n

1
where p > 1, then the series converges
1 1 1
+ + is known as
1P 2P 3P nP
p-series, which is convergent if p>1 for a > l and diverges for as1.
and divergent if ps1.
G. Cauchy's Root Test :
C. Comparison Test :
An infinite seriesun of positive
Let >, and U, be two series of n=l
1
positive terms. Then (4, )a <1
terms is convergent if nlim
(a) if U, be convergent,u,is also
’ oo

1
convergent provided and divergent if nlim (u, )n >1.
’
u, SU, for all n m, where m being
H. Alternating series:
some fixed finite number.

(b) if , be divergent, 2n is also An infinite series S-1yun, in which

divergent, provided u, 2 U, for all
n=l

fixed finite the terms are alternatively positive and

n 2 m, m being some
number. negative is convergent if (a) lim un =0
n’oo

D. D'Alembert's Ratio test : (b)The sequence (u,} of positive terms

If n be a series of positive terms is monotonic decreasing.

n=l
and if lim lthen the infinite
n’Un+l 2. Power Series :
series )u, is convergent if l > 1 and A. Convergence of power series :
divergent if l < 1. When l= 1then the ) a,t
()A power series of the form n=l
test fails.
is said to be an everywhere con
E. Rabe's test :
vergence if the series is convergent
VxeR.
A seriesu, of positive terms
n=l
[viil
 viii | Fundamental Engineering Mathematics
() Apower serice of the form a," T
d

is said to be an absolutely conver E. Parseval's Identity:

gent series at x c if the series
a, Irr is convergent for x =c. ns1

B. Radius of Convergent : where do, any bn (n = 1, 2, ...) are

Fourier Coefficients of fx).
The radius of convergnet of the power
series a,r" isr, where Vr= sup I yl
4. Gradiant, Curl and Divergence :
yeR (i) Gradiant ofa scalar function
such that ,r"isconvergent at x=y. f= Ru, y, z)
3. Fourier Series :
A. Periodic function:
A function fr) is a periodic function =

dc dy
with period a if fna + x) = fx), ne Z.
(ii) Divergent of a vector :
B. Let fx) be a periodic function of
period 2T. The Fourier series of fx) is
defined by dy -+k-dz Ä(z,y, 2)

a, cos + b, sin dy
nal T T
where A(K, y, z) = Aji+Aj+ Agk
where a ==fa)ds (iii) Curlof a vector :

cos n ds
T
dy dz
L,f) sin T
dx, |A,(x, y,z) Ag(x, y,2) Azlx, y, z)
where
where n = 1, 2, 3...
C. Half Range sine series : A= Aflx, y, z) +Alx, y, z) +Agx, y, z)
fr) = b, sin (iv) Solenoidal and Irrotational vector :
T
A vector A(x,y, z) is said to be a sole
where b, = rasin nWx
T
-dx
noidal & irrotational vector if ýA =0
D. Half Range cosine series :
and Vx A= 0 respectively.
f(x)= ay+ a, cos
5. Function of SeveralVariables :
(i) Let z = flx, y) be a function of two vari
where ao =
ables x and y.
 Formulae ix
af = lim f(x +h, y)- f(x, y) 7. Jacobian :
h0
(i) If u(x, y) and v(x, y) be two differen
df lim flx, y+*)-f(x,y) tiable functions of x and y. Then the
dy k0 Jacobian (J) is defined by
provided the limit exist.
du du
(ii) Higher order partial derivatives :
J= du,v)
(x, y) du du
de2 dx dy
(ii) If ulx, y, z), v(x, y, z) and w, y, z)
dy? be three differentiable function of
x, y and z. then the Jacobian (J) is de
dxdy fined by
du du

dy dx dyd:
J= du, u, w) du
Iff, &f exist and continuous then a(x, y, z) dy
Jw duw dw
doc dy
fy=fia ie., dx dy dy dx
(iüi) Let u = fx, y) be a differentiable func 8. Length of plane curve :
tion of x and y, where both x and y are
differentiable function of tthen (a) In Cartesian coordinate system:
du Ju dx, du dy (chain
dt dx dt dy dt rulel Arc length (S) = dx

