FOUNDATION ENGINEERING I

CHAPTER 1
SOIL EXPLORATION

1
 Soil Exploration
• Most of the theories to predict and
understand the response of a soil are
based on the assumption of a
homogeneous soil mass.
• But soils are rarely homogeneous.
• Thus, soils are treated as
ideal/hypothetical materials and use
statistical average properties.
2
 … Soil Exploration
• However, statistical average values could
mislead because a weak or discontinuous
soil layer at a particular location may
control the stability of a geotechnical
system (e.g., a foundation).
• Geological forces and processes result in
inhomogeneous and discontinuous
formations that influence the stability
and costs of civil engineering works.
3
 … Soil Exploration
Important geological factors that must be
considered in the practice of geotechnical
engineering
• the amount of investigation needed to
characterize a site economically,
• the type and methods of construction,
• natural geological hazards such as
earthquakes, volcanic activity,
• groundwater conditions

4
 … Soil Exploration
• Soil investigation is an essential part of
the design and construction of a
proposed structural system (buildings,
dams, roads and highways, etc.).
• During a soils investigation of a proposed
site soils are:
 identified,
observed, and
recovered
5
… Soil Investigation

6
 … Soil Investigation
• Soils investigations are conducted only on a
fraction of a proposed site because it would
be expensive to conduct an extensive
investigation of a whole site.
• We then have to make estimates and
judgments based on information from a
limited set of observations, and from field and
laboratory test data that will have profound
effects on the performance and costs of
structures constructed at a site.
7
 … Soil Investigation
The purposes of a soils investigation are:
To evaluate the general suitability of the site
for the proposed project.
To enable an adequate and economical design
to be made.
To disclose and make provision for difficulties
that may arise during construction due to
ground and other local conditions.

8
 … Soil Investigation
• Information needed:
for decision on foundation type,
bearing capacity,
settlement estimation,
identification of environmental problem and
pertinent solution.

9
 … Soil Investigation
Soil exploration includes:
 Selection of alternative construction sites or
the choice of the most economical sites,
 Selection of alternative types or depth of
foundation,
 Selection of alternative methods of
construction,
 Evaluation of the safety of existing structure,
 Location and selection of construction
materials.
10
 … Soil Investigation
The soil exploration should provide the
following data:
Soil parameters and properties of different
layers (e.g. for classification, bearing capacity
or settlement calculation),
Thickness of soil layers and depth to bedrock
(stratification of soil),
Location of ground water level and
important groundwater related issues,
Special problems and concerns.
11
Planning an exploration program
The planning of a program for soil exploration
depends upon:
 The nature of sub-soil
 The type of structure
 The importance of structure
The actual planning of a subsurface exploration
program includes some or all of the following
steps:
i. Desk-study
ii. Reconnaissance of the area
iii. A preliminary site investigation
iv. A detailed site investigation
12
… Planning an exploration program

13
 … Planning an exploration program
ii. Reconnaissance of the area:
Consists of walking the site and visually assessing
the local condition, inspection of behavior of
adjacent structures, rock outcrops, cuts, etc.
Reconnaissance includes the assessment of:
 Any previous development on site,
 Any previous grading on site,
 Any potential landslide or other stability
problems,
 Condition of nearby structure
14
 … Planning an exploration program
iii. A preliminary site investigation:
This is usually in the form of a few borings or a test pit to
establish the types of materials, Stratification (vertical profile)
of the soil, and possibly the location of the ground water level.
 For small projects this step may be sufficient to establish
foundation criteria, in which case the exploration program
is finished.
iv. A detailed site investigation:
For complex projects or where the soil is of poor quality
and/or erratic, a more detailed investigation may be
undertaken. This may involve sinking several boreholes, taking
soil samples for laboratory investigations, conducting
sounding and other field tests.

