SIR JJ COLLEGE OF ARCHITECTURE

LIGHT AND LIGHTING

Group members :
2010_Shrawani Billade
2012_Deepti Chavan
2021_ Kimaya Firke
2028_Rishabh Jaiswal
2035_Yash Kumavat
2044_Prashant More
2045_Ananya Nigade
2055_ Yash Prabhale
2064_Rutuja Sastikar
5.1-Light Principle
5.1.1 - INTRODUCTION
The ultimate source of daylight is the sun, from which we receive also a large amount of thermal
radiation together with the light. When in bright sunshine the illumination is around 100 klux
(100000 lux), the intensity of thermal radiation is likely to be about 1 kW/m2. In
climates where the heat balance is negative, i.e. overheating is not likely, thermal considerations
will rarely restrict the amount of daylight to be admitted

In the tropics, however, the situation is not quite as simple. Here the admission of an abundant
quantity of daylight will be accompanied by radiant heat which is probably excessive. Thus the
'filter' function of the envelope will be even more important. We must attempt to exclude
radiant heat whilst admitting daylight. Where this cannot be done, thermal considerations will
restrict the amount of light which can be admitted.
This means that there must be a fundamental difference in approach to daylighting design
RADIATION SPECTRUM
5.1.2 -THE NATURE OF LIGHT
What we perceive as light, is a narrow wavelength band of electromagnetic radiation from about 380 to 780
nm (1 nanometre = 10 ^-9m) . This energy radiation shows dual characteristics: it consists of energy particles
– photons – but also shows transverse wave motion properties . The wavelength determines its colour . Light
containing all visible waves is perceived as white. The human eye's sensitivity varies with the wavelength, it is
greatest around 550 nm (yellow) as shown by Figure 87.

In a homogeneous medium light travels along a straight path.

Its velocity is about 3 × 1 0^8 m/s
(300 000 km/s).
 5.1.3. TRANSMISSION
Some materials when exposed to light, transmit a large part of it - these are referred to as
'transparent'. Others, the 'opaque' materials, block the passage of light. Behind an opaque object
there will be no light (no direct light), i.e. it will cast a shadow. The term 'translucent' is applied
to materials which transmit a part of the incident light, but break its straight passage, scatter it in
all directions, creating 'diffuse' light.
Light incident on an object can be distributed three ways: reflected, absorbed and transmitted.
Some important properties of the object and its material are described by the proportions of these
three components:
reflectance (r)
absorbance (a)
transmittance (t)
In all cases: r +a +t = 1
In case of opaque objects: t = 0, thus r +a = 1
5.1.4 REFLECTION
If parallel rays of incident light remain parallel after reflection from a surface, the surface is a
'plane mirror' and we speak of 'specular reflection' (Figure 88a). The rules of geometrical optics
apply to such surfaces: the angle of reflection is the same as the angle of iconvex
mirror the reflected rays will be divergent and from a concave mirror they will be convergent.
Light reflected from a matt surface will be diffused (Figure 88d). Most often a mixture of the
two kinds of reflections will occur, termed as 'semi-diffuse' or 'spread' reflection, depending on
the relative magnitude of the two components (Figure 88b and c).

TYPES OF REFLECTION
 Some Materials have practically the same reflectance for all wavelengths of light .These do not change the
wavelength composition of light after reflection .
Surfaces with such 'Neutral reflection ' properties will be seen in white light as :
White If r is above 0.75
Grey if r is between 0.05 and 0.07
grey If r is below 0.05

Other materials are selective in their reflectance. They may absorb certain wavelengths of the incident light,
thus the remainder reflected will show a colour effect. Colour pigments are such selective absorbers, their
colour being due to a subtractive process. In mixing coloured pigments the absorptions are additive and the
reflections will be subtractive, for example:

Yellow Paint absorbs blue ; reflects red, yellow, green

Blue Paint Absorbs red and yellow reflects blue and green
a mixture of the two absorbs blue , red, yellow reflects only the green

A mixture of all kinds of pigments will be black, as it will absorb all wavelengths. No mixture of pigments can
give white, as there will always be some absorption in certain wavelengths.
5.1.5 COLOURED LIGHT

Coloured lights from different sources can be mixed in which case the resultant
colour will be of a wavelength range which is the sum of the wavelength ranges of
components. It is an additive process. Colours which add up to form white light
are termed 'complementary colours', for example: red and green, or yellow and
blue.