(iv) The differential of the function f, y) (b) Length of the parametriccurve :

at (x, y) is df = -dy
dy
6. Homogeneous Function: Are length (8) - dt

G) Ifu =Ax, y) is a homogeneus function (c) Length of the curve in polar co

of degree n in x & y then ordinate system:
du
= nu [Euler's theorem] The arc length of thecurve r= f0) from
2
(ii) If u= fr, y, z) is a homogeneous func dr
tion of degree n in x, y, z then e= , to 0, is S =a+
Je de
de

du du
= nu lEuler's theorem] (d) Length of the curve in pedal equa
dz tion :
2
u = nln-l)u
dy dz
[Second order] Arc length (S) = J 2 dr

ug+ 2xy ugy + y'uy = nln - 1)u

 XFundamental
X Engineering Mathematics
(e) Length of the parametric curve in 10. Jacobian :
space : (a) Ifx = rcos0, y = rsino then
Are length (S) =
x,y) dr
Jacobian (J) =
Ar,0) dy dy
dr

9. Double Integration : cos -rsin

=r
sin r cos

(a) [ r , y) fzlr, y)} dx dy = (b) If x = rsine cos¢, y = rsin® sin,

R
z= rcos., then
Sjfia, y)dxdy ± JJf, yldxdy,
R R x, y, z)
Jacobian (J) = ar,0, )
where fx, y) and flx, y) are two con
tinuous functions of x and y.
dr
(b) cfx, y) dx dy =c|[[fx, y) dxdy, where
R
dy dy
R

fx, y) is a continuous function and c is dz dz dz

any constant. Jr

sin cos rcos cos -r sin 0sin

(c) S Ar, y)dx dy = |]fz, y) dx dy +
sin 0sin¢ rcos 0sin r sin cos
RURg R1
cos -r sin
JJfx, y) d dy - fr, y) dx dy = r'sine
R2
(d) If R n Ry = then (c) The area bounded by the curve r= fe)
and the radii vectors = a and =B
1 cB
JJ x, y)dz dy = ||RË fz, y) dx dy +
is given by : Area = 1
2 Ja
vePde.
RËuR2

JJfr, y)dz dy
Rz
11. Mass and centroid or centre of
gravity of a solid :
(e) If fx, y) = ,() (y), then
(a) Mass (M) = [|plx, y, z) dxdy dz
,g fx, y)dydu =

(b) If c (*, y, z) be the centroid, then

[(9dy x X =
SSSxp dx dy dz SÚ ypdx dy d:
y= Úlpdx dy dz
Spdr dy dz
() In the region R, if fu, y) s fplx, y), Szp dx dy dz
2=

then fia, y)dy dx s [[fz, yldy dx TÚSpdx dy dz

R
 Formulae xi
12. Vector integration : (e) If
1ON OM
is a function of y only
M dx dy
(a) If ft) = ft)i+ f(t)j +fs(t) X, then say g(y), then I.F, = pletydy
SYedt =ife)dt +)ffedt +Afse)dt () xhy is an IF. of the equation
and
ay dx + bx dy + y'py dx + qxdy) = 0,
where h and k can be obtained from,
+ h+1 k+1 h+ m +1 k+n+l
and
p

(b) Fdi =j(F, dx +F,dy +F,dz) (g) First order but not first degree :

(c) Green's theorem : Solvable for p :

(p-fp -f)... (p-f) =0
ON •M)
(M dx +N dy) = | dy
Solvable for x:x= Fy, p)
R

(d) Stokes theorem : Solvable for y:y= G, p)

Clairaut's equation :y =px +fp)
S
14. (a) Rules for C.F. :
(e) Gauss'sdivergence theorem :
Consider asecond order homogenous
equation y" + a,y' + ay = 0. Then the
jjFnds = fdiv. Fdu auxiliary equation is m² + ajm + a, =0
13. First order differential equation: Case-1: Roots are m1, mg (real and
(a) Condition for exactness :
unequal) :y =Aen1* + Bemg
The differential equation Case-2 : Roots are m, m (real and
OM •N
Mdx + Ndy = 0 is exact if equal) :y= (A +Bx)em
dy
Case-3 : Roots are a ± iß (complex
(b) If the given equation Mdx + Ndy = 0 conjugate) :y = (Acosßx + Bsinßr)e.
ishomogeneous and Mx + Ny 0, then
1 (b) Rules for finding P.I in D operator :
LF. = 1
Mx + Ny 1
(i) If ox) = e, then )=
provided fa) D) fa)
(c) If the given equation Mdx + Ndy = 0 e
is of the form yfxy)ldx + xgxy)dy = 0 (i) If p«) = e"y(r),
1
then I.F. = 1
Mx- Ny then fD+ a) vl*).
fD)
1(OM JN is a function of x only
(d) If
N Oy dx (iii) If px) is apolynomial function of x,
say, fx), then I.F., = ellxkt then o*) can be obtained by
f(D)
 xii Fundamental Engineering Mathematics
(b) Variation of Parameters :
writing fD) as {D)} and then The complete solution of
expanding in ascending powers of
the differential operator D. y"+ ajy + agy = Qx) is