15
 SOIL EXPLORATION METHODS
The soils at a site can be explored using
one or more of the following methods:
a) Geophysical methods
b) Trial pits or test pits
c) Hand or power augers
d) Wash boring
e) Rotary rigs

16
 … Soil Exploration Methods
a) Geophysical methods: nondestructive techniques
used to provide spatial information on soils, rocks, and
hydrological and environmental conditions. Popular
methods are:
 Ground-penetrating radar (GPR): is a high-resolution, high-
frequency (10 MHz to 1000 MHz) electromagnetic wave technique for
imaging soils and ground structures.
 Seismic surveys: utilize the fact that surface waves travel with
different velocities through different materials. The subsurface
interfaces are determined by recording the magnitude and travel time
of the seismic waves at a point some distance from the source of the
wave.
 Electrical resistivity: can be used for identification and
quantification of depth of groundwater, detection of clays, and
measurement of groundwater conductivity. Soil resistivity [ohm-cm]
varies with moisture content and temperature changes. In general, an
increase in soil moisture results in a reduction in soil resistivity.

17
 … Soil Exploration Methods
b) Trial pits or test pits: a pit is dug by hand
using shovels or with a machine such as a
backhoe. This method can provide excellent
shallow-depth soil stratigraphy.
 The simplest and cheapest method of
shallow soil exploration is to sink test pit to
depths of 3 to 4 m.
 Test pits enable the in-situ soil conditions
to be examined visually.
 It is relatively easy to obtain disturbed or
undisturbed soil samples.
18
… Soil Exploration Methods

19
… Soil Exploration Methods

20
 … Soil Exploration Methods
c) Hand or power augers. These are tools used to
quickly create a hole about 100 mm to 250 mm in
diameter in the ground. You can inspect the soil
and take undisturbed samples for lab tests.

21
 … Soil Exploration Methods
Auger boring:
Operated by hand or by power.
• Hand operated augers, = 15 to 20cm, are of two
types.
• Helical and Post-hole augers
• This boring method provides highly disturbed soil
samples.
• Power operated augers (helical) can be used to
great depths, even to 30m, and used in almost all
types of soils above water table.
22
 … Soil Exploration Methods

Hand Augers a) helical and b) post hole

23
… Soil Exploration Methods

solid-stem (left) and hollow-

stem (right) auger flights

24
 … Soil Exploration Methods
d) Wash boring: Water is pumped though a
hollow rod that may or may not be equipped
with a drill bit to remove soil from a borehole.
The washings can be used to estimate the soil
types.
 Power operated.
 Hole is advanced by chopping, twisting action of a
light chopping bit and jetting action of drilling fluid,
usually water, under pressure.
 Loosened soil particles rise as suspended particles
through the annular space between casing and drill
rod.
25
 … Wash boring
 This method best suits in sandy and clayey soils
and not in very hard soil strata (i.e. boulders) and
rocks.

 Depth of boring could be up to 60m or more.

 Changes in soil strata are indicated by changes in

the rate of progress of boring, examination of out
coming slurry and cutting in the slurry.
 Undisturbed samples whenever needed can be
obtained by use of proper samplers.

26
 … Soil Exploration Methods
e) Rotary rigs: these are mechanical devices used to
drill boreholes, extract soil samples, and facilitate
in-situ tests.
 Power operated.
 Hole is advanced by a rapidly rotating bit.
 This is the most rapid method for penetrating
highly resistant materials (e.g. bed rock).
 In this method undisturbed samples can be
obtained at desired depths by using suitable
samplers.
 Maximum depth of drilling is 80 to 150m.

27
 Rotary Drilling & Drill bits
150m.

28
 Drilling in soils prone to caving or
squeezing
 Open hole methods encounter problems in soils
prone to caving (i.e., the sides of the boring fall
in) or squeezing (the soil moves inwards,
reducing the boring diameter).
 Caving is most likely in loose sands and gravels,
especially below the groundwater table, while
squeezing is likely in soft saturated silts and clays.
 In such cases, it becomes necessary to provide
some type of lateral support inside the hole
during drilling.
29
 Drilling in soils prone to caving or
squeezing
 One method of supporting the hole is to install
casing (see Figure), which is temporary lining made
of steel pipe. This method is especially useful if only
the upper soil are prone to caving, because the
casing does not need to extend for the entire depth
of the boring.
 The other method is to fill the boring with drilling
mud or slurry, which is a mixture of bentonite or
attapulgite clay and water. This material provides a
hydrostatic pressure on the walls of the boring, thus
preventing caving or squeezing.
30
Drilling in soils prone to caving or
squeezing