Coloured light can also be produced by filters. These are materials with a high, but
selective transmittance. They may reflect or absorb most of the wavelengths,
transmitting only the specified narrow band. This is again a subtractive process.
5.1.6 MUNSELL SYSTEM
The most generally used classification of surface colours is the
Munsell system. It distinguishes three colour concepts.
1) hue- the concept of colour, using the common colour terms:
red ,yellow .green, blue and purple, but further subdividing
each into five subcategories.
2 )value- the subjects measure of reflectance, light or dark
appearance, according to a scale from 0 (absolute black) to 10
(absolute white).In practice values from 1 to 9 are
encountered.
3) chroma - the degree of colorfulness or intensity of colour,
distinguishing 14 classes. A low chroma would be almost grey;
the brightest colours have a chroma of 12 to 14.
5.1.7 Photometric quantities
The intensity of a light source (symbol:/) is measured in units of candela (cd). This is the basic assumed
and agreed unit in the Système International.
The flux (or flow) of light (symbol: F) is measured in lumens (Im). One lumen is the flow of light
emitted by a unit intensity (1 cd) point source, within a unit solid angle. As the sur face of a sphere
subtends at its centre 4π (= 12.56) units of solid angle, a 1 cd point source will emit a total of 12.56 Im in
all directions.
Illumination (symbol, E) is measured as the amount of flux falling on unit area, i.e. Im/m² which is the
lux, the unit of illumination in the Système International.
Luminance (symbol: L) is the measure of brightness of a surface. Units for its measurement can be
derived two ways:
1) If a light source of I cd intensity has a surface area of 1 m² (1 cd is distributed over 1 m-) its luminance
is I cd/m². This is the official SI unit.
2) If a completely reflecting and diffusing surface (r = 1.00) has an illumination of 1 lux, its illuminance is l
asb (qpostilb)
The two units measure the same quantity and are directly convertible .
5.1.8 Illumination
llumination from a point source reduces with the square of the distance.
A source of 'l' candela emits a total flux of 4πl lumens. At a distance (d) this flux will be distributed over a sphere of
radius d, i.e. a surface of 4rd². Thus the illumination at a distance d is :

This is known as the inverse square law and is applicable when the illuminated o plane is normal (perpendicular) to the
direction of light, that is when the angle of incidence, ß = 0°. When the plane is tilted, the same flux is distributed over
a larger area, thus the illumination is reduced. The reduction is proportionate to the cosine of the angle of incidence:

Illumination of a surface from several sources will be the simple sum of the component illuminations:
E= E1 + E2 +E3..
Illumination from a linear source of intinite length reduces in direct proportion to the distance (and not the square of
distance) and from an infinitely large luminous surface (e.g. the sky) the illumination does not vary with the distance
5.1.9 Scalar illumination
Lighting conditions are usually described, measured or specified in terms of illumination on a
given plane, most often the horizontal 'working plane' (taken at desk or bench height), but possibly
a vertical or inclined plane. In other words, we usually speak of 'planar illumination'.

This, however, does not describe all the luminous qualities of a space. Even if the illumination
on a horizontal plane is adequate, the vertical surfaces may remain dark, and if the visual task is
other than two-dimensional, qualities other than the planar illumination must be considered.
Scalar illumination (or mean spherical illumination) is the average illumination received on the
surface of a small sphere from all directions. It is denoted Es and measured in lux. It measures the
total quantity of light present regardless of its direction.

The illumination vector is a composite quantity having both magnitude and direction. Its
magnitude is the maximum difference in illumination between two diametrically opposed points on
the surface of a small sphere (denoted Δ Emax and measured in lux). Its direction is given by the
diameter connecting the two points between which its magnitude is measured. This direction is
defined in terms of two angles: one horizontal and one vertical (from a horizontal up).

