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Maurizio Petrelli

Introduction
to Python
in Earth Science
Data Analysis
From Descriptive Statistics
to Machine Learning
Springer Textbooks in Earth Sciences,
Geography and Environment
The Springer Textbooks series publishes a broad portfolio of textbooks on Earth
Sciences, Geography and Environmental Science. Springer textbooks provide
comprehensive introductions as well as in-depth knowledge for advanced studies.
A clear, reader-friendly layout and features such as end-of-chapter summaries, work
examples, exercises, and glossaries help the reader to access the subject. Springer
textbooks are essential for students, researchers and applied scientists.

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/15201

Maurizio Petrelli

Introduction to Python
in Earth Science Data
Analysis
From Descriptive Statistics to Machine
Learning
Maurizio Petrelli
Department of Physics and Geology
University of Perugia
Perugia, Italy

ISSN 2510-1307 ISSN 2510-1315 (electronic)

Springer Textbooks in Earth Sciences, Geography and Environment
ISBN 978-3-030-78054-8 ISBN 978-3-030-78055-5 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-78055-5

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature
Switzerland AG 2021
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether
the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse
of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and
transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar
or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book
are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or
the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any
errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional
claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
To my daughters Agata, Anna, and Caterina,
my wife Arianna, and Atomo who completes
the family
Preface

The idea of writing this book came to me in 2015 when I started teaching a course
entitled “Data Analysis and Interpretation in Earth Science” at the Department of
Physics and Geology of Perugia University. From the beginning of the course, I
realized that many of my students were strongly interested in data managing, visu-
alizing, and modeling in Python. I also realized that no reference book was avail-
able for teaching Python to geologists. Although numerous books present Python
to programmers at all levels, from beginners to experts, they mostly focus solely on
programming techniques, without discussing real applications, especially in geology.
In other words, a book devoted to Earth Scientists was missing. The project grew
and became structured while teaching the basics of Python to Earth Scientists at
the Eötvös University Budapest (Hungary) and at Leibniz Universität of Hannover
(Germany) in December 2018 and February 2020, respectively. Sadly, by the begin-
ning of March 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic had dramatically spread to all regions
of Italy and, on March 4th, the Italian government shut down all schools and univer-
sities nationwide, forcing me to stay at home like most Italians. In one of the most
confusing and insecure moments of my life, I decided to start writing this book.
“Introduction to Python in Earth Science Data Analysis” is devoted to Earth Scien-
tists, at any level, from students to academics and professionals, who would like to
harness the power of Python to visualize, analyze, and model geological data. No
experience in programming is required to use this book. If you are working in the
Earth Sciences, are a novice programmer, and would like to exploit the power of
Python in your projects, this is the right place for you.

Assisi, Italy Maurizio Petrelli

March 2021

vii
Acknowledgments

I would like to acknowledge all the people who encouraged me when I started
planning this project and all those who supported me during the writing. The first
one is Diego Perugini, who allowed me to re-enter academia in 2014 through the
Chronos project after a hiatus of three years. I also thank the Erasmus Plus (E+)
program that supported my foreign teaching excursions in Hungary and Germany,
including Roberto Rettori and Sabrina Nazzareni, who oversaw the E+ program for
my department, and the local E+ officers at the University of Perugia (Sonia Trinari
and Francesca Buco) and at the Tiber Umbria Comett Education Programme (Maria
Grazia Valocchia). Professor Francois Holtz (Leibniz Universität Hannover) and
Professor Szabolcs Harangi (Eötvös University Budapest) are also kindly acknowl-
edged for allowing me to run the “Python in Earth Sciences” courses at their insti-
tutions. The Department of Physics and Geology at University of Perugia, who
supported this book through the Engage FRB2019 project, also has my gratitude. I
also give my heartfelt thanks to my family, who put up with me as I wrote this book.
Finally, I sincerely thank Aviva Loew (Academic Language Experts), Giuseppe la
Spina, Eleonora Carocci, and Diego González-García for their critical suggestions,
which have largely improved this book.
Just before I starting writing these acknowledgments, I received a message on
my smartphone stating that I had an appointment for a COVID-19 vaccination the
following day (March 3, 2021), exactly a year to the day after the initial lockdown in
Italy. I interpreted this notification as a message of belief. I hope that the worldwide
vaccination campaigns that have been launched will signal the beginning of a new era
of beloved “normality” in our lives and that the time for resilience against COVID-19
is coming to an end. Now should be a time of empathy, cooperation, and rebirth.

ix
Overview

Let me Introduce Myself

Hi and welcome. My name is Maurizio Petrelli and I currently work at the Depart-
ment of Physics and Geology, University of Perugia (UniPg). My research focuses
on the petrological characterization of volcanoes with an emphasis on the dynamics
and timescales of pre-eruptive events. For this work, I combine classical and uncon-
ventional techniques. Since 2002, I’ve worked intensely in the laboratory, mainly
focusing on the development UniPg’s facility for Laser Ablation Inductively Coupled
Plasma Mass Spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS). In February 2006, I obtained my Ph.D.
degree with a thesis entitled “Nonlinear Dynamics in Magma Interaction Processes
and their Implications on Magma Hybridization.” Currently, I am developing a new
line of research at UniPg, Department of Physics and Geology, for applying Machine
Learning techniques in Geology. Finally, I also manage the LA-ICP-MS laboratory
at UniPg.

Organization of Book

The book is organized into five parts plus three appendixes. The Part I, entitled
“Python for Geologists: A Kickoff,” focuses on the very basics of Python program-
ming, from setting up an environment for scientific computing to solving your first
geology problems using Python. The Part II is entitled “Describing Geological Data”
and explains how to start visualizing (i.e., making plots) and generating descriptive
statistics, both univariate and bivariate. The Part III, entitled “Integrals and Differ-
ential Equations in Geology,” discusses integrals and differential equations while
highlighting various applications in geology. The Part IV deals with “Probability
Density Functions and Error Analysis” applied to the evaluation and modeling of
Earth Science data. Finally, the Part V, entitled “Robust Statistics and Machine Learn-
ing” analyzes data sets that depart from normality (statistically speaking) and the
application of machine learning techniques to data modeling in the Earth Sciences.

xi
xii Overview

Styling Conventions

I use conventions throughout this book to identify different types of information. For
example, Python statements, commands, and variables used within the main body of
the text are set in italics.
Consider the following quoted text as an example “There are many options to
create multiple subplots in matplotlib. In my opinion, the easiest approach is to
create an empty figure [i.e., fig = plt.figure(), then add multiple axes (i.e., subplots)
by using the method fig.add_subplot(nrows, ncols, index)]. The parameters nrows,
ncols, and index indicate the numbers of rows and columns (ncols) and the positional
index. In detail, index starts at 1 in the upper-left corner and increases to the right.
To better understand, consider the code listing 4.4.”
A block of Python code is highlighted as follows:

Listing 1 Example of code listing in Python

Shared Codes

All code presented in this book is tested on the Anaconda Individual Edition ver.
2021.5 (Python 3.8.8) and is available at my GitHub repository ( Petrelli-m):
http://bit.ly/python_earth_science

Involvement and Collaborations

I am always open to new collaborations worldwide. Feel free to contact me by mail

to discuss new ideas or propose a collaboration. You can also reach me through
my personal website or by Twitter. I love sharing the content of this book in short
courses everywhere. If you are interested, please contact me to organize a visit to
your institution.
Personal contacts:
[email protected]
@mauripetre
https://www.mauriziopetrelli.info
Contents

