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NarratiNg the Visual
iN shakespeare
Narrating the Visual
in shakespeare
richard Meek
De Montfort University, UK
First published 2009 by Ashgate Publishing
Published 20 16 by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017, USA
Richard Meek has asserted his moral right under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act,
1988, to be identified as the author ofthis work.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any
form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented,
including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system,
without permission in writing from the publishers.
Notice:
Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only
for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
PR2997.N37M44 2009
822.3'3-dc22
2008042608
ISBN 13: 978-0-7546-5775-0 (hbk)
contents
List of Illustrations vi
Acknowledgements vii
Bibliography 197
Index 217
list of illustrations
1.3 Venus and Adonis, titian (c. 1555). copyright the National
gallery, london. 39
5.1 sala dei giganti (fresco), palazzo del tè, Mantua, italy,
giulio romano (1536). the Bridgeman art library. 170
acknowledgements
there are various colleagues, friends and institutions i would like to thank for
their help and support in the writing of this book. the book grows out of doctoral
research that was carried out at the university of Bristol, and i am grateful to John
lyon, george donaldson, John McWilliams, sarah gallagher and John lee for
their advice, conversation and friendship during this time. i am also grateful to
Michael hattaway for his comments and subsequent support. i am particularly
indebted to Neil rhodes, who organised an excellent seminar on ‘shakespeare and
Oral culture’ at the 2005 British shakespeare association conference at Newcastle
university, where i presented a paper that became the book’s coda. his subsequent
comments on the project and professional support have been invaluable. Other
parts of the book were presented at conferences at the universities of Oxford,
lancaster and st andrews, and i would like to thank everyone who offered
feedback on those occasions.
several scholars read parts of my work in progress. ann thompson generously
read the Hamlet chapter and made many shrewd and helpful suggestions.
her encouragement was much appreciated. Bill sherman read the introduction
and made some particularly astute observations and suggestions for refinement.
Thanks to John Roe, who also read the Introduction along with the first two
chapters. i would particularly like to thank Michael greaney, who read a large
part of the manuscript and offered a great deal of judicious and intelligent advice;
I am especially grateful for his expertise in the field of literary theory. Financial
support of various kinds was provided by the university of reading, king’s
college london and the F.r. leavis fund at the university of York. the school of
english and american literature at reading provided funds for a rewarding trip to
the Folger shakespeare library, and the department of english at king’s enabled
me to spend a very pleasant and productive month at the huntington library as
the project neared completion. i would like to thank all the staff at ashgate, in
particular Erika Gaffney for her efficiency, enthusiasm and patience throughout.
i am also grateful to the anonymous readers at the press for their comments.
i would also like to thank John Banks for his excellent copy-editing.
some of the material in the book has appeared previously. parts of chapters
2 and 5 appeared as ‘ekphrasis in The Rape of Lucrece and The Winter’s Tale’,
SEL Studies in English Literature 1500–1900, 46/2 (spring 2006). a shorter
version of chapter 4 appeared in richard Meek, Jane rickard and richard
Wilson (eds), Shakespeare’s Book: Essays in Reading, Writing and Reception
(Manchester: Manchester university press, 2008). an earlier version of the coda
appeared as ‘the promise of satisfaction: shakespeare’s Oral endings’ in English,
56/216 (autumn 2007). i am grateful for the permissions to reprint this material; i
would also like to thank the academic readers at SEL and English for their helpful
comments and suggestions.
viii Narrating the Visual in Shakespeare
in the induction to The Taming of the Shrew, one of shakespeare’s earliest plays,
a Lord and his servants perpetrate an elaborate confidence trick upon the hapless
tinker christopher sly, in an attempt to make him believe that he, too, is a lord.
part of this process of persuasion and seduction involves the description of several
works of pictorial art:
according to the lord and his servingmen, these pictures are so realistic that one
would be forgiven for mistaking them for the thing itself. the sedges or grasses in
which Venus (cytherea) hides ‘seem to move’ (52), while the painting of io is said
to be ‘as lively painted as the deed was done’ (56). Furthermore, the dense syntax
of the passage means that it is unclear whether apollo is a character depicted
within the painting, weeping at the sight of daphne herself, or an observer of
this extraordinary picture, moved by the ‘workmanly’ (60) representation of her
blood and tears. these descriptions seem designed, then, to blur the distinction
between representation and reality, and between viewer and participant. it is worth
emphasising, however, that these artworks are all kept offstage. the lord and his
men tantalise sly with the promise of visual satisfaction, saying that they will
‘fetch [him] straight’ (49) the picture of Venus and adonis, and will ‘show [him]
io’ (54), but this does not take place within the action of the play. perhaps the lord
and his co-conspirators realise that it might be better if sly doesn’t see these absent
artworks and instead imagines this extraordinary mode of verisimilitude. But of
1
The Taming of the Shrew, in The Riverside Shakespeare, ed. g. Blakemore evans,
2nd edn (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1997), Induction 2.49–60. Unless otherwise stated, all
references to shakespeare’s works are taken from this edition, and cited by act, scene and
line number.