The vector/scalar ratio is a measure of the directionality of light and a good indicator of its
modelling qualities.
when , we have a completely mono-directional light. In practice this value is always
less than 4. A value of 0 would indicate a perfectly diffuse omni-directional lighting.
5.1.10 Visual efficiency
The purpose of lighting is twofold:
a. practical - to facilitate the performance of a visual task and ensure visual comfort
b. artistic (for lack of a better term) - to create certain emotional effects
For practical purposes we need to measure visual efficiency, as this strongly depends on
lighting. It can be measured on its three facets:
1. visual acuity, or sharpness of vision, measured as the reciprocal of the visual angle ρ
(expressed in minutes) subtended at the eye by the least perceptible detail. For example, if
the
least perceptible detail subtends an angle of 2' the acuity will be

2. contrast sensitivity (CS), measured as the ratio of the least perceptible luminance
difference
(L2 -L1) to the lower of the two luminances:

3. visual performance, i.e. the time required for seeing, expressed possibly as the number of
characters perceived per second or on any comparative scale
All three facets, consequently visual efficiency itself, depend on the level of illumination, as
shown by the graphs.
 5.1.11 Illumination: Quantity
The eye responds to a range of illumination levels extending over a
million orders of magnitude:
from 0.1 lux (full moonlit night) to 100000 lux (bright sunshine)

For practical situations and various activities (thus various visual tasks),
detailed illumination requirements are given in publications such as [71]
and [76].
The 139 following values (in lux) can provide some general guidance:

Casual seeing 100

Ordinary tasks, medium detail (e.g. wood machining, general office work) 400
Severe, prolonged tasks (e.g. fine assembly, silk weaving) 900
Exceptionally severe tasks (e.g. watchmaking) 2 000–3 000
Visual efficiency increases with the increase of
illumination but the curve flattens out at higher levels. The 'law of
diminishing returns' applies.
The decision regarding the level to be adopted depends, to a large extent on
socio-cultural and
economic factors - in other words, on 'how much light we can afford'. A
comparison of
recommendations in various countries is rather revealing.
 5.1.12 The visual field
With stationary head and eyes the visual field of an average person extends to 180° horizontally
and 120° vertically. Within this the 'central field' is limited to 2° and the immediate 'background'
extends to about 40°.
Visual comfort and efficiency can be ensured by the control of luminance distribution within the
visual field.
The luminance ratios should be:

The eye will adjust itself to the average luminance of the visual field (adaptation). With large
contrasts this may lead to loss of seeing the less luminous areas (underexposure) and discomfort
caused by the bright areas (overexposure).
Glare may also be caused by a saturation effect, even without any contrast, when the average
luminance exceeds about 25000 cd/m2
(80000 asb).
The magnitude of glare can be indicated by the terms 'discomfort glare' (in a less severe case)
and 'disability glare' (in a severe situation).
5.1.13 Illumination: Quality
In lighting design the designer must ensure light which is both adequate and suitable for the
visual
task. Suitability in this context would mean the following qualities:
a. colour of light
b. colour rendering
c. light distribution (direct or diffuse; modelling)
d. freedom from glare
e. luminance distribution (consideration of surface qualities together with the lighting of these
surfaces)
The first two depend on the light source: subject to choice in electric lighting but given in
daylighting.
Distribution in electric lighting depends on the fittings and their position, in daylighting it
depends on windows and reflective surfaces.
In daylighting the problem of glare is normally handled in qualitative terms only, but in
electric
lighting design the glare index concept gives a quantitative evaluation method.
5.2 DAYLIGHTING
 5.2.1. Source of light

Sun is unlimited source of light,, this light arrives up to the earth

partly diffused by atmosphere.
ways by which sun light reach inside:
a. Diffused or sunlight through
a window or openingg
b. Externally reflected light
c. Internally reflected light
d. Direct sunlight
 5.2.2. Climate and light
In high latitude moderate climates, where the sky is typically overcast, the whole of the sky hemisphere acts as a light source. Direct
sunlight may occur, but cannot be relied on. The sky itself has a luminance sufficiently high to provide lighting in normal rooms.
On the basis of many observations the Commission Internationale de I'Eclairage (CIE) has established the luminance distribution
of a typical overcast sky, as varying according to the function:
LY = Lh× (1 +2 ×siny)
LY = luminance at y altitude angle , Lh = luminance at the horizon