31
31
 Soil Identification in the Field
 In the field, the predominant soil types based
on texture are identified by inspection.
Gravels and sands are gritty and the individual
particles are visible.
Silts easily crumble, and water migrates to the
surface on application of pressure.
Clays fail water migration test since water flows
very slowly through clays.
Clays feel smooth, greasy, and sticky to the touch
when wet but are very hard and strong when dry.
32
 … Soil Identification in the Field
Common descriptive terms and methods of
identification are as follows:
Color: Color is not directly related to engineering
properties of soils, but is related to soil mineralogy
and texture
 Gray and bluish: unoxidized soils
 White and cream: calcareous soils
 Red and yellow: oxidized soils
 Black and dark brown: soils containing organic matter

33
 … Soil Identification in the Field
Common descriptive terms and methods of
identification are as follows:
Moisture: Appearance due to water is described as
wet, dry, or moist.
Structure:
 Homogeneous: Color and texture feel the same
throughout.
 Nonhomogeneous: Color and texture vary.
Weathering: Fresh, decomposed, weathered.
Shape: Angular, subangular, subrounded, rounded, flaky.

34
 … Soil Identification in the Field
Shape: Angular, subangular, subrounded, rounded, flaky.
Carbonate: Effervesces with acid. Add a small
amount of hydrochloric acid and check if soil
effervesces. If it does, it contains carbonate.
Smell: Organic soils give off a strong odor that
intensifies with heat. Nonorganic soils have a subtle
odor with the addition of water.
Feel: Use feel to distinguish between sand, silts, and clays.
 Sand has a gritty feel.
 Silt has a rough feel similar to fine sand paper.
 Clay feels smooth and greasy. It sticks to fingers and is
powdery when dry.
35
 … Soil Identification in the Field
Consistency:
 Very stiff: Finger pressure barely dents soil, but it cracks
under significant pressure.
 Stiff: Finger pressure dents soil.
 Firm: Soil can be molded using strong finger pressure.
 Soft: Easily molded by finger.
 Very soft: Soil flows between fingers when fist is closed.
Dilatancy: Place a small amount of the soil in your
palm and shake horizontally. Then strike it with the
other hand. If the surface is slurry and water
appears, the soil probably has a large amount of silt.
36
 … Soil Identification in the Field
Packing: Coarse-grained soils are described as:
 Very loose: collapses with slight disturbance; open
structure
 Loose: collapses upon disturbance; open structure
 Medium dense: indents when pushed firmly
 Dense: barely deforms when pushed by feet or by
stomping
 Very dense: impossible to depress with stomping

37
 Number and Depths of Boreholes
 It is practically impossible and economically
infeasible to completely explore the whole project
site.
 You have to make judgments on the number,
location, and depths of borings to provide sufficient
information for design and construction.
 The number and depths of borings should cover the
zone of soil that would be affected by the structural
loads.
 There is no fixed rule to follow.

38
 … Number and Depths of Boreholes
• In most cases, the number and depths of
borings are governed by experience based on:
 the geological character of the ground,
the importance of the structure,
the structural loads, and
the availability of equipment.
• Building codes and regulatory bodies provide
guidelines on the minimum number and
depths of borings.

39
 … Number and Depths of Boreholes
 The number of boreholes should be adequate to detect
variations of the soils at the site.
 If the locations of the loads on the foot print of the structure
are known (this is often not the case), you should consider
drilling at least one borehole at the location of the heaviest
load.
 As a guide, a minimum of three boreholes should be drilled
for a building area of about 250 m2 (2500 ft2) and about five
for a building area of about 1000 m2 (10,000 ft2).
 Some guidelines on the minimum number of boreholes for
buildings and for due diligence in subdivisions are given in
Table 1.

40
Some general guidance on the depth of boreholes
 In compressible soils such as clays, the borings should
penetrate to at least between 1 and 3 times the width of the
proposed foundation below the depth of embedment or until
the stress increment due to the heaviest foundation load is
less than 10%, whichever is greater.
 In very stiff clays and dense, coarse-grained soils, borings
should penetrate 5m to 6m to prove that the thickness of the
stratum is adequate.
 Borings should penetrate at least 3 m into rock.
 Borings must penetrate below any fills or very soft deposits
below the proposed structure.
 The minimum depth of boreholes should be 6 m unless
bedrock or very dense material is encountered.
41
Guidelines for the Minimum Number of Boreholes for
Buildings and Subdivisions Based on Area
.