2 Narrating the Visual in Shakespeare
course shakespeare’s audience does not get to see these artworks either. does
shakespeare implicitly suggest that such pictures are best left to the imagination?
if so, is the deception that the lord practises upon sly markedly different from the
ways in which shakespeare’s plays beguile us with vivid descriptions of things
unseen?
this moment points towards an interest in narrating the visual that would persist
throughout shakespeare’s career, and that appears across the different genres and
media in which he wrote. For while shakespeare may have been a man of the
theatre – an actor and playwright who worked with both words and images – he
was also a published poet, who seems to have been fascinated by the ability of
words to create images. the description of artworks in The Taming of the Shrew
thus opens up several wider issues that will be the focus of this book. the passage
suggests shakespeare’s interest in pictorial art, but it also highlights the vividness
and seductiveness of shakespearean narrative, and hints at some of the ways in
which these aspects of his work are related. at various moments in shakespeare’s
plays the action breaks off in order for the characters to recount an offstage event,
story or sight. Many of these narrative passages contain elaborate descriptions that
allude to works of art, or compare the play’s characters to works of art, recalling
The Rape of Lucrece’s focus on ‘a piece / Of skilful painting’ (1366–7) that depicts
the events of the fall of troy.2 there is enobarbus’ rapturous account of cleopatra’s
barge in Antony and Cleopatra, in which cleopatra is said to ‘O’er-pictur[e]’ a
portrait of Venus ‘where we see / the fancy outwork nature’ (2.2.200–201). We
have Jachimo’s description of the decorations in imogen’s bedroom in Cymbeline,
in which he describes the remarkably lifelike figures on the chimney-piece:
‘Never saw I figures / So likely to report themselves’ (2.4.82–3). There is also
a suggestive narrative account in Richard II, when the duke of York describes
the absent scene of Bullingbrook’s arrival in london, in which Bullingbrook is
greeted by an admiring multitude. according to the duke, one would have thought
‘that all the walls / With painted imagery had said at once, / “Jesu preserve thee!
2
leonard Barkan has remarked upon the relationship between visual art and
shakespearean representation in ‘Making pictures speak: renaissance art, elizabethan
literature, Modern scholarship’, Renaissance Quarterly, 48 (1995), 326–51. he offers
brief considerations of Lucrece, The Winter’s Tale, Cymbeline and Hamlet, and writes
that ‘the theater … enacts the millennial contests concerning the relative power of
picture and word in capturing mimesis’ (p. 342). as we shall see, however, i do not agree
with Barkan that the ‘shakespearean answer’ to these questions is ‘a very simple one’
(p. 342). For a detailed survey of shakespeare’s references to works of visual art see
William s. heckscher, ‘shakespeare in his relationship to the Visual arts: a study in
paradox’, Research Opportunities in Renaissance Drama, 13–14 (1970–71), 5–71. see
also stephen Orgel and sean keilen (eds), Shakespeare and the Arts (New York: garland,
1999); Martha ronk, ‘locating the Visual in As You Like It’, Shakespeare Quarterly, 52
(2001), 255–76 (esp. pp. 256–9); and Mario klarer, Ekphrasis: Bildbeschreibung als
Repräsentationstheorie bei Spenser, Sidney, Lyly und Shakespeare (tübingen: Niemeyer,
2001), pp. 138–81.
Shakespeare, Narrative and Art 3
3
see philip sidney, The Defence of Poesy in The Oxford Authors: Sir Philip Sidney,
ed. katherine duncan-Jones (Oxford: Oxford university press, 1989), p. 217. plutarch
had attributed the phrase – that poetry is a speaking picture and painting a silent poem
– to simonides of ceos (c. 556–467 bc) in his Moralia (see duncan-Jones, p. 374, note to
p. 217, line 221). For further discussion of the ‘sister arts’ in the period see below.
4
W.J.t. Mitchell, ‘ekphrasis and the Other’, in Picture Theory: Essays on Verbal
and Visual Representation (chicago and london: the university of chicago press, 1994),
pp. 151–81 (p. 152). the phrase is taken from Joseph conrad’s ‘preface’ to The Nigger
of the ‘Narcissus’, ed. cedric Watts (harmondsworth: penguin, 1988), in which conrad
commented that his ‘task’ as a writer was ‘by the power of the written word … to make
you see’ (p. xlix). see also Mitchell’s Iconology: Image, Text, Ideology (chicago: chicago
university press, 1986).
5
alison thorne, Vision and Rhetoric in Shakespeare (Basingstoke: palgrave
Macmillan, 2000), p. 73.