(iv) Ifo(x)= sin(ax +b) or cos(ax +b), and y(x) = Ay1 + By2 +t uyj + uy2, where y1,
y are two independent solutions and
if theequivalent form offD) isgD),
1
then
f(D)
sin(ax + b) =-[ W da,v=-[ Wdx.
1
sin(ax + b) and (c) Cauchy-Euler equation :
g(-a?)
1
cos(ax + b) =
1
cos(ax + b), (x"D" + ayx-D-1 + aat?-2r-2 +
fD) g-a2)
+ an-1D + a,y=0
providedg-a) 0.
To solve by, Substitute x = e (or z =
(v) If x) = sinax y(x) or x) = cos axy
(«) then write sinax and cos ax logr)
respectively as imaginary and real d -,D' = d
and xD = D', D = dx '
part of e*, Then proceed as Rule dz
No. (iü). D = D'(D' 1)
(vi) If fD) = (D- m), ßD = D'(D' - 1)(D' - 2) and so on.

then
D-mn pr) =eMe-mipl)dx 16. Graph theory :
(vii)If (x) = xV,where Vis any function (i) Graph :A graph is generally denoted
by G = (V, E), where V= {U1, U, ..}
of x, then and E = le1, e, .. are respectively
known as the set of vertices and the
1
= fx set of edges such that each edge of
E is connected to an unordered pair
(viii) If pr) = V, then vertices of V.
1 1 1
fD)D). (V, (iü) Self loop : If the adjacent vertices of
where n is a positive integer.
an edge are same then that edge is
15. (a) Wronskian :
known as self loop.
W'1, Y2, .,Yn) = (iii) Parallel edges : If two or more edges
are connected to a single pair of adja
Y2
cent vertices then the edges are known
as parallel edges.
(iv) Simple graph : A graph having no
self loop and no parallel edges is a
In particular W(y1 Y2) =yy2 -Yy1 simple graph.
 Formulae xiii
(v) Degree of a vertex The total 17. Matrix representation of Graph :
number of edges incident to a vertex
(i)The adjacency matrix is always a
is known the degree of the vertex.
symmetric matrix.
(vi) Isolated and pendant vertex: A (ii)The row-sum (or column sum) of an
vertex of degree zero is an isolated adjacency matrix is the degree of
vertex where as a vertex of degree one the corresponding matrix.
is a pendant vertex.
(iüi) A row of an incidence matrix
(vii) Complete graph : In a simple graph if containing no unit element is an
there is exactly one edge between each isolated vertex.
pair of vertices then it is a complete (iv) A row of an incidence matrix
graph. containing only one unit element is
Some Result : pendant vertex.
(v) The row sum of an incidence matrix
(1) The maximum degree of any vertex
of a simple graph having n vertices is is the degree of the corresponding
(n-1). vertex.

(2) Handshaking theorem : If |E| 18. Tree and its Fundamental Properties
denotes total number of edges then the (i) Tree : Aconnected graph with no
total degree of the graph is 2|E|. cycle or circuit is known as a tree.
(3) The number of odd degree vertices in (ii) Binary Tree :A tree is a binary tree
a graph is always even. if there is only one vertex of degree
(4) The maximum number of edges of two and the rest vertices are either of
a simple graph with n vertices is degree one or degree three.
n(n-1)
2 (ii) Spanning Tree : A subgraph of a
(5) The total number of edges of a com connected graph is a spanning tree if
nln-1) (i)it is atree and (ii) it contains all the
plete graph withn vertices is
2 vertices of the graph.
(6) In a Bipartite graph having n vertices Some Result :
has at most n edges.
4 (1) Every tree with n vertices has exactly
(7) for a digraph G = (V, E), (n- 1) edges.
Zdu,)=Xdu;) =|EI (2) For every non-trivial tree, there are at
(8) The minimum number of edges of a least two pendant vertices.
Connected graph with vertices (n- 1). (3) In a binary tree with n vertices, the
n+1
(9) A simple graph having n verti number of pendant vertices is 2
ces and k cormponents has at least and the number of vertices whose
(n - k) number of edges and at most
(n -kXn-k+1) degree 3 is
2
number of edges.
x0v Fundamental Engineering Mathematics
(d) the weight of the graph
(4) The total number of vertices in a must be
unique.
binary tree is always odd.
(6) The minimal spanning tree of a
(5) The minimal spanning tree of a weighted graph may not be
weighted graph is a tree which follows Prim's algorithm and Kruskal's
unique.
the rules given below :
algorithm are the two methods to find
(a) it should contain all the vertices. minimal spanning tree of a weighted
(b)the graph should be connected graph.
(c) there should be no loop and