Part I Python for Geologists: A Kickoff

1 Setting Up Your Python Environment, Easily . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1 The Python Programming Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 Programming Paradigms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3 A Local Python Environment for Scientific Computing . . . . . . . . 5
1.4 Remote Python Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.5 Python Packages for Scientific Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.6 Python Packages Specifically Developed for Geologists . . . . . . . . 9
2 Python Essentials for a Geologist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.1 Start Working with IPython Console . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.2 Naming and Style Conventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.3 Working with Python Scripts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.4 Conditional Statements, Indentation, Loops, and Functions . . . . . 17
2.5 Importing External Libraries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.6 Basic Operations and Mathematical Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3 Solving Geology Problems Using Python: An Introduction . . . . . . . . 25
3.1 My First Binary Diagram Using Python . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.2 Making Our First Models in Earth Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.3 Quick Intro to Spatial Data Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

Part II Describing Geological Data

4 Graphical Visualization of a Geological Data Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
4.1 Statistical Description of a Data Set: Key Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
4.2 Visualizing Univariate Sample Distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
4.3 Preparing Publication-Ready Binary Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
4.4 Visualization of Multivariate Data: A First Attempt . . . . . . . . . . . 66
5 Descriptive Statistics 1: Univariate Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
5.1 Basics of Descriptive Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
5.2 Location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

xiii
xiv Contents

5.3 Dispersion or Scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

5.4 Skewness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
5.5 Descriptive Statistics in Pandas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
5.6 Box Plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
6 Descriptive Statistics 2: Bivariate Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
6.1 Covariance and Correlation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
6.2 Simple Linear Regression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
6.3 Polynomial Regression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
6.4 Nonlinear Regression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

Part III Integrals and Differential Equations in Geology

7 Numerical Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
7.1 Definite Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
7.2 Basic Properties of Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
7.3 Analytical and Numerical Solutions of Definite Integrals . . . . . . . 101
7.4 Fundamental Theorem of Calculus and Analytical Solutions . . . . 101
7.5 Numerical Solutions of Definite Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
7.6 Computing the Volume of Geological Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
7.7 Computing the Lithostatic Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
8 Differential Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
8.2 Ordinary Differential Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
8.3 Numerical Solutions of First-Order Ordinary Differential
Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
8.4 Fick’s Law of Diffusion—A Widely Used Partial
Differential Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126

Part IV Probability Density Functions and Error Analysis

9 Probability Density Functions and Their Use in Geology . . . . . . . . . . 137
9.1 Probability Distribution and Density Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
9.2 The Normal Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
9.3 The Log-Normal Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
9.4 Other Useful PDFs for Geological Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
9.5 Density Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
9.6 The Central Limit Theorem and Normal Distributed Means . . . . 152
10 Error Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
10.1 Dealing with Errors in Geological Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
10.2 Reporting Uncertainties in Binary Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
10.3 Linearized Approach to Error Propagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
10.4 The Mote Carlo Approach to Error Propagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
Contents xv

Part V Robust Statistics and Machine Learning

11 Introduction to Robust Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
11.1 Classical and Robust Approaches to Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
11.2 Normality Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
11.3 Robust Estimators for Location and Scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
11.4 Robust Statistics in Geochemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
12 Machine Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
12.1 Introduction to Machine Learning in Geology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
12.2 Machine Learning in Python . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
12.3 A Case Study of Machine Learning in Geology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197

Appendix A: Python Packages and Resources for Geologists . . . . . . . . . . . 209

Appendix B: Introduction to Object Oriented Programming . . . . . . . . . . 211
Appendix C: The Matplotlib Object Oriented API . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
Appendix D: Working with Pandas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Further Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
 Part I
Python for Geologists: A Kickoff
Chapter 1
Setting Up Your Python Environment,
Easily

1.1 The Python Programming Language

Python is a high-level, modular, interpreted programming language.1 What does this

mean? A high-level programming language is characterized by a strong abstraction
that cloaks the details of the computer so that the code is easy to understand for
humans. Python is modular, which means that it supports modules and packages that
allow program flexibility and code reuse. In detail, Python is composed of a “core”
that deals with all basic operations plus a wide ecosystem of specialized packages
to perform specific tasks. To be clear, a Python package or library is a reusable
portion of code, which is a collection of functions and modules (i.e., a group of
functions) allowing the user to complete specialized tasks such as reading an excel
file or drawing a publication-ready diagram.
Python is an interpreted language (like MATLAB, Mathematica, Maple, and R).
Conversely, C or FORTRAN are compiled languages. What is the difference between
compiled and interpreted languages? Roughly speaking, with compiled languages, a
translator compiles each code listing in an executable file. Once compiled, any target
machine can directly run the executable file. Interpreted languages compile code in
real time during each execution. The main difference for a novice programmer is that
interpreted code typically runs slower than compiled executable code. However, per-
formance is not an issue in most everyday operations. Performance starts becoming
significant in computing-intensive tasks such as complex fluid dynamic simulations
or three-dimensional (3D) graphical applications. If needed, the performance of
Python can be significantly improved with the support of specific packages such as
Numba, which can compile Python code. In this case, Python code approaches the
speed of C and FORTRAN.
Being an interpreted language, Python facilitates code exchange over different
platforms (i.e., cross-platform code exchange), fast prototyping, and great flexibility.

1 https://www.python.org.
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 3
M. Petrelli, Introduction to Python in Earth Science Data Analysis,
Springer Textbooks in Earth Sciences, Geography and Environment,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-78055-5_1
Other documents randomly have
different content
 Diagnosis is to be based largely on the variability of the lameness
at different times, its propensity to shift from place to place, its
manifest association with exposure to cold, and with the immanence
of electric storms or change in the barometric pressure, and its
improvement under genial weather, warmth and comfort.
 SYMPTOMS OF MUSCULAR RHEUMATISM IN
HORSES.

Under usual causes, muscles tender, stiffness, groaning, loins, quarter, shoulder,
neck, chest.

Developed under conditions similar to those causing rheumatism

of the joints, rheumatism of the muscles tends to attack those of a
particular region, and to continue in these throughout the attack
rather than change to others. The affected muscles are very tender to
the touch, but usually show no swelling nor heat. The muscles are
relaxed and tend to atrophy, fever is little marked, there is
comparatively little tendency to the implication of the heart, and the
suffering and stiffness vary with the variation of the weather, or with
electric or barometric changes. When generalized, however, fever
may supervene, and the joints may be implicated (Thompson).
When the loins are affected they become extremely tender to the
touch, and the horse shows great stiffness, and groans when made to
walk and above all when turned or backed. He does not, however,
show the unsteadiness in gait and tendency to stagger that is shown
in sprain of the loins, and there is no history of a slip, fall or injury,
but an unmistakable connection with cold, exposure, change of
weather, or overfeeding on grain.
When the gluteal muscles are attacked there is intense lameness,
and dragging of the hind limb, with an acute sensitiveness of the skin
of the region, which characterizes neither disease of the hip nor of
the trochanterean bursa.
When the scapulo-humeral muscles are the seat of disease, there is
a marked stiffness, shortness of step, drooping of the head, and great
tenderness of the skin and muscles to manipulation or the use of the
currycomb. Like the other cases named it occurs suddenly, without
evidence of accident, but bearing a relation to cold or other change of
the weather, and is better or worse as the weather is more or less
genial.
When the cervical muscles are affected (torticolis), the same
features are noted, the absence of traumatic cause, the presence of a
meteorological one, or at least of cold or wet, the responsiveness of
the disease to the state of the weather, and to revulsive agents
applied to the part. The neck may be held rigidly in one position, to
one side or elevated so that there is great difficulty in getting the
nose to the ground.
The costal muscles are less frequently attacked (pleurodynia), but
the same general principles guide in diagnosis.
Seidamgrotzky alleges the constant existence of acidity of the urine
in muscular rheumatism. This may be attributed to the active trophic
changes going on in the muscles.
 SYMPTOMS OF ACUTE ARTICULAR
RHEUMATISM IN CATTLE.