4 Narrating the Visual in Shakespeare
into the fictional world that he has created. Yet it is almost as if the Lord and his
cohorts have already initiated the process of the suspension of sly’s disbelief by
describing the mimetic power of these offstage pictures.
this strategy is remarkably effective as sly no longer seems able to tell the
difference between fantasy and reality: ‘upon my life, i am a lord indeed, / and
not a tinker, nor christopher sly’ (induction 2.72–3). sly demands to see the
imaginary wife who has been described to him: ‘Well, bring our lady hither to our
sight, / and once again a pot o’ th’ smallest ale’ (induction 2.74–5). these ‘wanton
pictures’ (induction 1.47) thus seem to have created a desire for both visual and
sexual satisfaction. the lord describes this lady as ‘far more beautiful / than any
woman in this waning age’ (induction 2.62–3). and yet this attractive lady is, of
course, the lord’s young page, Bartholomew. What sly ‘sees’ when Bartholomew
finally appears is thus bound up with, first, these absent artworks, and, second,
the lord’s description of the lady’s extraordinary beauty. clearly, then, these
pictorial descriptions are more than simply figures for Shakespeare’s rhetorical
virtuosity. sly’s belief in the visual spectacle of Bartholomew’s performance is in
part produced by these descriptions, which subtly propose that works of art can be
mistaken for reality. how might this relate to our experience of The Taming of the
Shrew, or to shakespeare’s art more generally?
We might be tempted to ridicule sly for being taken in by such an obvious act
of con-trickery. and yet, as these imagined artworks fade into the background,
having served their function by breaking down Sly’s resistance to the fiction that
the lord has created, so too does the induction of The Taming of the Shrew. sly
sits down with his fictional wife to ‘hear a play’ (134), a ‘pleasant comedy’ (130)
that tells the story of the shrewish Katherina, a fictional character who – like
sly’s imaginary wife – would have been played by a boy actor. as sly himself
says, ‘come, madam wife, sit by my side, and let the world slip’ (142–3). the
descriptions of artworks within the induction thus serve an analogous mimetic
function to the induction itself. they help sly to be ‘taken in’ by the deception that
is being practised upon him and by the dramatic entertainment that he witnesses;
at the same time, the induction as a whole reminds us of – but may also distract
us from – the ways in which we are ‘taken in’ by shakespeare’s play. Of course,
the induction can be read as an example of ‘metadrama’, in which shakespeare
audaciously exposes the workings of his dramatic art, and reveals the convention
of cross-dressing boy-actors as a piece of deception. Even more significant,
however, is the way in which the lord exploits the relationship between several
different modes of representation – narrative, dramatic, pictorial – in order to
beguile christopher sly. For what the lord does to his onstage audience is both
analogous to and part of what shakespeare does to us. this moment, then, not
only highlights Shakespeare’s interest in reflecting upon the visual arts and the
conventions of theatre but also suggests ways in which his plays often derive
their sense of immediacy from a sly appropriation of, and comparison with, other
modes of art.
shakespeare’s representations of pictorial art thus open up wider questions
regarding the trickiness and seductiveness of mimetic representation; and this
Shakespeare, Narrative and Art 5
makes the term ekphrasis, which is itself shifting and unstable, particularly
suggestive. Recent critics and theorists have defined ekphrasis as ‘the verbal
representation of visual representation’.6 Yet ruth Webb has noted that the term,
despite its classical-sounding name, is ‘essentially a modern coinage’, and points
out that it is only in recent years that ekphrasis has come to refer to the description
of works of sculpture and visual art within literary works.7 in classical rhetoric,
ekphrasis could refer to virtually any extended description: the word literally
means ‘to speak out’ or ‘to tell in full’.8 as Murray krieger has written, ‘the early
meaning given “ekphrasis” in hellenistic rhetoric … was totally unrestricted: it
referred, most broadly, to a verbal description of something, almost anything, in
life or art’.9 But even then ekphrasis had a specific rhetorical function: as Webb
has noted, ‘What distinguishes ekphrasis is its quality of vividness, enargeia,
its impact upon the mind’s eye of the listener who must, in theon’s words, be
almost made to see the subject … Enargeia is at the heart of ekphrasis’.10 By
conceiving of ekphrasis not only as the verbal representation of works of art –
that is, in the narrower, more modern sense of the term – but also as a subset
or more specific type of enargeia, or vivid narration, the present book uses the
term to examine the complex relationship between the visual and the narrated in
shakespeare’s works. as we shall see in the chapters that follow, shakespeare’s
narrative poems often seem to borrow the uncanny verisimilitude of pictures
that are themselves the product of shakespeare’s language. shakespeare’s plays
similarly contain various allusions to works of pictorial art; yet they also explore
another aesthetic paragone – the relationship between narrative and drama. they
often hint at drama’s superiority to narrative as a mode of representation, while
at the same time exposing drama’s reliance upon and affinity with narrative. This
book argues that shakespeare’s artistry – whether he is writing poetry or plays – is
characterised by a fascination with mimetic interplay and exchange, and with the
possibility that such interplay can create what krieger has called ‘the illusion of
the natural sign’.
6
Mitchell, ‘Ekphrasis and the Other’, p. 152. James A.W. Heffernan defines ekphrasis
as ‘the verbal representation of graphic representation’, in ‘ekphrasis and representation’,
New Literary History, 22 (1991), 297–316 (p. 299). see also heffernan’s book-length study
Museum of Words: The Poetics of Ekphrasis from Homer to Ashbery (chicago: university
of chicago press, 1993); grant F. scott, The Sculpted Word: Keats, Ekphrasis, and the
Visual Arts (hanover and london: university press of New england, 1994); and stephen
cheeke, Writing for Art: The Aesthetics of Ekphrasis (Manchester: Manchester university
press, 2008).
