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Chapter 3
Measurement -Bridge Circuits
EE4190
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Measurement -Bridge Circuits
Introduction:
 Bridge circuits are used very commonly as a variable conversion element in
measurement systems and produce an output in the form of a voltage level that
changes as the measured physical quantity changes.
 They provide an accurate method of measuring resistance, inductance, and capacitance
values.
 They are of immense importance in the measurement system technology because so
many transducers measuring physical quantities have an output that is expressed as a
change in resistance, inductance, or capacitance.
 The displacement-measuring strain gauge, which has a varying resistance output, is but
one example of this class of transducers.
 Normally, excitation of the bridge is by a DC voltage for resistance measurement and by
an AC voltage for inductance or capacitance measurement.
 Both null and deflection types of bridge exist, and, in a like manner to instruments in
general, null types are mainly employed for calibration purposes and deflection types
are used within closed-loop automatic control schemes.
 DC Bridge Circuits 3

Null-Type, DC Bridge (Wheatstone Bridge):

A Wheatstone Bridge, has the form shown in Figure
3.1.
 The four arms of the bridge consist of the
Unknown resistance Ru, two equal value
resistors R2 and R3, and a variable resistor
Rv (usually a decade resistance box).

 A DC voltage Vi is applied across the points AC

and the resistance Rv is varied until the voltage
measured across points BD is zero.

 This null point is usually measured with a

high-sensitivity galvanometer.
Figure3.1: Wheatstone Bridge

To analyze the Wheatstone Bridge, define the current flowing in each arm to be I1, I2,I3, and I4 as shown in
Figure 3.1. Normally, if a high-impedance voltage-measuring instrument is used, the current Im drawn by the
measuring instrument will be very small and can be approximated to zero. If this assumption is made, then,
for Im = 0, the bridge is balanced and we have: I1 = I3 and I2 = I4. The following relationship is obtained:
 DC Bridge Circuits 4

Null-Type, DC Bridge (Wheatstone Bridge):

Example 3.1
A Wheatstone bridge is used to accurately measure the resistance of a platinum resistance
thermometer during a calibration procedure. The circuit shown in Figure 3.1 is used, in which the
known fixed resistance values are given by R2 = 98.3 W and R3 = 102.2 W. The thermometer is
inserted in the circuit as Ru and then the variable resistance box Rv is adjusted until the bridge
output voltage V0 goes to zero. At thisbalance point, the value of Rv is 95.7 W.
- Calculate the resistance of the thermometer.

Solution
At the balance point, the resistance values are related according to:

Substituting the resistance values into the equation:

Thus, the resistance of the thermometer is 99.5 W.

 DC Bridge Circuits 5

Deflection-Type DC Bridge:
 A deflection-type bridge with DC excitation is
shown in Figure 3.2.
 This differs from the Wheatstone bridge
mainly in that the variable resistance Rv is
replaced by a fixed resistance R1
 R1 has the same value as the nominal value
of the unknown resistance Ru.
 As the resistance Ru changes, the output
voltage V0 varies, and this relationship
between V0 and Ru is:

Figure3.1: Wheatstone Bridge

 The deflection-type bridge is somewhat easier to use than a null-type bridge since the
output measurement is given directly in the form of a voltage measurement.

 However, its measurement accuracy is not as good as that of a null-type bridge.

 DC Bridge Circuits 6
Deflection-Type DC Bridge:
Example 3.2
A certain type of pressure transducer, designed to measure pressures in the range of 0-10 bar,
consists of a diaphragm with a strain gauge cemented to it to detect diaphragm deflections.
- The strain gauge has a nominal resistance of 120 W and forms one arm of a Wheatstone
bridge circuit, with the other three arms each having a resistance of 120 W.
- The bridge output is measured by an instrument whose input impedance can be assumed
infinite.
- If, in order to limit heating effects, the maximum permissible gauge current is 30 mA,
calculate the maximum permissible bridge excitation voltage.
- If the sensitivity of the strain gauge is 338 mU/bar and the maximum bridge excitation
voltage is used, calculate the bridge output voltage when measuring a pressure of 10 bar.

Solution
This is the type of bridge circuit shown in Figure 7.2 in which the components have the following
values:
R1 = = R2 = R3 = 120 W

Defining I1 to be the current flowing in path ADC of the bridge, we can write:
Vi = I1(Ru + R3(

At balance, Ru = 120 and the maximum value allowable for I1 is 0.03 A.