Sudden onset, hyperthermia, chill, fever, acid saliva, decubitus, does not stretch
on rising, lameness, joints involved, metastasis, variability, morning and noon,
suppuration, walking on toe, secondary articular rheumatism. Course: muscular
symptoms, cardiac, pleuritic, digestive. Chronic. Muscular rheumatism: of back,
loins, shoulder, quarter, neck. Changes in blood and nutrition.

There is a sudden attack with constitutional disorder, chill, staring

coat, cold horns and ears, dry muzzle, impaired appetite and
rumination, acid saliva, constipation, thirst, hurried breathing, hard
accelerated pulse and more or less hyperthermia. Then there may
come reaction with surface heat and glow. The patient inclines to lie
and when raised fails to stretch the back or the hind limbs, stands
with arched back, and walks stiffly and with more or less lameness.
The joints attacked may be determined by local strain, compression
on concussion, hence the frequency of lesions of the knees and
fetlocks. Yet any of the great joints of the limbs may suffer,—hip,
stifle, hock, shoulder or elbow—or several may be affected at once.
The disease may extend from one joint to another, may improve in
one or more, only to suffer a relapse, and may oscillate better and
worse according to the state of the weather or the exposure to cold or
warmth. Often almost helpless in the early morning, the patient
improves greatly in the heat of the sun.
The affected joint is swollen, distended with liquid, hot and tender
with considerable infiltration of the surrounding tissues, including
the tendons and their synovial sheaths. Suppuration is much more
common than in the same affection of the horse appearing to be due
to a complex infection with pus microbes. In walking in severe cases
the foot of the affected limb is planted with great care and caution
mainly on the toe and there appears to be exquisite suffering when
weight is thrown on it, so that the fetlock and knee may knuckle over
and the patient comes to the ground. Great infiltrations, fibroid, and
other hyperplasias and even calcifications are not uncommon.
Cadeac describes as secondary articular rheumatism, those
infective inflammations of the joints that follow on parturition,
abortion, omphalitis, enteritis, etc., but it is manifest that these are
special disorders due to the presence of the microbes of specific
diseases or their toxins and should be described with these rather
than with rheumatism.
The course of acute rheumatism in the ox is very uncertain. Mild
cases may recover in a few days. In others the lesions become
extensive, great hyperplasia and induration occur around the joint
and permanent stiffness and even anchylosis may supervene. The
occurrence of temporary improvements and relapses is a common
feature. The extension of the disease to other joints, tendinous
sheaths, muscles and even internal organs is to be dreaded. Extreme
tenderness of the back and loins when handled or pinched, with
groaning is a marked feature especially in cold and damp times or in
early morning. Cardiac complications show themselves by shortness
of breath, palpitations, hard intermittent, irregular or unequal pulse,
blowing murmur with the first heart sound, and other signs of
circulatory trouble. Pleuritic, pulmonic and abdominal complications
are also to be looked for. The costiveness by which acute rheumatism
is ushered in, becomes complicated by congestion of stomach and
intestine, and impaction of the first and third stomachs, great
dullness, anorexia and even nervous disorder. Colic and even
diarrhœa are occasional consequences.
Many cases subside into a chronic form which shows a variable
condition, better and worse, according to the condition of the
weather, the exposure to cold and damp, and even the changes of
diet. This may last throughout life.
 SYMPTOMS OF MUSCULAR RHEUMATISM IN
CATTLE.

This may set in with the same abruptness as articular rheumatism,

the animal in the morning after a wet, dewy or frigid night showing
general stiffness and lameness with extreme sensitiveness of the skin
and muscles along the back and loins. The animal moves slowly and
stiffly, grunting perhaps at each step and shows inappetence, fever,
dry muzzle and costiveness. This is essentially rachialgia or
lumbago. Pandiculation on rising is entirely omitted.
Not infrequently the muscles of the shoulder are mainly affected
and become exceedingly tender to manipulation. The patient seeks to
remain recumbent and when raised will get up on his hind parts and
remain thus for some time resting on the knees before he can be
made to get up in front.
When the muscles of the croup are attacked the mode of getting up
is reversed, the animal rising first on its fore feet and remaining for a
time sitting on its haunches or resting on the hocks before it gets on
the hind.
If the muscles of the neck are involved there is the same stiffness,
soreness, tenderness and twisting to one side or rigid elevation of the
neck as seen in the horse in similar circumstances.
In any case there is a tendency to extension or shifting from one
part to another, and notably to the implication of the tendons,
synovial sheaths and joints. This is especially the case in the acute
type, while chronic rheumatism may remain long confined to the
groups of muscles which are first attacked. In the acute forms too
there is the greatest liability to internal complications not only
cardiac, but according to Cruzel abdominal and thoracic as well.
 A fatal result is rare, but the impairment of appetite and digestion,
the constant and often severe suffering, the destruction of the red
globules, and the malnutrition, and increased and perverted
metabolism as shown in the pallor of the visible mucous membranes,
the steady loss of condition and advancing emaciation, the rigid, dry,
scurfy, hidebound skin, tends to wear out the subject or render it
unprofitable. In the chronic form it may last for months.
 SYMPTOMS OF RHEUMATISM IN SHEEP.

Articular rheumatism seems to be very rare in mature sheep, while

it has been recorded in lambs. Muscular rheumatism on the other
hand has been seen in connection with untimely shearing, exposure
to cold storms and cold, damp folds. The back and loins, are tender
to the touch, or in other cases the neck or hind quarter, the limbs are
carried straight and rigid, the animal moves slowly and stiffly, falls
behind the flock, and is found alone, unthrifty and emaciated. It
usually terminates in recovery though it may cause chronic disease
and distortion of the affected joints or it may even prove fatal. The
usual tendency of the morbid process to shift from joint to joint or to
muscles, is here again characteristic.
 SYMPTOMS OF ARTICULAR RHEUMATISM IN
SWINE.

Climatic influences. Rheumatoid. Joints attacked. Muscles. Decubitus. Stiff,

rigid, steps on toes, grunts, swelling, heat, tenderness, chaps, cracks, suppurations,
inappetence, emaciation, metastasis, cardiac disorder. Duration; course. Chronic
form. Muscular form. Diagnosis from trichinosis. Connection with arthritis.
Metastasis. Remissions.