7
ruth Webb, ‘Ekphrasis ancient and Modern: the invention of a genre’, Word and
Image, 15 (1999), 7–18 (p. 14).
8
see Jean h. hagstrum, The Sister Arts: The Tradition of Literary Pictorialism and
English Poetry from Dryden to Gray (chicago: the university of chicago press, 1958),
p. 18n34.
9
Murray krieger, Ekphrasis: The Illusion of the Natural Sign (Baltimore: Johns
hopkins university press, 1992), p. 7.
10
Webb, ‘Ekphrasis ancient and Modern’, p. 13.
6 Narrating the Visual in Shakespeare
in S/Z, roland Barthes touches upon the issue of mimetic interplay during a
discussion of the relationship between literature and painting. after suggesting that
‘every literary description is a view’, Barthes describes the ways in which literary
writers ‘frame’ the scenes that they describe by employing conventions and codes
borrowed from the visual arts.11 he suggests, in other words, that it is easier to
create a sense of ‘realism’ – a term that Barthes himself regards as problematic
– by representing other modes of representation than it is to represent the ‘real’.
Intriguingly, Barthes’s definition of ‘realism’ could also serve as a definition of
ekphrasis itself: ‘thus, realism (badly named, at any rate often badly interpreted)
consists not in copying the real but in copying a (depicted) copy of the real: this
famous reality, as though suffering from a fearfulness which keeps it from being
touched directly, is set farther away, postponed, or at least captured through the
pictorial matrix in which it has been steeped before being put into words: code
upon code, known as realism’ (p. 55). For Barthes, literary ‘realism’ is something
of a misnomer, given that what is being represented is, in fact, a series of codes
and conventions drawn from other types of representation. rather than exposing
the trick, however, Barthes argues that this succession of clichés and conventions
creates the illusion of reality, an illusion that matches our expectations of what
we think the world to be like.12 as Barthes writes, ‘this is why realism cannot
be designated a “copier” but rather a “pasticher” (through secondary mimesis, it
copies what is already a copy)’ (p. 55). Barthes’s comments raise the possibility
that, far from being an obscure literary genre, or a rhetorical exercise, ekphrasis
highlights and crystallises something of the paradoxical nature, even duplicity,
of literary description more generally. perhaps, then, the fascination of ekphrasis
derives from the fact that it is an extreme – or at any rate more explicit – example
of what all representation tries to achieve. in the case of shakespeare, the issue is
further complicated by the fact that his descriptions of visual art tend to be based
on other works of ekphrastic literature rather than actual paintings. By imitating
other verbal representations of visual art, shakespeare’s ekphrases effectively
employ a third level of mimesis; to adapt Barthes, they copy what is already a copy
of a copy. such ekphrastic descriptions may not necessarily create the ‘reality
effect’ that Barthes describes; nonetheless, the various levels of representation that
shakespeare presents us with might inhibit our ability to distinguish between all of
these different levels at the same time.
such questions of mimesis and aesthetics have not, we might note, been the
primary focus of most Shakespeare scholars in the last twenty-five years or so. As
lorna hutson has recently observed, a consideration of the ‘narrative elements’ in
the drama of the english renaissance appears to have ‘dropped somewhere below
11
see roland Barthes, S/Z, trans. richard Miller (New York: Farrar, straus and
giroux, 1974), pp. 54–6, quotation on p. 54. see also Barthes, ‘the reality effect’, in
tzvetan todorov (ed.), French Literary Theory Today (cambridge: cambridge university
press, 1982), pp. 11–17.
12
see Matthew potolsky, Mimesis (london and New York: routledge, 2006), p. 110.
Shakespeare, Narrative and Art 7
the current critical radar’.13 hutson suggests that the reason for this may be the
prevalence of cultural-historical approaches to shakespeare, and reminds us that
new historicist critics – stephen greenblatt in particular – are less interested in
rhetorical figures such as energia and enargeia than in the ways in which literary
texts are part of a larger circulation of ‘social energy’.14 certainly new historicism
has been beneficial in putting history back on the critical agenda, and in prompting
us to rethink and interrogate the relationship between ‘text’ and ‘context’.15
There are, however, signs that the ‘first phase’ of new historicist and cultural
materialist criticism is coming to an end, while some commentators have pointed
to the emergence of a new formalism, and even a new aestheticism.16 as Mark
robson has commented, ‘the aesthetic as a category has been through a period
of renunciation, but is now returning to the critical forefront’.17 even greenblatt
himself, in his Hamlet in Purgatory (2001), has acknowledged – even lamented –
the fact that a concern with the aesthetic dimension of literary works has become,
if not quite unspeakable, then certainly unfashionable. after commenting upon
the ‘magical intensity’ of Hamlet, greenblatt glosses this comment with a tone
reminiscent of the wistfully nostalgic harold Bloom: ‘it seems a bit absurd to
bear witness to the intensity of Hamlet; but my profession has become so oddly
diffident and even phobic about literary power, so suspicious and tense, that it
13
lorna hutson, The Invention of Suspicion: Law and Mimesis in Shakespeare and
Renaissance Drama (Oxford: Oxford university press, 2007), p. 108.