42
Guidelines for the Minimum Number or Frequency
and Depths of Boreholes for Common Geostructures
.

43
 SOIL SAMPLING
 Objective: to obtain soils of satisfactory size with
minimum disturbance for observations and
laboratory tests.
 Soil samples are usually obtained by attaching an
open-ended, thin-walled tube—called a Shelby tube
or, simply, a sampling tube—to drill rods and forcing
it down into the soil.
 The tube is carefully withdrawn, hopefully with the
soil inside it.

44
 … Soil Sampling
 Soil disturbances occur from several sources during
sampling, such as:
 friction between the soil and the sampling tube,
the wall thickness of the sampling tube,
the sharpness of the cutting edge, and
the care and handling of the sample tube during
transportation.
 To minimize friction, the sampling tube should be
pushed instead of driven into the ground.
 Sampling tubes that are in common use have been
designed to minimize sampling disturbances.
45
 … Soil Sampling
 One common type of soil sampler is the “Shelby
tube,” which is a thin-walled, seamless steel tube of
diameter 50 or 75 mm and length of 600–900 mm
(Figure a).
 Another popular sampler is the “standard” sampler,
also known as the split spoon sampler (split barrel
sampler), which has an inside diameter of 35 mm
and an outside diameter of 51 mm (Figure b). The
sampler has a split barrel that is held together using
a screw-on driving shoe at the bottom end and a
cap at the upper end.
46
 … Soil Sampling
.

(a)

(b)

FIGURE: (a) A thin-walled tube and (b) A split barrel sampler

47
 … Soil Sampling
 Laboratory test results are mainly dependent
on the quality of soil samples.
 There are two main types of soil samples
which can be recovered from bore holes or
trial pits.
Disturbed and
Undisturbed samples

48
 Disturbed Samples
• These are samples where the structure of the
natural soil has been disturbed to a
considerable degree by the action of the
boring tolls or excavation equipment.
• However, these samples represent the
composition and the mineral content of the
soil.
• Disturbed samples are satisfactory for
performing classification tests such as, sieve
analysis, Atterberg limits etc.
49
 Undisturbed Samples
 These are samples, which represent as closely as is
practicable, the true in-situ structure and water
content of the soil.
 Undisturbed samples are required for determining
reliable information on the shearing resistance and
stress-deformation characteristics of a deposit.
 It is virtually impossible to obtain totally undisturbed
samples. This is due to that:
 The process of boring, driving the coring tool, raising and
withdrawing the coring tool and extruding the sample from
the coring tool, all conspire to cause some disturbance.
 In addition, samples taken from holes may tend to swell as
a result of stress relief.
50
 Undisturbed Samples
Samples should be taken only from a newly-
drilled or newly extended hole, with care
being taken to avoid contact with water.
As soon as they are brought to the surface:
 Core tubes ends should be sealed with wax and
capped to preserve the loss of moisture content.
 Core tubes should properly be labeled to indicate
the number of bore holes and the depth at which
they are taken and then stored away from
extremes of heat or cold and vibration.
51
 IN SITU OR FIELD TESTS
These tests are valuable means of determining
the relative densities; shear strengths and
bearing capacities of soils directly without
disturbing effects of boring and sampling.
The most commonly used field tests are:
1) Penetration or sounding tests
2) Vane shear test
3) Plate loading test
4) Pile loading test

52
 Penetration Tests
 They are conducted mainly to get information on the
relative density of soils with little or no cohesion.
 The tests are based on the fact that the relative
density of a soil stratum is directly proportional to
the resistance of the soil against the penetration of
the drive point.
 From this, correlations between values of
penetration resistance versus angle of internal
friction (Φ), bearing pressure, density and modulus of
compressibility have been developed.
 Penetration tests are classified as: Static and dynamic
penetration tests.
53
 Static Penetration Tests
i. Swedish Weight Sounding Test
 This method of testing is widely used in Scandinavia
and here in Ethiopia.
 The depth of penetration is measured for each
loading after which the number of half-turns is
counted by 100kg load; the penetration depth is
then measured after 25 half-turns.
 If the penetration after 25 half-turns is less than
5cm the rod is unloaded and driven down by a 5 to
6kg hammer.
 ..\Video\the Swedish weight sounding test -
YouTube (360p).mp4 54
 i. Swedish Weight Sounding Test