The pig which shows an extreme sensitiveness to climatic

vicissitudes and cold winds, fleeing instantly to his lair on their
advent, is yet protected by his subcutaneous fat, so that he is not a
frequent victim of simple rheumatism. Leblanc attributes it to
unwholesome pens. Chaussade to too rapid fattening (overfeeding).
Rheumatoid attacks are very common at the onset of hog cholera,
swine plague and other infectious diseases, when they are probably
but local manifestations of the general infection.
The lesions are mainly concentrated in the stifle, hock, knee and
fetlock. In some cases the dorsal and lumbar muscles suffer and
there is arching of the back with great tenderness on manipulation.
In other cases the muscles of the quarter or shoulder are involved as
shown by their stiffness and extreme sensibility to touch.
The pig is found down, indisposed to rise, and when up, stands
drawn together with limbs rigid and feet resting on the toes. He will
often point one toe to the ground repeatedly, before resting on the
foot, or shift the weight uneasily from foot to foot. If moved he grunts
plaintively and if handled squeals.
The affected joints may be surrounded by hot tender swellings or
they may be nearly normal in outline, but they are always very
sensitive to pressure and above all to flexion and extension, and the
skin is usually hyperæmic and red. There may be engorgements of
the lymphatics on the inner side of the limbs, and chaps and cracks
in the flexures of the joints. Suppurations may follow (Graignard)
suggesting a complex infection.
There is little appetite and though the disease becomes subacute or
chronic there is a steady loss of condition or at least a failure to
thrive.
Benion’s reference to a coincident or sequent inflammation of the
respiratory or digestive organs and Spinola’s similar reference to
pleurisy are strongly suggestive of swine plague and hog cholera. Any
manifest disposition to shift from one part to another and any
concurrent disorder of the heart, other than simple palpitation is
strongly confirmatory of rheumatism.
The disease tends to recovery in from four to twenty days, or to
pass into the chronic form. In this state the symptoms are materially
mitigated. Fever is absent, but the appetite, digestion and
assimilation are poor, the animal remains stunted, emaciated or
unthrifty, there is a disposition to lie most of the time under the
litter, and when up it moves stiffly with short steps, semi-flexed
joints and upright digits. Sometimes the joints are permanently
swollen and rigid by reason of thickening and shortening of the
binding ligaments, by the organization of false membranes or by
anchylosis.
Muscular Rheumatism in Swine. This appears to be rarely
seen as an independent disease, but appears at times to coincide with
the arthritic form. In such cases the back is arched and very sore to
the touch or to pressure. It must be distinguished from the muscular
soreness of trichinosis which occurs in infested localities, after
trichinous food or water, is preceded by digestive disorder and
diarrhœa, and by the passage of the nearly microscopic worms in the
stools, and is independent of arthritis.
Muscular rheumatism leads to atrophy of the muscles, especially
those of the quarters, and this may resemble, somewhat, partial
paraplegia from disease of the spinal cord. Its connection with
arthritis, its tendency to shift from place to place, to undergo
ameliorations and relapses, and its exquisite tenderness, serve to
distinguish it from paralysis.
 SYMPTOMS OF ARTICULAR RHEUMATISM IN
THE DOG.

Articular rheumatism rare. Femoro-tibial joints, bilateral, remissions.

Exudation, swelling of joint; muscular atrophy, weakness, swaying, staggering,
falling, paresis. Chronic, muscular rheumatism common, back, loins, neck,
general, stiff, painful movement, decubitus, muscles tender, yelps, stiff neck, wry-
neck. Masseteric. Painful defecation and urination. Metastasis. Cardiac symptoms.
Pleurodynia. Digestive troubles. Emaciation, weakness, atony, paraplegia.
Diagnosis from strongylus, stephanurus, and cysticercus.

This affection seems to be rare in the dog. What is known as

rheumatism in this animal, consists in an inflammation with
hyperplasia around the articular ends of the long bones, the new
material being partly fibrous and partly calcified. It shows a special
predilection for the femoro-tibial and confines itself mainly to the
inner side of the head of the tibia. Here the swelling may reach the
size of a walnut, The whole head of the tibia and lower end of the
femur are however often involved, entailing a general enlargement of
the joint. It follows the general rule of rheumatism in usually
attacking both stifle joints at once, and also in alternate
ameliorations and relapses. Less frequently other joints are affected.
In all such cases the joints become overdistended and swollen, partly
by synovia, and partly by surrounding exudate, the muscles of the
quarter and thigh become atonic, soft and flaccid, and are steadily
atrophied. The dog shows a lack of strength in the hind parts,
swaying, staggering or even falling, and advancing to a marked
paresis. The malady follows a chronic course, lasting for months, a
year, or more.
 SYMPTOMS OF MUSCULAR RHEUMATISM IN
THE DOG.

Muscular rheumatism is common in dogs. It is most common and

most marked in the back and loins, though the neck may suffer, or
the disease may be generalized. It is painful to move and the subject
seeks to be as much as possible undisturbed. He walks stiffly and
slowly, carrying the limbs with as little movement of the joints as
possible, and in bad cases yelps occasionally from sudden pain. He
can no longer be tempted to go up or down stairs or to make any
special effort. When touched on the back or loins he will wince, cry
out, or even snap at the offender. In some cases the pain is so acute
that even a feint to touch the back will draw out a yelp. If the neck is
affected it may be held so stiffly that the dog can barely reach the
ground to find his food, or if unilateral the head is turned to one side.
Even the muscles of the jaws may be affected, causing prehension
and mastication to be difficult and imperfect. Defecation and
urination are also interfered with and the straining may draw forth
plaintive cries.
The rapid shifting of the morbid process from one group of
muscles to another is often very striking, and if one pronounces on
the exact seat of the disease, it is liable to be speedily rendered
inexact by a sudden change of place. There is further a great
disposition to the implication of the heart and especially the valves.
This is shown by irregularity and inequality of the pulse by
intermissions and palpitations, by a blowing murmur with the first
heart sound and by oppressed breathing.
Short, shallow breathing is also caused when the intercostal
muscles are attacked (pleurodynia). Various digestive troubles are
also common, to which the difficult defecation and impacted rectum
largely contribute.
 Emaciation makes more or less progress, and the muscles of the
hind parts especially become weak and atonic until marked paresis
or actual paraplegia sets in, and the hind limbs are extended
backward and dragged helplessly. In fat, sluggish, overfed and
pampered animals the lack of control of the hind limbs may come on
at an early stage. Stiffness due to strongylus gigas in the kidney or
stephanurus or cysticercus cellulosa in the lumbar muscles must not
be mistaken for rheumatism.
 PREVENTION AND TREATMENT OF
RHEUMATISM.

Prevention. Avoid known causes, untimely clipping, exposed buildings, over-

fatigue, chills, cold rains, dews and frosts, disorders of liver and bowels, sweets,
spiced food, overfeeding, constipation, torpid liver, injuries to joints or tendons.
Treatment: warm stall and clothing, laxative food in moderation, purgatives, aloes,
castor oil, jalap, saline enemas, colchicum, alkalies, trimethylamine, acetate of
ammonia, salicylic acid, salicylates, salicine, oil of gaultheria, salicine for
debilitated. Large doses hourly or every two hours. Less effective in chronic cases.
Heart failure. Salol. Salophen. Phenocoll. Antipyrin. Acetanilid. Pilocarpin. Tartar
emetic. Dover’s powder. Ammonium acetate. Chamomile. Boneset. Hot baths and
packs, with cold on head. Hand-rubbing. Hot drinks. Nauseants. Hot iron.
Anodyne liniments. Rubefacients. Blisters. Salicylate of methyl and other
salicylates. Quinine and potassium iodide. Tincture of muriate of iron. In chronic
cases, tonics, cod liver oil, arsenic, guaiacum, potassium iodide. Essential oils.
Electricity.