14
see stephen greenblatt, Shakespearean Negotiations: The Circulation of Social
Energy in Renaissance England (Oxford: clarendon press, 1988), pp. 5–6.
15
in Practicing New Historicism (chicago and london: university of chicago press,
2000), catherine gallagher and stephen greenblatt defend new historicist practice by
implying that it is more politically active than other more ‘traditional’ methodologies. they
write: ‘Where traditional “close readings” tended to build towards an intensified sense of
wondering admiration, linked to the celebration of genius, new historicist readings are more
often skeptical, wary, demystifying, critical, and even adversarial’ (p. 9). For an incisive
critique of such arguments see russ Mcdonald’s ‘introduction’ to Shakespeare Reread: The
Texts in New Contexts (ithaca and london: cornell university press, 1994), esp. pp. 8–9.
16
see hugh grady, ‘shakespeare studies, 2005: a situated Overview’, Shakespeare,
1 (2005), 102–20 (esp. p. 113). On the new aestheticism see, for example, John J. Joughin,
‘shakespeare, Modernity and the aesthetic: art, truth and Judgement in The Winter’s Tale’,
in hugh grady (ed.), Shakespeare and Modernity: Early Modern to Millennium (london:
routledge, 2000), pp. 61–84; Joughin and simon Malpas (eds), The New Aestheticism
(Manchester: Manchester university press, 2003); and richard chamberlain, Radical
Spenser: Pastoral, Politics and the New Aestheticism (edinburgh: edinburgh university
press, 2005).
17
Mark robson, The Sense of Early Modern Writing: Rhetoric, Politics, Aesthetics
(Manchester: Manchester university press, 2006), p. 5. robson’s discussion of greenblatt’s
relation to the aesthetic is also relevant here (see pp. 40–43).
8 Narrating the Visual in Shakespeare
risks losing sight of – or at least failing to articulate – the whole reason anyone
bothers with the enterprise in the first place.’18
the present book does not offer an explicit critique of new historicist or
politicised readings of shakespeare, but it does share russ Mcdonald’s sense that
‘aural and other rhetorical pleasures have been slighted in recent years’, and that
the politicising and historicising tenor of shakespeare criticism has ‘necessarily
diverted attention from the formal and material attributes of words’.19 clearly the
ability of language to seduce and to persuade has political implications – one needs
only to read Julius Caesar to be reminded of this – but the primary concern of the
present book is to consider shakespeare’s works in their literary and rhetorical
contexts.20 in the chapters that follow, i argue that a large part of the ‘magical
intensity’ that greenblatt refers to derives from the ways in which shakespeare
repeatedly reflects upon the power of narrative and the ability of art to deceive his
audiences and readers. Many critics have, of course, explored the metadramatic
aspects of shakespeare’s works.21 Yet fewer critics have explored shakespeare’s
preoccupation with the relationship between different types of mimesis in his
plays and his poems, and the wider aesthetic and philosophical issues that this
raises. such questions are also relevant to current debates in shakespeare studies
concerning his status as a ‘literary’ dramatist – a topic that i shall return to in more
detail below. this book, then, is a contribution to a genre of criticism that focuses
on Shakespeare’s literariness and self-reflexivity, and it argues that ekphrasis
18
greenblatt, Hamlet in Purgatory (princeton: princeton university press, 2001),
p. 4. For harold Bloom’s position see The Western Canon: The Books and School of the
Ages (london: Macmillan, 1995), and Shakespeare: The Invention of the Human (london:
Fourth estate, 1999).
19
russ Mcdonald, Shakespeare and the Arts of Language (Oxford: Oxford university
press, 2001), pp. 3–4.
20
For a recent collection of essays that explores the political aspects of rhetoric in the
early modern period see Jennifer richards and alison thorne (eds), Rhetoric, Women and
Politics in Early Modern England (london and New York: routledge, 2007). richards and
thorne suggest that a wider understanding of ‘rhetoric’ might offer a way of revealing the
effectiveness – and political significance – of female speech: ‘Eloquence is a crucial term
for us because it provides a vocabulary and a way of thinking that brings into view the often
untutored persuasiveness of women’s speech and its capacity for critical engagement with
received ideas and structures of authority’ (p. 10).
21
see, for example, anne righter [Barton], Shakespeare and the Idea of the Play
(london: chatto and Windus, 1962); James l. calderwood, Shakespearean Metadrama
(Minneapolis: university of Minnesota press, 1971), and Metadrama in Shakespeare’s
‘Henriad’: ‘Richard II’ to ‘Henry V’ (Berkeley: university of california press, 1979);
robert egan, Drama Within Drama: Shakespeare’s Sense of His Art in ‘King Lear’,
‘The Winter’s Tale’, and ‘The Tempest’ (New York and london: columbia university press,
1975); graham Bradshaw, Shakespeare’s Scepticism (Brighton: harvester, 1987), esp.
ch. 2; robert knapp, Shakespeare: The Theatre and the Book (princeton: princeton
university press, 1989); and robert Weimann, Author’s Pen and Actor’s Voice: Playing
and Writing in Shakespeare’s Theatre (cambridge: cambridge university press, 2000).