Swedish weight sounding equipment, penetration diagram

55
 i. Swedish Weight Sounding Test …

• The correlation between density of frictional

soils and consistency of cohesive soils and
ht/m (half-turns per meter) are as given below.
Frictional Half-turns per Density
Soils meter (ht/m) (kN/m3)
Very loose <50 11-16
Loose 50 -150 14.5 - 18.5
Medium 150 - 300 17.5 - 21
Dense 300 - 500 17.5 - 22.5
Very dense > 500 21 – 24
56
 i. Swedish Weight Sounding Test …

The correlation between density of frictional

soils and consistency of cohesive soils and ht/m
(half-turns per meter) are as given below.
Cohesive Half-turns per Density
Soils meter (ht/m) (kN/m3)
Soft 0
16 –19
Firm 0 -100
Stiff 100 - 200 17.5 – 21
Very stiff 200 - 500
19 – 22.5
Hard > 500
57
 ii. Static Cone Penetration Test (Dutch Cone
Penetrometer Test)
 This method is widely used in Europe.
 The test consists of a cone (apex angle 600,
overall diameter 35.7mm, end area 10cm2, rods
(⅝” ), casing pipe ( ¾”).
 The rod is pushed hydraulically into the ground
at a rate of 10mm/sec.
 The pressure exerted on the rod is measured
with a proving ring, manometer or a strain
gauge.
 The cone is 1st pushed into the ground. The force
required to push the cone 20cm into the soil is recorded.
 The casing pipe is then advanced to join the cone. The
force required to push the pipe is also recorded.
 The readings thus taken are plotted against depth.
58
ii. Static Cone Penetration Test (Dutch Cone
Penetrometer Test) …

59
Correlation between Cone (Point) Resistance and
Relative Density of Frictional Soils
Relative Density Point Resistance (kN/m2)

Very loose soil < 2500

Medium dense 5000 – 10,000
Dense 10,000 – 15,000
Very dense > 15,000
According to Meyerhof:
N = ¼ (Ckd)
where: N = Standard penetration number
Ckd = Static Cone resistance (kg/cm2)
For sand, modulus of compressibility (ES) can be estimated
from cone resistance from the following relationship.
60
 Dynamic Penetration Tests
i. Standard Penetration Test (SPT):
 This is the most common of the field tests and
measures the resistance of the soil to dynamic
penetration by a 50mm diameter split spoon
sampler which is driven into the soil at the bottom of
a borehole (sometimes cased).
 The sampler is attached to drill rods and the dynamic
driving force is a 63.5kg mass falling through a height
of 76cm onto the top of the rods.
 The sampler is initially driven 15cm below the
bottom of the borehole. It is then further driven
30cm. The number of blows required to drive the
last 30cm is termed as the standard penetration
value denoted by N.
61
 SPT

..\Video\✔ Automatic SPT Test in just 5 minute -How to do Standard

Penetration for Soil Testing Lab equipment - YouTube (360p).mp4
62
SPT …

63
Correlation between Number of blows (N), Angle of Internal
Friction and Relative Density of Frictional Soils(Terzaghi and Peck).

N 0-4 4 -10 10-30 30 - 50 > 50

 <280 28 -300 30-360 35 - 400 >420
Relative Very loose Loose Medium Dense Very dense
Density

Correlation between Number of blows (N), Unconfined

Compressive Strength and Consistency of Cohesive Soils.
(Terzaghi and Peck).
N 0 -2 2-4 4-8 8 -15 15-30 >30
qu(kN/m2) 0 -25 25 -50 50 -100 100 -200 200-400 >400
Consistency Very soft Soft Medium Stiff Very stiff Hard

64
 SPT …
The relationship between  and Dr may be
expressed approximately by the following
equation (Meyerhof):
 For granular soil, containing more than 5% fine
sand and silt.
0=25+0.15Dr
 For granular soil, containing less than 5% fine
sand and silt. In the equations Dr is expressed in
percent.
0=30+0.15Dr
65
Correction to be applied to measured values
of SPT
 The N values of SPT as measured in the field may
need to be corrected.
 Various corrections are applied to the N values
to account for energy losses, overburden
pressure, rod length, and so on.
 It is customary to correct the N values to a rod
energy ratio of 60%.
 The rod energy ratio is the ratio of the energy
delivered to the split spoon sampler to the free-
falling energy of the hammer.