Prevention. This consists in the avoidance of all known causes of

the disease and must vary to some extent for different genera of
animals. The avoidance of cold and exposure, of clipping at
unsuitable seasons, of exposed sites for buildings (north and
northwest exposures, narrow valleys and ravines), of over-fatigue, of
perspiration and subsequent chilling, of cold rains, dews and frosts,
of inactivity, or habitual overloading of the liver and bowels, and of
local injuries of joints or tendons. House dogs especially should be
protected from sweets, spiced food, frequent feeding, constipation
and torpid liver.
Treatment. One of the most important considerations is a warm
stall or building, or warm clothing including loose woolen bandages
on the legs, in the horse. Laxative food is called for.
 In acute cases and especially in fat pampered dogs, and in all cases
associated with torpid or disordered liver, a preliminary laxative will
be of great service, and others should be given later as demanded.
The horse may have aloes or salines, and saline enemata may be
given to all animals when called for throughout the progress of the
disease. Pigs may take 1 or 2 drops croton oil, or like dogs they may
be given castor oil or jalap. Torpid liver and constipation must
always be carefully guarded against.
To cut short the attack much reliance was formerly placed on
colchicum which increases the elimination of solids in the urine, and
on alkalies, which beside the theoretic antagonism to acidity are at
once chologogne and diuretic. The action was somewhat slow but on
the whole satisfactory, usually abating the suffering very materially
in the course of a few days. To the horse or ox ½ dram doses of
colchicum were given daily in combination with 4 to 6 drams of
bicarbonate of soda; pigs of 100 lbs. may take 1 grain of the former to
10 grains of the latter; a shepherd’s dog may take half the amount
just named. Trimethylamine proved even more effective than
colchicum, and acetate or citrate of ammonia, soda, or potassium
was often substituted for the carbonate.
But the modern treatment of rheumatism dates from 1876, when
the introduction of salicylic acid and later sodium salicylate, salicine
and ol. gaultheriæ gave to such treatment an efficacy previously
unknown. Salicylic acid acts very harshly on the gastric mucosa, and
with sensitive stomachs is advantageously replaced by sodium
salicylate, into which it is transformed in any case in the blood.
Salicine which is held to be transformed into salicylic acid in the
system, is specially recommended for its bitter and tonic action
exercised in the stomach and prior to such transformation. In
debilitated subjects, therefore, and in those that suffer from the
characteristic rheumatic reduction of the red blood globules it would
be somewhat preferable. As a prompt and effective anti-rheumatic
agent however it appears to be somewhat less reliable than sodium
salicylate or ammonium salicylate. Ol. gaultheriæ may be better
borne by the stomach of the dog and pig than the salicylates, the dose
being 10 to 15 drops thrice a day.
The secret of success with all of these salicylate compounds, lies in
the speedy saturation of the system with the drug, rather than in its
moderate and continuous administration. The horse or ox may take
½ oz. repeated every two hours for ten hours if relief is not obtained
earlier. The pig may take 20 grains, and the dog 5 to 10 grains at
similar intervals. It is not desirable, however, to continue this
indefinitely, and therefore when immediate relief has been secured it
is well to give the agent but twice or thrice a day, and resort in part to
the alkaline treatment. If the salicylates fail to relieve when pushed
energetically for ten hours, there is reason to fear that the case is not
one of genuine rheumatism.
The salicylates are less applicable to chronic cases and may be
even dangerous when the heart is affected, as they tend to render the
heart’s action slower and weaker, and thus add to the dangers of
hypo-hæmoglobin, and heart failure. A similar caution applies to an
excessive use of alkalies and especially of compounds of potassium
which depress the heart action.
As substitutes for the salicylates, salol, salophen, phenocoll,
antipyrin and acetanilid have been largely resorted to. The first is
safe and trustworthy and does not irritate the stomach nor interfere
with digestion. It may be given to horse or ox in a dose of 3 drams,
thrice a day, to the pig in 10 grain, and to the dog in 5 grain doses.
Hübner had good success with pilocarpine hydrochlorate
hypodermically (4 grains for a 7 months colt,) but this was not
equally successful in the hands of Siedamgrotzky. Other sudorifics
like tartar emetic, Dover’s powder, ammonium acetate, hot or spiced
drinks (chamomile, boneset,) hot baths, hot air baths, and wet packs
have been used successfully and may still be employed in suitable
cases. The opium is often very helpful in relieving intense suffering,
and beside or in place of the Dover’s powder internally, morphia may
be injected subcutem over the affected region. The main objection to
its use is its tendency to lock up the liver and bowels. Liquor of the
acetate of ammonia fills at once the rôle of a potent diaphoretic, an
antacid, and an eliminant.
In the use of baths and packs it is well to consider the condition of
the patient. If the surface is cold with little reaction, and if the attack
has supervened on exposure, or chill, persistent hot applications are
indicated. Dogs and other small animals should have full hot baths
lasting for 15 or 20 minutes, and while in full glow may be quickly
sponged with cold water and rubbed dry in blankets, great care being
taken to avoid exposure or chill when damp. Or for these and the
larger animals as well, a hot air or steam bath may be applied under
similar precautions. A cold wet wrapping on the cranium will tend to
relieve cerebral congestion during the administration of the hot bath.
In horses and cattle surface heat and sudation may be secured by
active rubbing with wisps of straw, of both body and limbs, or by
covering the neck and trunk with large bags containing a small
amount of chaff, sand or grain hot from an oven. Hot carminative or
alcoholic drinks are excellent adjuvants, and even sedatives or
nauseants (opium, veratrum, aconite, tobacco). Another resort is to
pass a hot smoothing iron an indefinite number of times over the
affected region. The part may be finally wrapped in cotton.
In cases where the temperature runs high, on the other hand, and
when the surface glows, this dread of chill and reaction may be
dismissed. For the small animal a bath starting at 70° F. may be
gradually lowered to 60° or 50° F. Or a full pack may be employed, a
sheet wrung out of cold water being closely wrapped around the
body, and covered at all points with two or more dry woolen
blankets, care being taken to avoid the entrance of air and the
occurrence of evaporation from the inner, damp layer. This cools the
surface and the blood returning inwards, and in fifteen or twenty
minutes it should induce free perspiration. It may be kept up twenty
to thirty minutes and may be repeated as often as there is a serious
rise of temperature. A less energetic method is the mere sponging of
the surface with cold water. In all such cases friction is a valuable
accessory.
Anodynes and revulsives are often applied to the affected parts
with good results. In very acute cases (especially articular), lotions
and liniments of salicylic acid or salicylate of soda with laudanum,
aconite, or chloral hydrate may be used. In the less violent cases
camphorated spirit, soap liniment, or a combination of essential oils
(gaultherium, turpentine, cajeput, origanum, peppermint) with aqua
ammonia and sweet oil may secure great relief. Mustard or essential
oil of mustard in vaseline is an excellent alternate. Finally active
cantharidine blisters are usually most effective. These are applied
over the affected joints or muscles and if the inflammation shifts to
other parts it is followed up until it finally disappears. A concurrent
alkaline treatment, and more important still, absolute rest, will serve
to protect the heart to some extent, against a metastasis from the
exterior. It has been supposed that the beneficial action of the blister
is in ratio with the amount of exudate, and hence cantharides has
been highly esteemed in this connection. Friedberger and Fröhner
have used tincture of iodine and biniodide of mercury.
The local application of anti-rheumatic agents would embrace all
the salicylates, oil of wintergreen and guaiacol, the latter mixed with
an equal amount of glycerine. Methyl salicylate has been strongly
recommended for external use.
Stengel covers the surface with lint smeared with salicylate of
methyl ointment, and then applies a plaster bandage over all. This
removes muscular spasm, pain and swelling and is rarely required
for longer than a few days.
In cases in which salicylates fail, other agents have been resorted
to in man and to a lesser extent in the lower animals. Greenhow
strongly advocates a combination of quinine and potassium iodide
internally, while Russell Reynolds has successfully employed tincture
of muriate of iron in large doses repeated every three hours.
In chronic cases these would especially commend themselves as
calculated to repair the general health and overcome the loss of
hæmoglobin. In chronic rheumatism a course of tonics is often the
best resort, and in dogs especially cod liver oil has benefited when all
else had failed. Arsenic too (3 to 8 drops Fowler’s solution thrice
daily) has been beneficial in both dogs and pigs. In other cases iodide
of iron has been helpful. So also with gum guaiacum given in
combination with potassium iodide. In such cases too, treatment by
alkalies and salicylates may be called for, and close attention should
always be given to secure a free action of the liver, bowels and
kidneys. The local treatment recommended for acute rheumatism,
(hot baths, frictions with essential oils and above all blisters of
mustard or cantharides) is even more applicable to the chronic. A
firm bandage over a covering of cotton wool, and a systematic
application of electricity will often help. Warmth, a run at grass in a
sheltered sunny paddock, moderate exercise and a nutritious and
easily digestible diet are important conditions.
 GOUT. PODAGRA. ARTHRITIS URICA.