Shakespeare, Narrative and Art 9
22
For further discussion of rhetoric in the renaissance see, for example, sister Miriam
Joseph, Shakespeare’s Use of the Arts of Language (New York: columbia university press,
1947); Brian Vickers, ‘shakespeare’s use of rhetoric’, in kenneth Muir and s. schoenbaum
(eds), A New Companion to Shakespeare Studies (cambridge: cambridge university press,
1971), pp. 83–98, and In Defence of Rhetoric (Oxford: clarendon press, 1988); patricia
parker, Literary Fat Ladies: Rhetoric, Gender, Property (london: Methuen, 1987); Neil
rhodes, The Power of Eloquence and English Renaissance Literature (hemel hempstead:
harvester Wheatsheaf, 1992); Quentin skinner, Reason and Rhetoric in the Philosophy of
Hobbes (cambridge: cambridge university press, 1996); Mcdonald, Shakespeare and the
Arts of Language; peter Mack, Elizabethan Rhetoric: Theory and Practice (cambridge:
cambridge university press, 2002); and robson, The Sense of Early Modern Writing, esp.
ch. 2. For a useful overview of the topic see Jennifer richards, Rhetoric (london and New
York: routledge, 2008).
23
Quintilian, Institutio Oratoria, trans. h.e. Butler, 4 vols (london: Wm heinemann,
1921), vol. 2, pp. 433–5 (6.2.29).
24
t.W. Baldwin has argued that shakespeare would have been familiar with Quintilian,
writing that, ‘along with cicero, Quintilian was the Rhetorician, at the pinnacle of grammar
school’, in William Shakspere’s Smalle Latine and Lesse Greeke, 2 vols (urbana: university
of illinois press, 1944), vol. 2, p. 197. ronald knowles, in contrast, has suggested that the
Institutio would have been too cumbersome and expensive for use in grammar schools, and
that students would have been more likely to discover ekphrasis via aphthonius (private
communication). But see also Mcdonald, who suggests that the important point is not
‘whether [shakespeare] knew this or that rhetorical handbook’ but, rather, his ‘absorption
in and fascination with the discipline’ (Shakespeare and the Arts of Language, p. 37).
10 Narrating the Visual in Shakespeare
lorich.25 The twelfth exercise is ‘ΕΚΦΡΑΣΙΣ’, used in its broader sense to mean
description, the purpose of which is to make the reader see: ‘description is a form
of expository speech, according to which narration the subject is placed, as it were,
firmly before the eyes’.26 and in susenbrotus’ Epitome Troporum ac Schematum
(c. 1541), another popular grammar school textbook, we find the following
description of the figure pragmatographia – a specific type of vivid description or
hypotyposis – the description of an event or action: ‘when we graphically depict in
all its colors what is either happening or has already happened, so as to transport
the auditor or reader outside himself, as in a theatre, and thus to divert him’.27
In this last example, Susenbrotus suggests that the figure of pragmatographia
can affect the mind of an auditor or a reader; in other words, this mode of description
is effective both on the page and as oral performance. Moreover, it seems especially
striking that he holds up the theatre as the epitome of representational vividness
and immediacy. in The Arte of English Poesie (1589), george puttenham goes
even further by suggesting that dramatic representations can represent the ‘action
of many persons, or by many voyces liuely represented to the eare and eye, so as
a man might thinke it were euen now a doing’.28 in both cases, susenbrotus and
puttenham suggest that drama, which affects both the aural and visual faculties,
is better than a poem or a mere narrative in presenting us with a ‘liuely’ image of
real life. Yet the situation is more complex than these writers suggest. after all,
shakespeare’s dramatic works are themselves full of instances of the kind of vivid
description that Susenbrotus describes. Why would a playwright fill his plays with
long narrative descriptions that have the capacity to make an audience think they
were at the theatre when they were already at the theatre? surely such acts of
narration would be redundant, given drama’s ability to place things before the eyes
of an audience and – in the words of Quintilian – ‘exhibit the actual scene’?
For some critics, this phenomenon is explicable in terms of the material
conditions of the early modern stage.29 certainly at public playhouses such as
25
see Mack, Elizabethan Rhetoric, pp. 27–9.
26
Aphthonii Sophistae Progymnasmata … cum luculentis & vtilibus in eadem Scholijs
Reinhardi Lorichii Hadamarii (london: thomas Marsh, 1583), sig. Z5v (‘descriptio est
oratio expositiua, que narratione id quod propositum est, diligenter velut oculis subijcit’).
i am grateful to John roe for his help with translating this passage.
27
Quoted from Joseph X. Brennan, ‘the Epitome Troporum ac Schematum of Joannes
susenbrotus: text, translation, and commentary’ (unpublished doctoral dissertation,
university of illinois, 1953), p. 84.
28
george puttenham, The Arte of English Poesie (1589), ed. gladys doidge Willcock
and alice Walker (cambridge: cambridge university press, 1936), p. 31.