66
Correction to be applied to measured values
of SPT
 The corrected N values are denoted as N60 and
given as:

• where ERr is the energy ratio and CE is the 60% rod

energy ratio correction factor.
• Correction factors for rod lengths, sampler type,
borehole diameter, and equipment (60% rod energy
ratio correction) are given in Table

67
 … Correction to be applied to measured values of SPT

 We can write a composite correction factor, CRSBE,

for the correction factors given in Table as:
CRSBE = CRCSCBCE
where
 CR - correction factor for rod length
 CS - sampler type
 CB - bore hole diameter and
 CE - rod energy correction.
The corrected N value is
Ncor = CRSBEN
68
Correction to be applied to measured values
of SPT

69
 … SPT
TABLE: Compactness of Coarse-Grained Soils
Based on N Values

70
 ii. Dynamic Cone Penetration (DCP) Test
 This is another useful test, which is normally used to
determine the relative resistance offered by the
different soil layers.
 The cone is fixed to the bottom of a rod and driven
into the ground in the same way as a SPT is
performed.
 The number of blows required to penetrate 30cm
depth is called as Nc value.
 In the case of dynamic cone penetration test no
borehole is used.
71
ii. Dynamic Cone Penetration (DCP) Test …
 Experiments carried out indicate that beyond about
6m depth, frictional resistance on the rod increases
which gives erroneous results for Nc value. The
maximum depth suggested for this test is about 6 m.
 If the test has to be conducted beyond 6 m depth,
one has to use drilling mud (bentonite slurry) under
pressure forced through the pipe and the cone.
 The mud solution coming out of the cone rises above
along the drill rod eliminating thereby the frictional
resistance offered by the soil for penetration. The
former method is called as dry method and the latter
wet method. 72
 ii. Dynamic Cone Penetration (DCP) Test …
.

73
ii. Dynamic Cone Penetration (DCP) Test …
 To judge the consistency of soil from Nc values, the
general practice is to convert Nc to N values of SPT:
Nc = N/C
Where:
 N = blow count for SPT
 Nc = blow count for dynamic cone
 C = Constant, lies b/n 0.8 & 1.2 when bentonite is used.
 Nc = 1.5N for depths up to 3m
 Nc = 1.75N for depths between 3m and 6m
 Nc Values need to be corrected for overburden pressure
in cohesionless soils like SPT

74
 VANE SHEAR TEST
 It is used to determine the undrained shear strength
of soft clays soils.
 The shear vane device consists of four thin metal
blades (vanes) welded orthogonally (900) to a rod .
 Vane head (torsion head), complete with pointer,
stop pin, circumferential graduated scale, calibrated
torsion spring.
 The vane is pushed, usually from the bottom of a
borehole, to the desired depth.

75
76
77
Vane shear tester

78
 … Vane Shear Test
In most cases a hole is drilled to the desired
depth, where the vane shear test is planned to
be performed & the vane is carefully pushed
into the soil.
A torque is applied at a rate of 60 per minute
by a torque head device located above the soil
surface and attached to the shear vane rod.
The maximum torque is then measured from
which the shearing strength is determined.