Definition. Affects birds, dogs, perhaps pigs. Causes: excess of nitrogenous food,
imperfect oxidation, impaired metabolism and elimination. Susceptibility of birds
in confinement. Xanthin bases. Nuclein. Hepatic torpor. Contracted kidney. Affects
tissues of little vascularity. Lesions: chalky deposits around joints, and in internal
organs. Solubility of biurate of soda in synovia, serum, etc. Symptoms: arthritis,
joint tenderness, resting on breast, hard or fluctuating swellings, desquamation,
ulceration, chalky urates. Diagnosis: test for biurate. Treatment: less albuminoid
diet, eliminating salts, colchicum, piperazin, surgical and antiseptic dressing.

Definition. An arthritis characterized by periodical exacerbations,

by the deposit of sodium biurate in and around the joints and at
times in other parts of the body, and by more or less constitutional
febrile disturbance during the paroxysms.
Animals susceptible. Among the lower animals the disease has
been noticed almost exclusively in birds, which even normally
excrete so much uric acid that the liquid may be semi-solid as found
in the cloaca or in the droppings. While this is a constitutional
peculiarity in the bird yet it is enhanced in connection with an
abundant diet of rich nitrogenous materials, as in forced feeding, and
in old animals in which the eliminating action of the kidneys is more
or less impaired. Ebstein has shown that gout can be produced in
birds by tying the ureters. All domesticated birds, chickens, turkeys,
pigeons, ostriches, geese, ducks, Guinea fowl, have been found to
suffer. A case of gout has been reported in a dog, and Pradal has
described it as existing in swine, but the symptoms given are more in
accord with articular rheumatism.
Causes. The causes of gout are overfeeding especially on highly
concentrated nitrogenous food, acid sweets, and in turn sweet and
acid alcoholic drinks, an excess of uric acid in the blood and tissues,
imperfect oxidation of albuminoids, impaired metabolism, imperfect
elimination of uric acid, and impaired innervation. Probably no
single morbid condition is in itself sufficient to induce the disease
but a combination of several, unquestionably operate in many cases.
The uric acid theory is favored by the constant presence of this
acid in considerable amount in the blood of birds, and by Ebstein’s
experiment in tying the ureters, but it has to face the fact that young
and active birds living in the open air, and hunting for their food do
not suffer, that it is usually scanty in the blood of man just before an
attack, that Gilman Thompson failed to produce any symptoms of
gout by injecting into the blood of animals more uric acid than the
amount which they normally excrete in twenty-four hours, that the
familiar symptoms of uric acid poisoning are not at all those of gout,
and that the excess of uric acid in leucæmia, anæmia and pneumonia
produces no such symptoms. In addition to excess of uric acid some
other factor is required.
Xanthin bases (Xanthin, hypoxanthin, etc.) found in the blood by
various observers, are derived from albuminoids, especially nuclein
and nuclein bases, including in man caffein and theine, and being
closely allied to uric acid are believed to have a nearly similar action.
Various forms of abnormal metabolism are invoked as the cause of
uric acid and gout, and Haig and Vaughan hazard the theory that the
breaking down of the nuclein is an important factor. This and other
metabolisms are attributed to the local action of the uric acid and
urates, and again to a fault in innervation. The imperfect action of
the liver where the uric acid should be largely resolved into the more
soluble urea, and of the kidneys through which it should be promptly
excreted must be attributed to a nervous source. Levison
incriminates the granular, contracted, inactive kidneys.
Ebstein attaches great importance to impaired nutrition in the
affected tissues which undergo necrotic changes that pave the way
for the deposition of urates in their substance. This is somewhat
sustained by the occurrence of the local deposits in tissues in which
circulation and nutritive changes are slow, and in older animals in
which not only are the osseous tissues more calcic and less vascular,
but the articular lamella has been formed by cretefaction of the bone
and cartilage. Haig suggests that in the old, the joints are less
vascular and less alkaline, and more sensitive to cold. On the other
hand those in the greatest vigor of life are more ravenous, digest
more actively and are in this sense more subject to injury from excess
of uric acid and allied products. Birds at this age, confined and in
process of fattening are thereby exposed. Overfed, obese, lazy, old
house dogs are under similar causative conditions.
Lesions. The most prominent lesions in birds are chalky
concretions of urates on the articular ends of the bones and in the
structures around the joints including even the tendons, with more
or less inflammatory exudate and even necrosis, invading the bony
tissue and articular cartilage. Abscesses may be present usually
outside the bursa. Birds suffer especially in the tarsal, metatarsal and
phlangeal joints, but often also in the corresponding joints of the
wing, and less frequently in the joints of the trunk, and in the
internal organs,—kidneys, liver, lungs, serosæ,—and skin. In these
last, miliary chalky concretions and encrustations are found. In
Brückmüller’s case in the dog the chalky deposits of urates were
found mainly on the epiphyses of the ribs, but also on the joints of
the limbs.
Uric acid is always abundant in the blood of birds, and Roberts has
shown that biurate of soda (the usual form of precipitate) is insoluble
in blood serum, synovia and other body fluids when in excess of
1:10,000.
Symptoms. In birds the febrile and constitutional symptoms have
not been carefully observed so that the objective symptoms in the
affected joints have been mainly relied on. There is extreme
tenderness marked by standing on one limb, or resting on the breast,
and hence moping apart from the flock. When made to rise, the
affected limb may be used to steady the body, or even to walk, with a
limp, though in bad cases the sound limb only may be used. The
affected joints are swollen, soft, hot, extremely tender, pitting on
pressure, and later the seat of nodular yellow masses, usually hard,
but sometimes fluctuating and in size from a pea to a hazel nut. The
superimposed epidermis is thick, dry and scaly, falling off in flakes.
At a more advanced stage the concretions may burst through the
skin, discharging a buffy, granular, debris containing crystals of
urates of ammonium or calcium, or of uric acid. Later still are
ulcerous sores, involving the disintegrating urate nodules and the
necrotic bones and cartilages. The deposits deflect the bones from
their normal direction, causing not only nodular swellings on the
toes but much crookedness and distortion. As in man the disease is
essentially chronic and advances slowly, with anæmia, emaciation,
debility and at times diarrhœa.
Diagnosis depends largely on the recognition of the excess of
urates in the deposits. These appear under the microscope as fine
acicular crystals, which in the harder portions have a concentric
arrangement. A portion of the concretion may be moistened with a
few drops of nitric acid and evaporated to dryness. To one part of the
residue is added, by means of a pipette, a drop of aqua ammonia, and
to another caustic soda. The ammonia develops a beautiful purple
red color, and the soda a blue or purplish blue ring (Murexide test).
In tubercular joints, which are common in birds, the caseated nodule
is made up of cells and granular debris, with tubercle bacilli, and
though cretaceous particles may be present they fail to give the
microscopic and color appearances of uric acid.
Treatment. This must be largely preventive. The rich albuminoid
feeding and close confinement must be modified especially in the
older birds, and eliminating agents must be given in the drinking
water. The Carlsbad combination (sodium sulphate 22; potassium
sulphate 1; sodium chloride 9; sodium bicarbonate 18) may be used.
Powdered colchicum ¼ gr. once or twice daily during an attack, or
piperazin ½ gr. twice a day. Locally, abscesses should be opened,
and like any sores or ulcers, treated with antiseptics (Salicylate of
sodium 75 grs., glycerine 2 ozs.; or piperazin solution 2:100).
 SCURVY: SCORBUTUS.