29
see anthony Brennan, Onstage and Offstage Worlds in Shakespeare’s Plays
(london and New York: routledge, 1989). Brennan does acknowledge ‘the power of
poetry’ in shakespeare’s narrative reports, yet he suggests that the function of this poetry
is to save money on expensive scenery and stage properties, ‘making by an alchemical
process gold out of dross, scenery which never has to be accounted for in a production
budget’ (p. 12). see also Francis Berry, The Shakespeare Inset: Word and Picture (london:
routledge and kegan paul, 1965).
Shakespeare, Narrative and Art 11
the globe, where scenic staging was kept to a minimum, the audience’s ability to
listen and to imagine was as important, if not more important, than what they saw.
as critics are often keen to point out, plays in the renaissance are ‘heard’ as much
as ‘seen’.30 indeed the word audience refers to ‘the persons within hearing; an
assembly of listeners, an auditory’ (OED, 7a), and derives from the latin audire,
‘to hear’. in addition, as r.a. Foakes has reminded us, ‘shakespeare’s plays were
written for an audience that obtained much of its news, instruction (in sermons,
for example) and entertainment through the ear; many people were illiterate, and
there were no newspapers. it is hard now in our increasingly visual culture to
imagine the excitement of listening to eloquent poetry and prose in stage dialogue,
a pleasure that drew thousands to the theatres of london.’31 perhaps, then, the oral
culture of early modern england – together with the fact that many people were
trained in the arts of rhetoric – would have meant that theatre audiences might not
have objected to what alastair Fowler has called the ‘digressive variety’ of the
dramatic works of shakespeare and his contemporaries.32
Yet shakespeare’s interest in the art of narrative, i would suggest, goes
beyond both the rhetorical culture of the renaissance and the plays’ immediate
theatrical context. as we shall see throughout this book, shakespeare takes an
aesthetic, even philosophical, interest in the ability of language to persuade
his audiences – and perhaps also his readers – that they are in the presence of
the things being described. there are various events throughout shakespeare’s
plays that he chooses to represent in narrative form, moments that he could have
staged, including the death of Falstaff; Ophelia’s encounter with hamlet with
his doublet ‘all unbraced’; gloucester’s death in King Lear; and the reunion of
polixenes, perdita and leontes in the penultimate scene of The Winter’s Tale.
these moments reveal a playwright particularly interested in gaps and absences,
and in the audience’s ability to visualise these scenes in their imagination. For
while shakespeare’s works at times demonstrate the persuasiveness of what we
see, implying a pro-theatrical bias, they also point to the problems and limitations
30
in The Illusion of Power: Political Theater in the English Renaissance (Berkeley:
university of california press, 1975), stephen Orgel writes that theatre in the early
seventeenth century ‘was assumed to be a verbal medium’, and that ‘acting ... was a form
of oratory’ (pp. 16–17). More recently, however, gabriel egan has argued that there are
many more references to seeing a play in the period than there are to hearing a play; see
his ‘hearing or seeing a play?: evidence of early Modern theatrical terminology’, Ben
Jonson Journal, 8 (2001), 327–47.
31
King Lear, ed. r.a. Foakes (Walton-on-thames: thomas Nelson and sons,
1997), p. 6.
32
see alastair Fowler, Renaissance Realism: Narrative Images in Literature and Art
(Oxford: Oxford university press, 2003), p. 33. he writes: ‘although condensed insets
were common in seventeenth-century literature generally, they abound most in the drama
… to an audience trained in rhetoric, this seems to have been acceptable, despite the risk
such undramatic speech always carries’ (p. 33). indeed the notion that narrative insets are
‘undramatic’ is, i would suggest, explored and questioned throughout shakespeare’s plays,
in particular Hamlet; see chapter 3, below.
12 Narrating the Visual in Shakespeare
33
Michael Bath has shown that the idea of the oculi mentis – the ‘eye of the
understanding’ – was a key concept in renaissance rhetoric, and was closely associated
with the figure of enargeia. see his Speaking Pictures: English Emblem Books and
Renaissance Culture (london: longman, 1994), p. 253. For a wide-ranging discussion
of enargeia in early modern literature see adam Mckeown’s ‘Enargeia and the english
literary renaissance’ (unpublished doctoral dissertation, New York university, 2000).
Quotations from Hamlet are taken from ann thompson and Neil taylor’s arden 3 edition
(london: thomson learning, 2006).
34
hagstrum, The Sister Arts, pp. 61–2, quoting Joel e. spingarn, A History of
Literary Criticism in the Renaissance (New York, 1920), p. 42. see also lucy gent,
Picture and Poetry 1560–1620: Relations between Literature and the Visual Arts in the
English Renaissance (leamington spa: James hall, 1981); david evett, Literature and
the Visual Arts in Tudor England (athens and london: the university of georgia press,
1990); clark hulse, The Rule of Art: Literature and Painting in the Renaissance (chicago
and london: the university of chicago press, 1990); Judith dundas, Pencils Rhetorique:
Renaissance Poets and the Art of Painting (Newark and london: university of delaware
press 1993); christopher Braider, Refiguring the Real: Picture and Modernity in Word
and Image, 1400–1700 (princeton: princeton university press, 1993); Norman e. land,
The Viewer as Poet: The Renaissance Response to Art (university park, pa:
the pennsylvania state university press, 1994); and peter erickson and clark hulse (eds),
Early Modern Visual Culture: Representation, Race, and Empire in Early Modern England
(philadelphia: university of pennsylvania press, 2000).