Hot-dry desert climates are characterised by strong direct sunlight from cloudless skies. Direct sunlight is usually excluded from
buildings for thermal reasons. The sky is.typically of a deep blue colour and its luminance may be as low as 1 700 cd/m2 - not enough to
ensure adequate daylighting. This clear sky usually has the highest luminance near the horizon and the lowest luminance at right angles
to the sun. The bare, dry, sunlit ground and light coloured walls of other buildings will reflect much light which will be the main source
of indoor daylighting. It may, however, also be the source of glare, when these strongly lit light surfaces are within the visual field. Light
dust suspended in the air may create a haze and increase the apparent sky brightness up to 10000 cd/m2 , but the frequent heavy dust
and sandstorms can reduce it to below 850 cd/m2. In warm-humid climates the sky is typically overcast, with a luminance often
exceeding 7 000 cd/m2. The proportion of diffused or skylight is predominant and the very bright sky viewed from a
moderately lit room can cause discomfort glare. In composite climates wide variations occur in natural lighting, between overcast and
clear skyconditions.
 5.2.3. the day light factor concept
Daylight factor is the ratio of illumination at certain point in indoor to the
simultaneous outdoor illumination.
DF=Et/Eo ( %)
Et- illumination indoor at point taken
Eo- illumination outdoor from an unobstructed atmosphere

This is appicable where there is no sunlight.

factor contributing to day light factor :
1. sky component (SC)
2. externally reflected component (ERC)
3. internally reflecteed component (IRC)
thus, DF= SC+ERC+ IRC
5.2.4. Design Variables

the magnitude of each of these component depends on the following

variables:
SC- the area of the sky from the point considered and its average altitude
angle
ERC- the area of the external surface visible from the point considered
and reflected on these surfaces
IRC - the size of the room , ration of wall etc ., the surface in realation to
window area and the reflectance of these indoor surfaces.
the technique of calculating this given in 5.3
 5.2.5. Design the sky concept
When the daylight factor for a given point has been established, it can be converted into an illumination value- if
the out-door illumination is known.
For example, if DF = 8% and E0 = 6 000 lux By statistical evaluation of long-term illumination records an out-
door illumination level (E0) can be established for a given location, which is exceeded in 90% (or 85% ) of the
time of daylight hours (the ninetieth or eighty-fifth percentile illumination level). This is taken as the 'design sky'
illumination value for the particular location. With this the above calculation can be reversed and used as a basis of
design, according to the following
steps:1 establish required illumination level, Ei (see appendix 9.1) - e.g. 300 lux

step:2 ascertain local 'design sky' illumination, Eo -e.g. 9 000 lux

step:3 calculate necessary daylight factor:
step:4 manipulate the design variables (window size, etc.) to achieve this daylight factor This method ensures
that the required indoor illumination level will be reached or exceeded in 90% of the time. The remaining 10%
of the time is likely to occur in short spells, fairly rarely, when human adaptability may be relied on; the visual
task may be taken closer to a window or artificial lighting may be used. To provide for such rare occurrences
would be uneconomical and unduly restrictive, resulting in excessive lighting most of the time.
5.2.6. Daylight in the tropics

The tasks and problems of daylights in tropical climates are

A. To provide adequate daylight , even if the windows are protected

B. Also protection Excessively from bright surface which caused glare
this problem can be solve according to climetic condition
5.2.7 In the hot - dry climate

Direct sunlight has to excluded from building for thermal reason and to
avoid glare.
in hot dry climate ,windows are keep small so not much light visible
from indoor for low luminance blue skies.
for the window near horizon where luminance of light is high, it might
create glare this can be avoided by screening.
most of the time ground and external surface usually lightly colored this
may also creates glare, thus reflected light can only be used if great care
is taken to avoid glare.
 Internally reflected light can be used for day lightly by providing a window at
high level this admit light reflected light light to ceiling and if ceiling is white
adequate light can be obtain .
if shading device are used they must be non-reflective or posioned such way
they are not visible .
low sill level are allowed if they opened in courtyard.