79
 … Vane Shear Test
From the measured maximum torque one
may estimate the shearing resistance of the
tested clay from the following formula:
T T
 
 H D 3
D 2  D 
 D 2   H  
 2 12 
 2  6 
 
Where : T = Torque
D = Diameter of Vane
H = Height
80
 PLATE LOADING TEST
In this test a gradually increasing static load is applied to
the soil through a steel plate, and readings of the
settlement and applied load are recorded, from which a
relationship between bearing pressure and settlement for
the soil can be obtained. The test procedure:
1. Pit for the test must be at least 5 times the size of the
plate.
2. The plate should be properly placed in the soil. In the
case of cohesionless soil (to prevent early displacement
of soil under the edges of the plate), the plate must be
positioned in cast in-situ concrete.
3. Loading platform should be properly erected.
81
… Plate Loading Test

82
… Plate Loading Test

83
 … Plate Loading Test
4. Loading of the soil is conducted in steps (loading
increment is kept constant).
5. Once the test is completed, the plate is unloaded in the
same incremental steps (to draw the expansion curve).
 Bearing capacity of non-cohesive soil is determined from
settlement consideration.
 If the maximum permissible settlement, S, of a footing of
width Bf is given, the settlement, Sp, of a plate of width
Bp under the same intensity of loading is given by:
Sp (2 B f ) 2
S
( B f  Bp )2
84
 … Plate Loading Test
• Using the value Sp, computed from the above
equation, the loading intensity under the footing
could be read from the load settlement curve.
• The settlement of footing in clay is normally
determined from principles of consolidation.
However from plate load test, the approximate
settlement of footing of width B can be
determined using the following expression.
Bf
S  Sp
Bp
85
 Limitation of Plate Loading Test
 Plate loading test is of short duration. Hence
consolidation settlement does not fully occur during
the test.
 For settlement consideration, its use is restricted to
sandy soils, and to partially saturated or rather
unsaturated clayey soils.
 Plate loading test can give very misleading
information of the soil is not homogeneous within
the effective depth (depth of stress influence) of the
prototype foundation.
 Plate loading test should not be recommended in
soils which are not homogeneous at least to depth of
1½ to 2 times the width of the prototype foundation.
86
 PILE LOADING TEST
This is the most reliable means for
determining the load carrying capacity of a
pile.
 The load arrangement and testing procedure
are more or less similar to the plate-loading
test.
 From the results of this test, the allowable
bearing capacity and load- settlement
relationship of a group of friction piles can be
estimated.
87
88
 LABORATORY TESTS
The common laboratory tests that concern the foundation
engineers are
 Grain size analysis
 Atterberg limits
 Natural moisture content
 Unit weight
 Unconfined compression test
 Direct shear test
 Triaxial compression test
 Consolidation test
 Compaction test
 Chemical analysis
89
 GROUND WATER MEASUREMENT
 Ground water affects many elements of
foundation design and construction.
 Because of this its location should be determined
in each job with reasonable accuracy.
 The depth of water table is measured by lowering
a chalk-coated steel tape in the borehole.
 The depth can also be measured by lowering the
leads of an electrical circuit. As soon as the open
ends of the leads touch the water in the
borehole, the circuit is completed. It is indicated
by glow of the indicator lamp. 90
 DATA PRESENTATION
 The results of borings, samplings, penetration
tests and laboratory tests of a site are usually
plotted graphically on a sheet of drawing paper.
 The graphical presentation should include.
1. A plot plan, showing the location of all boreholes,
test pits, etc and their identification number.
2. A separate plot, showing the soil profile as
established from the drillings or test pits records.

91
 DATA PRESENTATION
3. Soil profiles along given lines in the ground surface,
showing the boundaries between identifiable soil
layers, variation of thickness of firm bottom layer,
thickness of soft clay layers etc.
4. The penetration number, the unconfined
compression strength, Atterberg limits, natural
moisture content, and other appropriate
laboratory data may be shown on each boring
on the soil profile.
5. The location of ground water table should also
be shown on the soil profile.
92
 Depth Legend Soil type N qu   L.L P.I
0.00m Top soil
1.00m
W.T
Sandy
Silt
4.00
Dense
sand
8.00
Gravel
12.00

Hard
15.00 rock

93
94
 SOIL EXPLORATION REPORT
Most reports have the following contents:
 Introduction: - Purpose of investigation, type of investigation
carried out.
 General description of the site: - general configuration and
surface features of the site.
 General geology of the area.
 Description of soil conditions found in bore holes (and test
pits)
 Laboratory test results.
 Discussion of results of investigation in relation to foundation
design and constructions.
 Conclusion: recommendations on the type and depth of
foundations, allowable bearing pressure and methods of
construction.
95