Hence, Vi = 0.03(120 120) = 7.2 V.
 DC Bridge Circuits 7
Deflection-Type DC Bridge:

Solution
For a pressure of 10 bar applied, the resistance change is 3.38 W, that is, Ru is then equal to
123.38 W, we can write:

Thus, if the maximum permissible bridge excitation voltage is used, the output voltage is 50 mV when a
pressure of 10 bar is measured.
 DC Bridge Circuits 8
Deflection-Type DC Bridge:
Linearity of input-output Relationship
The nonlinear relationship between the output reading and the measured quantity exhibited by

is inconvenient and does not conform with the normal requirement for a linear input-output
relationship. The new voltage V’0 when the resistance Ru changes by an amount dRu, we have:

The change of voltage output is therefore given by:

If dRu << Ru, then the following linear relationship is obtained:

valid for transducers such as strain gauges where the typical changes of resistance with strain are very
small compared with the nominal gauge resistance.
 DC Bridge Circuits 9
Deflection-Type DC Bridge:
Linearity of input-output Relationship

Many instruments, such as resistance thermometers, exhibit large changes in output as the

input quantity changes, and the approximation of cannot be applied.

In such cases, specific action must be taken to improve linearity in the relationship between
the bridge output voltage and the measured quantity.

One common solution: make the values of the resistances R2 and R3 at least 10 times those of R1 and Ru
Numerical example: PT500 (platinum resistance thermometer) with a range of 0-50 °C, whose resistance at
0°C is 500 W and whose resistance varies with temperature at a rate of 4 W/°C.
Taking first the case where R1 = R2 = R3 = 500 W and Vi = 10 V. At 0°C ; V0 = 0 V

For the temperature change from 0 to 25 °C , the change in V0 is (0.455 - 0) = 0.455 V.

For the temperature change from 25 to 50 °C , the change in V0 is (0.833 - 0.455) = 0.378 V.
 DC Bridge Circuits 10
Deflection-Type DC Bridge:
Linearity of input-output Relationship

Numerical example: PT500 (platinum resistance thermometer) with a range of 0-50 °C, whose resistance at
0°C is 500 W and whose resistance varies with temperature at a rate of 4 W/°C.
Taking first the case where R1 = R2 = R3 = 500 W and Vi = 10 V. At 0°C ; V0 = 0 V

For the temperature change from 0 to 25 °C , the change in V0 is (0.455 - 0) = 0.455 V.

For the temperature change from 25 to 50 °C , the change in V0 is (0.833 - 0.455) = 0.378 V.

Now, let the case where R1 = 500 W but R2 = R3 = 5000 W and let Vi = 26.1 V. At 0°C ; V0 = 0 V

For the temperature change from 0 to 25 °C , the change in V0 is (0.424 - 0) = 0.424 V.

For the temperature change from 25 to 50 °C , the change in V0 is (0.833 - 0.424) = 0.409 V.

The changes in V0 over the two temperature steps are much closer to being equal than before,
demonstrating the improvement in linearity.
 DC Bridge Circuits 11
Deflection-Type DC Bridge:
Case where the current drawn by measuring instrument is not negligible
For various reasons, it is not always possible to meet the condition that the impedance of the instrument
measuring the bridge output voltage is sufficiently large for the current drawn by it to be negligible. Wherever
the measurement current is not negligible, an alternative relationship between the bridge input and output must
be derived that takes the current drawn by the measuring instrument into account

When the Rm was taken = 0 W, the output voltage was:

 DC Bridge Circuits 12
Deflection-Type DC Bridge:
Case where the current drawn by measuring instrument is not negligible
 DC Bridge Circuits 13
Error Analysis:

 In the application of bridge circuits, the contribution of component value tolerances

to total measurement system accuracy limits must be clearly understood.
 The analysis below applies to a null-type (Wheatstone) bridge, but similar
principles can be applied for a deflection-type bridge.
 The maximum measurement error is determined by first finding the value of Ru in
equation

 Each parameter in the equation set at that limit of its tolerance which produces the
maximum value of Ru.
 Similarly, the minimum possible value of Ru is calculated, and the required error
band is then the span between these maximum and minimum values.
 DC Bridge Circuits 14
Error Analysis:

 Although the maximum error in any one component is 0.2%, the possible error in the measured value of Ru
is 0.4%.
 Such a magnitude of error is often not acceptable, One of many methods to overcome the introduction of
error by component value tolerances is the introduction of apex balancing.
 DC Bridge Circuits ``
Apex balancing
 Variable resistor R5 at junction C between the resistances R2 and R3,
 Applying voltage Vi to the wiper of this variable resistance
 For calibration purposes, Ru and Rv are replaced by two equal
resistances
 R5 is varied until the output voltage V0 is zero. At this point, if the
 If the portions of resistance on either side of the wiper on R5 are R6
and R7 (such that R5 = R6 + R7), we can write:
R3 +R6 = R2 + R7
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Reactance Measurements
Impedance Measurement Methods:

• Inductance & capacitance measurement (L, C)

• Reactance measurements (X: XL & XC)
• Analog measurements : AC bridges
• Digital measurements : voltage across C, L & R with a
suitable measuring instrument

Reactance Measurement Methods:

1. Equivalent circuits
2. AC Bridge circuits
3. Digital RLC meter*
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Reactance Measurements
Equivalent Circuits:
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Reactance Measurements
A.C. Bridges:
Bridges with AC excitation are used to measure unknown impedances
(capacitances and inductances). Both null and deflection types exist
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Reactance Measurements
A.C. Bridges:
An a.c. bridge cruit consists of a network of four impedance arma with
an a.c. of currentapplied to to opposite junctions and a current detector
connected to the pther two junctions.
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Reactance Measurements
De Sauty’s Bridge: Simple Capacitance Bridge
This is a simplest a.c. bridge for the measurement of capacitance. At
balance, we have:

Series-Resistance Capacitance Bridge

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Reactance Measurements
Parallel-Resistance Capacitance Bridge

Example:
A parallel-resistance capacitance bridge has a standard capacitor for C1 = 0.1 uF. Balance is achieved with 100
Hz supply frequency when R1 = 375 kW, R3 = 10 kW and R4 = 14.7 kW. Calculate the resistive and capacitive
components of the measured capacitor.
 Reactance Measurements 22
Inductance Bridges

Maxwell Bridge: Inductance measurement

Example:
A Maxwell inductance bridge uses a standard capacitor of C3 = 0.1 uF and operates at a supply frequency of
100 Hz. Balance is achieved when R1= 1.26 kW, R3 = 470 W, and R4 = 500 W. Calculate the inductance and
resistance of the measured inductor.
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Reactance Measurements
Hay Inductance Bridge: Inductance measurement
- Similar to Maxwell Bridge
- Except R3 and C3 are in series and
- Unknown quantity is in parallel

Example:
A Hay Inductance bridge operating at a frequency of 100 Hz is balanced when the components C3 = 0.1 uF,
R1 = 1.26 kW, R3 = 75W, and R4 = 500 W. Calculate the inductance and resistance of the measured inductor.
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Reactance Measurements
Example 7.6
A null-type impedance bridge is used to accurately measure the capacitance of a capacitive pressure sensor
during a calibration procedure. The circuit shown in Figure 7.7 is used, in which the known fixed resistance
values are given by R1 = 491.7 W and R2 = 483.2 W. The pressure sensor is inserted in the circuit as Zu and
an accurate variable capacitor box with capacitance Cv is used for Zv. The capacitor box is adjusted until the
bridge output voltage goes to zero. At this balance point, the value of Cv is 103.7 pF. Calculate the
capacitance of the pressure sensor.
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Reactance Measurements
Example 7.6
A null-type impedance bridge is used to accurately measure
the capacitance of a capacitive pressure sensor during a
calibration procedure. The known fixed resistance values are
given by R1 = 491.7 W and R2 = 483.2 W. The pressure sensor
is inserted in the circuit as Zu and an accurate variable
capacitor box with capacitance Cv is used for Zv. The
capacitor box is adjusted until the bridge output voltage goes
to zero. At this balance point, the value of Cv is 103.7 pF.
Calculate the capacitance of the pressure sensor.
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Reactance Measurements
Example 7.9
A deflection bridge is used to measure an unknown capacitance,Cu. The components in
the bridge have the following values: Vs = 20Vrms; C1 = 100 mF; R2 = 60 W; R3 = 40 W. If
Cu =100 m F, calculate the output voltage V0

Example 7.10
An unknown inductance Lu is measured using a deflection type of bridge. The
components in the bridge have the following values: Vs = 10Vrms; L1 = 20 mH; R2 = 100 W;
R3 = 100 W If the output voltage V0 is 1Vrms, calculate the value of Lu.