Strong luminance can be avoided by :

1. painting the adjacent wall light colored .
2. painting inside of window frame white.
3. vertical strip window can be used at the corner of the room.
4. other opening in opposite to throw some light onto the wall surrounding the
window.
5.2.8. In Warm-humid climate
Building in this climate are , light weight contraction with large opening to
ensure cross ventilation and air movement with shading device.
to avoid glare , windows are provided with shading device or plants.

the critia to provide shading device :

1. permit the view of the sky and ground near horizon.
2. exclude the view of bright ground and sunlit blade or louvre surface.
3. daylight is to be reflected from ground and blades up to the ceiling which
itself should be of a light color .
5.2.9. Supplementry Artifical Lighting

It is practically impossible to provide daylight where depth greater than

three times the window head ,In average office or class room the depth
of 6 M, for the room deeper than this, the technique PSALI ( Permeant
supplementary artificial lightning for the interior) is used.
In this technique the intern of room lit by electric light .
PAL ignores daylights and leads to windowless environment.
PAL provides great economic benefits with windowless building as the
savings on heating or air conditioning would be greater that the cost of
artificial lighting.
On other hand, visual link will break with use of PAL thus, this need
satisfied with small size windows and insufficient daylight provided
by PAL.
PAL works more efficiently in hot -dry region, where windows are of
small size ,and daylight reaching the interior is likely to be
insufficient.
as probably the thermal control are of primary importance,, there
would be only two choices open either to accept a below standard
lighting or to use PSALI
5.2.10 Electric Lamps
most use electrical lamps :
1. Incandescent lamps, in which current passed through a tungsten
filament, which will heat up and light up by thermo-luminescence.
2. fluorescent lamps , in which am electric discharge take place
between two electrode through low pressure mercury vapor and
the excited gas molecules emit an ultraviolet radiation. this is
absorb by fluorescent coating on the inside of the glass tube and
re-emitted at visible wavelength.

luminous efficacy of incandesecent light and florescent light are

10to 16 Im/W and 40 to 70Im/W.
 Total energy emitted by two lamps ;
incandescent light 5 % light 95%heat
fluorescent light 21%light 79%heat

The bulk of the energy emitted is heat, but even the emitted light, when
incident on the surface in the room , will be converted into the heat.
PSALI in hot dry climate will produes heat, so flurescent tube are
advised to use.
5.3 Prediction techniques
5.3.1 Local Lighting
To predict the illumination on a given surface from a single point
source of light (electrical lighting; local lighting) :

Inverse square law

The illumination of surface is inversely

proportional to the square of distance
between source and light surface provided
that the distance between the surface and
the source is sufficiently large no that
source can be regarded as a point source.

E=I/d^2
This is known as inverse square law.
Fitting catalogues - a set of curves
(the polar curves) describing the
light distribution characteristics of
the fitting

From these curves it is possible

to read the apparent intensity
(l) of the source from various
directions in candelas (cd).

Candela - the SI unit of luminous intensity

If d is the distance of the illuminated
point from the source (in m) and
β is the angle of incidence, the
illumination on the given plane will be:

(in lux)
Normally the polar curves give the intensity (l) value for every 1 000 lm of lamp output, thus the
value read must be divided by 1 000 and multiplied by the actual lamp lumens.

Some Lamp lumen outputs:

If several sources contribute to the illumination of a point, the illumination values must be
calculated from each source separately and the results added.
5.3.2 The lumen method for general lighting
If a room is illuminated by many lamp fittings positioned in a regular array, we can follow
concept of utilisation factor (UF).
This is simply the ratio of the total flux received on the working plane (Fr), to the total flux emitted
by all the lamps (F1).
For e.g, In a 50sq.m area room, all lamps together emit 10000 lm, and a plane 0.8 m high
over the whole of the room receives 5000 lm, the utilisation factor is:

Total Flux received Flux on room

UF = Illumniation =
Flux emitted by all lamps Area of Room
Given the UF, we can use it two ways:

if we know the lamps' output, we if we know what illumination we want to

can calculate the illumination: get, we can find the lamp output necessary
to achieve this:

E - Illumination
The critical step is to establish the value of the
F1- Flux emitted by all the lamps
UF. This will depend on the geometrical
UF - Utilisation factor proportions of the room, the mounting height
A- Area of Room of the lamp, on surface reflectances and on the
type of fitting used.
For general guidance it can be stated that its value ranges:

for downward direct lighting 4 to 9

for diffusing fittings 2 to 5

for indirect lighting 5 to 2

A further allowance should be made for dirt on the fitting or deterioration of lamp output: the UF
should be multiplied by a maintenance factor (MF) usually taken as 0-8.
5.3.3 Daylighting requirements
Daylight factor - ratio of illumination at certain point in indoor to the simultaneous outdoor illumination.
Its is used to establish desirable or minimum daylighting requirements in rooms of various uses.

DF=Et/Eo ( %)
Et- illumination indoor at point taken
Eo- illumination outdoor from an unobstructed atmosphere

Minimum recommended daylight factors:

 The minimum illumination received, with a given DF is related to
the established 'design sky' illumination.

If (as in the UK) this is taken as 5000 lux,

e.g. a DF of 2% would mean a minimum illumination of:

This value would be exceeded most of the time, whenever the out-door illumination is more than 5000 lux.

Frequency of outdoor illuminations (London)

5.3.4 Daylight protractors
The daylight prediction technique developed by UK Building Research Station (BRS) is based
on the calculation of the three components of the daylight factor, separately.

The "sky component (SC)" and the

"externally reflected component (ERC)"
are found by using the daylight protractors,
whilst the "internally reflected component
(IRC)" is estimated with the help of
a set of nomograms.
There are two series of protractors, one for a sky of uniform luminance and one for a CIE sky
luminance distribution.

a clear sky, tropical conditions - series 1 protractors

high latitudes, under predominantly overcast sky conditions - series 2 protractors

Each series consists of five protractors, to be used for various glazing situations.
Each protractor consists of two
scales: 'A' giving an initial reading
(from sections of the room) and 'B'
giving a correction factor (from
plans).
The initial reading would give the
sky component for infinitely long
windows, but for a window of finite
length (width) a correction factor
(scale B) must be applied.

Building Research Station daylight protractor No. 2

 5.3.5 Component
Steps to be taken in establishing the sky component are described with reference to figure
1)Consider a room (4m X 4m) which is lit by one window.
2)take a section of the room, mark the working plane with a point O on it, connect the limits
of the aperture to point O
3)Place the protractor with scale A on point O and read the values where lines intersect the
scale ,difference between these two values initial sky component.
4)Read the angle of elevation and take average of both.
5)Now take the room plan and mark position of the point to be considered for point O and
Daylight protractor with section
connect the limits of aperture with point O
6)Place protractor on point O with scale B towards window side.
7)four concentric semi-circles are marked on the protractor: 0°, 30° 60° and 90° Select the
one according to the corresponding elevation angle obtained in previous step, , if necessary
plot an imaginary semi-circle.
8) Read the values where lines MO vector and NO vector intersect this semicircle
9)If these values are on either side of centre line take , add the two values obtained.
10)If on the same side of the centre line subtract the values obtained, this will be correction
factor
11)Multiply correction factor and initial sky component to obtain sky component.
Daylight protractor with plan
5.3.6 Externally reflected component
If there are no obstructions outside the window, there will be no ERC. If, however, there are objects higher
than the line RO, the light reflected from these objects will reach the point considered, and will contribute to
the lighting at that point.
The magnitude of this contribution is expressed by the ERC, which can be found as follows:
1)find the equivalent sky component
2)multiply this value: (i) if series 1 (uniform sky) protractors were used, by 0.5 times the average reflectance of
opposing surfaces, or if this is unknown, by a factor of 0.1 (ii) if series 2 (CIE sky) protractors are used, by the
average reflectance of opposing surfaces, or a value of 0.2.
 5.3.7 Internally reflected component
1)Find the window area and find the total room surface area calculate
the ratio of window: total surface area. Locate this value on scale A of
the nomogram
2)find the area of all the walls and calculate the wall:total surface area.
Locate this value in the first column of the small table
3)locate the wall reflectance value across the top of this table and read
the average reflectance at the intersection of column and line
4)locate the average reflectance value on scale B and lay a straight-edge
from this point across to scale A (to value obtained in step 1)
5)where this intersects scale C, read the value which gives the average
IRC if there is no external obstruction.
6)if there is an external obstruction, locate its angle from the horizontal,
measured at the centre of window, on scale D.
7)lay the straight-edge from this point on scale D through the point on
scale C and read the average IRC value on scale E.
Nomogram
The Daylight factor will thus be obtained as a sum of Sky component
+Externally reflected component+Internally refected component.
5.3.9 DISTRIBUTION OF DAYLIGHT