Definition. Susceptible animals: pigs, dogs. Causes: unwholesome salt meat, lack
of fresh food, vegetables, potassium, bad environment, unvarying diet, lack of free
range, putrescent food, foul water, infection; non-recurrence. Lesions: blood black,
diffluent, little rigor mortis, excess of sodium, petechiæ and extravasations, red
marrow, softened, swollen, bleeding, ulcerating gums. Symptoms: Anorexia,
prostration, debility, tardy movements, petechiæ, loss of bristles, ulcers, gum
lesions, joint swellings, blood extravasations. Diarrhœa. Prognosis unfavorable.
Treatment: correct unwholesome environment and food, wash, rich food partly
green or animal, iron, bitters, arsenic, mouth wash (potassium chlorate), for
suckling milk. Butcher.

Definition. Scurvy is a subacute or chronic trophic disorder

characterized by debility, inanition, anæmia, swelling and bleeding
of the gums, gingival ulceration, dropping of the teeth, and petechial
or more extensive hæmorrhages and exudations in the skin, serosa,
and solid tissues.
Animals susceptible. In past times man has suffered extensively in
connection with unwholesome food and environment, on long sea
voyages, on uninhabited islands, in military campaigns, in besieged
cities, in famines, when restricted to one article of food, etc. Among
the lower animals, pigs especially suffer, when kept in close, foul
quarters and fed a monotonous and insufficient ration. Dogs suffer
under similar conditions, and probably other animals would if
equally badly used.
Causes. Formerly it was attributed to an exclusive diet of salt meat
and bread; to excess of sodium, and deficiency of potassium salts; to
the absence of fresh vegetables; to tainted food, etc. A broader
generalization shows the Eskimo living on a pure meat diet, the
Mongolian on rice alone, the Congoese on plantains, and without
scurvy. Yet it cannot be denied that these various conditions
undermine the general health, and prepare the system for those
faulty states of nutrition which are seen in scurvy. In pigs the food
and environment are usually chiefly at fault, the subjects have been
kept closely confined in foul buildings, in a hot, moist atmosphere,
and with an uniform diet of maize or other unvarying and
insufficient ration. It does not appear when there is a free access to a
spacious yard or open field, and when the monotonous diet can be
varied by a variety of slugs and other invertebrates. Röll attaches
great importance to a putrid condition of the aliments (putrescent
swill). Benion has found it mainly in obese swine, the forced feeding
and intestinal fermentations manifestly operating as factors. Corrupt
drinking water has proved a manifest factor among men living in
camps, and pigs above all other animals are subjected to this cause.
Benion says it occurs in the advanced stages of measles (cysticercus
cellulosa).
It is evident that unwholesome conditions of life such as the above,
contribute strongly to the affection, yet probably no one of these is by
itself an effective factor. Its rapid extension among men and animals,
that are huddled together in close, filthy quarters suggests an
epizootic or infective element, and Cornevin, Hess and others
attribute the disease in pigs to the germ of erysipelas. Stengel has
produced purpuric disease in animals by inoculation of the
extravasated blood from human scurvy patients. Müller and Babes
found a slender bacillus and streptococci in the tissues of scorbutic
gums. The bacillus was present in the mouth of non-scurvy persons.
Boruträger found cocci in the spleen. Berthensen alleges that after
complete recovery the disease does not attack the same person a
second time, which, if confirmed, will go far to establish a
bacteridian origin. There is considerable presumption of the
existence of a microbian cause, the efficiency of which is dependent
on the unhygienic conditions above stated, while these unwholesome
conditions are equally nonpathogenic in the absence of the microbe.
Lesions. The blood is black and incoagulable or clots loosely, rigor
mortis is slight, changes may be found in the number and character
of the white and red blood globules, but are not constant, there is
usually an excess of sodium salts and deficiency of potassium ones,
and there is marked petechiation of the skin, mucosæ and serosæ.
The bone marrow may be abnormally red and the bones fractured at
the epiphyses, or carious. The addition of the gum lesions makes the
case characteristic. The gums are softened, swollen, red and uneven,
with hæmorrhagic discoloration, erosions, necrotic areas and ulcers.
Symptoms. Anorexia or fastidious appetite, prostration, debility
and sluggish indifferent movements, are followed by the local lesions
on the skin and gums. On the skin appear petechiæ, and
extravasations, which often implicate the bristles, so that they may
be shed or pulled out with ease, the bulbs appearing dark and
bloodstained (bristle rot). These may be followed by necrotic
sloughs, and deep ulcers that are slow to heal. The gums are red and
swollen, with hæmorrhagic spots, and bleed on the slightest touch.
Erosions, sores and ulcers are not uncommon, the tongue is dry and
furred, and the mouth exhales a fœtid odor. The teeth may become
loose in their sockets. Swelling of the joints, from hæmorrhage or
effusion, may be noticed, and lameness or stiffness from muscular or
intermuscular extravasation. Blood effusions into the anterior or
posterior chamber of the eye have been noticed and paralytic or
comatose symptoms from similar effusions on the brain. In the
absence of improvement the patient becomes more and more
debilitated and exhausted, and death may be preceded by profuse
exhausting diarrhœa.
Prognosis is unfavorable in advanced cases, and when the faulty
regimen cannot be corrected.
Treatment. The first consideration is to correct the unwholesome
conditions of life, purify the building and its surroundings, and allow
a free range on a pasture. Subject each patient to a thorough soapy
wash, and if possible allow clean running water in which a bath may
be taken at will. Access to green food and invertebrates (slugs, larvæ,
etc.) is important, or a varied diet of grain, middlings, bran, roots,
fruits, tubers, cabbage, silage, etc., must be furnished. Iron and
bitters (mix vomica, gentian,) are useful and sometimes small doses
of arsenite of soda solution, or cream of tartar are useful. Acorns or
horsechestnuts are recommended. For the mouth a wash of
potassium chlorate, soda biborate, or potassium permanganate may
be resorted to. Friedberger and Fröhner advise for the dog extract of
meat in wine.
In the case of fat pigs it is more profitable to butcher at once, as
soon as early symptoms appear.
 In pigs or puppies brought up by hand, as in babies, the true
course, is to discard milk substitutes and give sweet new milk,
preferably of the genus to which the patient belongs. The important
elements of cleanliness and outdoor life must not be forgotten.
 GOITRE. BRONCHOCELE. ENLARGEMENT OF
THE THYROID.