If daylighting is to be predicted not only at a specified point, but throughout the

room (i.e. its distribution), a reference grid should be set up on the plan and the
daylight factor should be calculated for each grid point.
5.3.10 PERSPECTIVE PROJECTION
The method described above is actually a checking tool, to be used with a design hypothesis, for
the prediction of daylighting. Thus a trial-and-error process is unavoidable. There is, however,
another perhaps less accurate method, which can be used directly as a design tool . The
method is based on using the 'pepper-pot' diagram and involves the following steps:
a construct an interior perspective of the window (on tracing paper), as viewed from the point,
for which is to be established. The perspective distance (from the viewpoint to the picture
plane) must be 30 mm.
b draw any external obstructions in the same projection
c place the pepper-pot diagram under the tracing paper drawing, with the centre of perspective
coinciding with the centre of the pepper-pot diagram
d count the number of dots falling on the visible sky area and divide this number by 10.
e count the number of dots falling on the area of the obstructions and divide this number by 100.
f apply the necessary correction factors , as with the protractors
g find the IRC by using the nomograms, as before
The usefulness of this method lies in the fact that the consequences of changing the window size
or position can be assessed immediately, just by counting the dots.
5.3.11 CLEAR SKY CONDITIONS
Both the protractor and the pepper-pot diagram methods are useful and valid for overcast sky
conditions. As the design in moderate climates aims at providing a level of daylight which would
be exceeded most of the time (i.e. there is no upper limit) - direct sunlight need not be taken into
account. If and when it occurs, it will be an extra bonus.
In the tropics, especially in hot-dry climates, the skies are clear and there is a strong, direct
sunlight most of the time. Sun penetration must be limited for thermal reasons, thus an upper limit
in lighting will be more important than a minimum.
Under such clear sky conditions direct light is received from the sun and a varying amount of
diffuse light is received from the whole of the sky hemisphere. Furthermore, both the direct and the
diffuse light will be reflected from the same surfaces outside and inside the room. The two
components can only be quantified separately, but they should also be treated separately, as the
performance of the various control devices and reflective surfaces is different for diffuse light and
sunlight. Such separation, however, is not easy. Whilst full daylight with no sunlight does occur in
reality with an overcast sky, with a clear sky it does not occur, and the separation is only
theoretical
5.3.13 The lumen method for daylight-
The lumen method of general lighting i.e 5.3.2 has been adapted for the prediction of
daylighting .
In the first step, the total flux of light entering through the windows is found, then this
is multiplied by a utilisation factor (UF) to get the illumination on the working plane. So
this method is based on the concept of the total light flux which is opposite to the
daylight factor method, which uses the 'split flux' concept i.e split into its three
components: SC + ERC +IRC.
If the illumination on the window is known i.e lux, which is actually lm/m2, this
multiplied by the window area (m2 ) will give the total flux (in lm).
The magnitude of the UF depends on the relative size of the window, its position in
relation to the point considered, louvres or other controls, interior reflectances and
room proportions. Its value can be read from tables included in the American IES
Lighting Handbook . This is a complex method and the results much less accurate than
those of the daylight protractor method.
An Australian publication gives a simplified
version . From a basic graph the illumination
levels can be read for points at various
distances from the window (expressed as
multiples of the window head height above the
working plane), for continuous strip window.
Results obtained with this method will be
approximate but it is simple and quick to use,
therefore it should become a useful tool in the
sketch-design stage.

Daylight Design Graph

Correction factors can then be
applied for narrow windows
and for outside obstructions.
 5.3.14 Model Studies-
As the out-door illumination is constantly changing, it has been necessary to construct 'artificial
skies', i.e. a lighting arrangement which simulates the illumination obtained from a sky hemisphere,
under which daylighting studies can be carried out on models.
Two types of such artificial skies exist-
1. The hemispherical type
2. The rectangular (mirror-) type
1. The hemispherical arficial sky-
The hemispherical type gives the close
visual resemblance to the real sky, as seen.
This makes it a useful tool for teaching and
demonstration purposes.
 2. The rectangular (mirror type) artificial sky -
The rectangular type has all lamps above a diffusing ceiling and all four walls are lined with
mirrors. This creates an advantage over the hemispherical one: an apparent horizon is developed
at infinity, thus the interior illumination in a model will more precisely follow the real situation.
 Model used can be of two types-
1. For quantitative studies- The models need not be realistic, shades of grey can be
substituted for actual colours (with appropriate reflectance) and a scale of 1 :20 may be
sufficient.
2. For qualitative studies- For the assessment of lighting quality as well as quantity a more
realistic model is to be built, visually sufficiently representative of the room, its furniture
and furnishings and a scale of 1:10 would normally be necessary.

For measurements of 'daylighting' in models, it is usual to establish a grid of approx 1 m

and measure the illumination at each of the grid points. On this basis isolux lines (or
daylight contours) can be constructed by interpolation.
The various calculation methods described were largely developed by using model
studies under artificial skies. Now, even if such calculation methods are available, for
more complex or non-typical building situations it will still be useful to carry out model
studies under artificial skies at an early stage of the design.
5.3.15 Glare in electric lighting-
By definition, glare (g) is a function of luminance ratios:

where L1 = the higher luminance value, L2 = the lower luminance value,

(F indicates 'function of ')

On the basis of experiments two further factors have been identified:

1. Glare is increased with the increase of the apparent area of the glare source, measured as a visual angle (ψ)
in steradians.
2. Glare also depends on the position of the glare source in relation to the direction of vision, as expressed by
a position index (p).
 The function, i.e. the nature, of this dependence is Specified by the empirical formula:

where g = glare constant

L1 = luminance of glare source (cd/m2)
L2 = luminance of environment (cd/m2)

p = position index.
To describe the 'glariness' of an electric light installation, the concept of glare index (G) has been devised:
G = 10 × log g
5.3.16 Glare in daylighting -

The problem of glare in daylighting, particularly in sunny climates, has been mentioned in
qualitative terms in 5.2.6 to 8.

In most practical cases the analysis would not go beyond such a qualitative assessment -
partly .because quantitative analysis is lengthy and difficult, partly because glare is a very
subjective phenomenon - depending very much on human expectation, adaptability and even
on mood.
However, a quantitative analysis is necessary, so the following method could
be used
1. Establish the limiting glare index for the given visual task, as a target, from
appendix 9.1, or rather from [71 or 76]
2. Take nomogram and establish luminance of glare source (L1 ) in cd/m2.
Values given in 5.2.2 or in 1.3.3 to 8 can provide some rough guidance -
locate this value on scale A of the nomogram.
3. Establish the solid angle subtended by the glare source at the viewing
point, in steradians, dividing the projected area of the glare source by the
square of its distance - locate this on scale B of the nomogram.
4. Connect the values on scales A and B and mark the intersection with the
reference scale C.
5. Establish the environmental luminance (L2 ), i.e. the luminance of surfaces
adjacent to the glare source, in cd/m2. Locate this value on scale D.
6. Project a line from this, through the point marked on scale C to scale E to
get the initial glare constant.
7. Find position index from the table attached to the nomogram, locate its
value on scale F.
Glare Constant Nomogram
8. Connect this point of scale F to the initial glare constant of scale E and
read the final glare constant (g) on scale G.
Repeat the same process for each glare source within the visual field to get g1,g2,g3, etc.
Find the glare index from the sum of these glare constants:
G = 10 × log (g1+g2+g3+ ...)
If this glare index is greater than the target value (established in step 1), it is likely that discomfort would
be caused in the real situation, therefore corrective measures should be taken.
Some difficulty may be experienced in ascertaining or predicting the luminance values of the potential glare
sources (L1) and of its surroundings (L2) with any degree of accuracy, on the basis of a design.
THANK YOU-