Definition. A non-inflammatory enlargement of the thyroid gland,

independent of known microbes or parasitism.
Causes. Goitre is an endemic disorder in man and beast, though it
may occur sporadically during or after a debilitating disease, or in
animals that are overworked or out of condition. As occurring
endemically all accessory factors that undermine the general health
must be admitted as potent factors, though insufficient of themselves
to develop the malady in the absence of the specific cause. Thus in
Europe women suffer more than man, being more confined indoors
and being less muscular and vigorous. In New York the new born
offspring of ewes, kept in close confinement during winter, may be
all goitrous, while those of flocks, having a free run through the
whole season, escape. Gurlt has seen the same in goats. Apart from
debilitating diseases New York horses and cattle develop the greater
number of cases in winter, the period of confinement and idleness.
House dogs suffer more than hounds.
Poor diet has a similar effect. In Europe where the disease is very
prevalent in the underfed peasant population, it is rare among the
highly fed domestic animals. Bouley says it is excessively rare in
animals even in the localities in which it prevails in man, and though
mentioned by Lydtin, Johné, Haubner and others it is not as a
common affection. In New York and Pennsylvania on the other hand
it is rare in the well-fed human population, and very common in
horses, mules, cattle, sheep, swine and dogs. I have known
congenital goitre to prove fatal to a new born dromedary in Central
Park, New York. The long, severe winter, close confinement, and
impure air, doubtless as much as the spare diet contribute to this
prevalence among the animals in New York.
 Intestinal worms and other parasitisms must be accepted as
secondary factors, the development of goitre often going on
simultaneously with the increase of the parasites.
Heredity is claimed as a cause by Möller and others, and doubtless
a weak constitution transmitted from parent to offspring, is more
susceptible. Apart from this the exposure of both to a common
specific cause is the main factor in its production.
Locality. This must be accorded a first position in the causation of
goitre, so far at least as it occurs endemically and enzootically. In
England it has prevailed, in man, on the limestone hills of
Derbyshire, and Gloucester (Cotswold); in Europe it is common in
the Alps, Pyrenees, Savoy, Styria, Silesia, in the Black Forest and in
the Rhone valley; in Asia it prevails in the Himalayas, the Altai
Mountains, the hills of China, and in the Punjaub; in South America
it is seen in the valley of the Oronoco; in North America in
Saskatchewan, Ontario, Michigan, Ohio, Pennsylvania, New York,
Vermont, Virginia and Alabama. A large number of these localities
lie on magnesian limestone or are supplied with water that has
percolated through this, so that at one time the excess of magnesia
and the lack of iodine were held to be the main causative factors.
This contention cannot be sustained in all cases, so that the
disposition is, at present, to attribute the disease to some unknown
poison. This unknown poison may be present in districts apart from
the magnesian limestone, yet the disease is so frequently seen upon
this formation that its presence must always be looked upon with
suspicion as a probable bearer of the poison, and waters bearing its
products are unsuited to the victims of goitre.
Pathological Anatomy. Sometimes the swelling of the gland which
appears during catarrh or pharyngitis will subside on recovery. In
other cases it remains as a distinct hypertrophy. This is usually an
increase of the parenchyma and dilatation of its follicles with an
albuminous fluid (hypertrophic goitre). This may affect one lateral
lobe or both. In other cases the fibrous tissue mainly increases and
the gland becomes hard and resistant (fibrous goitre). In other cases
the individual follicles become distended, and may even break into
each other forming a large cavity or several with liquid contents
(cystic goitre). In other cases there is a great increase of the vascular
network of the gland so that blood alone is obtained on puncture
(varicose goitre). Tumors of all kinds may be found in the gland,
thus encysted adenoma, sarcoma and melanoma in horses,
carcinoma in old dogs.
Symptoms. In horses there may be swelling of one lateral lobe of
the gland or of both, reaching individually the size of a hen’s egg or
the fist, or larger. Cadeac cites cases that weighed 4 lbs. In dogs,
cattle, sheep and especially in swine, the two lobes are much more
closely connected, and the disease affecting both, together with the
commissure, the whole may be resolved into one uniform swelling,
much larger than in the horse relatively to the size of the animal,
often covering the whole front of the neck, and extending into the
chest. Cadeac mentions cases in the dog in which the mass weighed 4
lbs.
The smaller swellings appear in the solipeds on the two sides of the
larynx, and in other animals more in front. They are mobile, but rise
somewhat with the larynx in swallowing, and are usually covered by
loose, movable skin. The consistency of the swelling varies; some are
soft, elastic or pitting on pressure, others fluctuate and still others
are firm and resistant. Old cases that have become calcified may even
feel bony. In dogs it will sometimes pulsate like an aneurism.
Functional secondary troubles are rare in solipeds. In the other
animals the goitre may compress the pharynx or gullet causing
dysphagia, or the larynx, trachea or recurrent nerves causing more or
less wheezing or dyspnœa. Asphyxia is not uncommon in new born
sheep, and goats, and Johné and the present writer have seen cases
in dromedaries. The soft embryonic tracheal rings had been so
compressed from side to side that respiration became impossible.
Honert records a case of asphyxia in an adult horse. Cases of roaring
in adult horses and mules and of asphyxia in adult dogs are also on
record. Warz records the obliteration of the jugular in a dog, and
Cadeac œdema of the lips and face.
The course of goitre is usually slow, extending over years, yet in
young dogs it may make a very rapid progress. It will often stand still
for a time, and later start a new growth under a fresh access of the
cause. Spontaneous disappearance is rare.
Prevention. This is especially important in localities in which
goitre is enzootic, and embraces careful attention to the general
health, the avoidance of overwork, exhaustion, indoor life, lack of
exercise, impure air, faulty feeding, starvation, and water from the
goitrous soils. Rain water is preferable.
Treatment. First remove the various causes, and secure the best
hygiene. If a change to a non-goitrous district can be had, avail of it.
Among medicinal agents iodine holds the foremost place. It may
be given internally as potassium iodide, alone, or along with tincture
of iodine, and applied locally as iodine ointment rubbed into the
skin, or tincture of iodine painted on the surface.
Of surgical measures the simplest and best is the injection of
iodine into the diseased thyroid. The nozzle of a hypodermic syringe
is inserted into the gland, preferably into the largest cyst or follicular
mass, and the liquid drawn off as fully as possible. It is then injected
with the following mixture: compound solution of iodine one part,
distilled water two parts. The amount may vary with the size of the
goitre. In cases of moderate size ½ dr. to 1 dr. is suitable. There is
usually some resulting inflammation, which may be met by a wet
compress around the throat. A second and third injection may be
made if necessary, when the effects of the preceding one have passed
off. In simple forms it is very successful. For dogs Möller
recommends from 5 to 15 drops of undiluted tincture of iodine at an
injection. In other cases he used a watery solution of papain (1:10) to
be left in for 48 hours. The thyroid was then soft and, on incision,
discharged its digested parenchyma as a milky fluid, and favorable
healing followed.
The removal of the diseased lobe has been successfully
accomplished in horses, the reservation of the other lobe, or even of
the connecting commissure, being sufficient to prevent the
occurrence of tetany. From the extreme vascularity of the organ it is
important to ligature the arteries before attempting the removal.
In the other domestic animals in which the commissure is
practically obliterated and the two lobes confluent in goitre, the
excision of the mass is liable to be followed by tetany, dropsy
(myxoedema), stunted development, anæmia or marasmus. If a
portion of the gland is left these results do not follow. Grafting of a
portion of healthy gland may correct the tetany. The hypertrophy of
the gland may sometimes be arrested by ligature of its nutrient
arteries, and without the dangers above named. This may be
combined with the internal and external use of iodine.