35
see horace, The Art of Poetry, in d.a. russell and M. Winterbottom (eds), Classical
Literary Criticism (Oxford: Oxford university press, 1989), p. 107.
Shakespeare, Narrative and Art 13
36
erasmus, De Copia, in Omnia Opera, 9 vols (Basle: Froben, 1540), vol. 1, p. 66; the
translation is taken from terence cave, ‘Enargeia: erasmus and the rhetoric of presence
in the sixteenth century’, L’Esprit Créateur, 16 (1976), 5–19 (p. 7). see also cave’s
The Cornucopian Text: Problems of Writing in the French Renaissance (Oxford: clarendon
press, 1979).
37
edmund spenser, The Shepherd’s Calendar, in Shorter Poems: A Selection,
ed. John lee (london: everyman, 1998), p. 20.
38
christopher Braider, ‘the paradoxical sisterhood: “ut pictura poesis”’, in glyn
p. Norton (ed.), The Cambridge History of Literary Criticism, Volume 3: The Renaissance
(cambridge: cambridge university press, 1999), pp. 168–75 (p. 169).
39
see François rigolot, ‘the rhetoric of presence: art, literature, and illusion’, in
Norton (ed.), The Cambridge History of Literary Criticism, Volume 3, pp. 161–7 (p. 162).
For some suggestive comments on the pygmalion myth see peter Brooks, Body Work:
Objects of Desire in Modern Narrative (cambridge, Ma, and london: harvard university
press, 1993), pp. 22–5.
14 Narrating the Visual in Shakespeare
conventional verbal signs, painters deploy ‘natural signs’ – that is, visual images
of the things being represented – that closely resemble reality, might be mistaken
for reality or even, in the case of pygmalion’s statue, might actually become
real.40 such assumptions about the superiority of pictorial verisimilitude arguably
persist today. as W.J.t. Mitchell has written, describing what he calls ‘ekphrastic
indifference’, we tend to think that a literary work ‘cannot represent – that is, make
present – its object in the same way a visual representation can. it may refer to an
object, describe it, invoke it, but it can never bring its visual presence before us in
the way pictures do.’41
Yet the relationship between visual and verbal art is far more complex
and ambiguous than such assumptions allow. and indeed something of this
ambivalence can be located in the work of shakespeare. his most explicit
reference to the paragone appears in the first scene of Timon of Athens, in which
we find a suggestive encounter between a Poet and a Painter.42 this is a scene that
– ostensibly at least – prioritises the power and immediacy of visual art above
poetry. the painter modestly suggests that his artistic effort is merely ‘indifferent’
(1.1.30), but the poet will not have it so:
the poet seems to admire the painter’s artistic skill, and notes the ‘imagination’
that the work engenders.43 But is this an implicit suggestion that even visual
artworks not only provoke but also rely upon the ‘imagination’ of the observer?
the poet also notes the ‘dumbness’ of the picture that ‘One might interpret’,
suggesting that the picture demands narration, and requires an observer to give
voice to it. the painter describes his painting in terms that anticipate the description
of hermione’s statue at the end of The Winter’s Tale: ‘it is a pretty mocking of
the life. / here is a touch; is’t good?’ (1.1.35–6). and the poet concurs: ‘i will
say of it, / It tutors nature. Artificial strife / Lives in these touches, livelier than
life’ (1.1.36–8). according to the poet at least, this painting ‘tutors’ nature and
is even more lifelike than life itself. perhaps, then, we might say that the poet –
40
see Braider, ‘the paradoxical sisterhood’, p. 169.
41
Mitchell, ‘ekphrasis and the Other’, p. 152.
42
see antony Blunt, ‘an echo of the “paragone” in shakespeare’, Journal of the
Warburg Institute, 2 (1939), 260–62; W.M. Merchant, ‘Timon and the conceit of art’,
Shakespeare Quarterly, 6 (1955), 249–57; and John dixon hunt, ‘shakespeare and the
Paragone: a reading of Timon of Athens’, in Werner habicht, d.J. palmer and roger
pringle (eds), Images of Shakespeare: Proceedings of the Third Congress of the International
Shakespeare Association, 1986 (Newark: university of delaware press, 1988), pp. 47–63.
43
John Jowett glosses the word imagination here as ‘the painted subject’s power
to form ideas and concepts’ in his Oxford edition of Timon of Athens (Oxford: Oxford
university press, 2004), note to scene 1, line 32.
Shakespeare, Narrative and Art 15
like many renaissance writers – would like his poetic art to achieve something
of the extraordinary vividness and verisimilitude of this painting. But what, one
might wonder, does this picture actually look like? When we read this scene, this
painting is absent, and exists in the mind’s eye of the reader. and, in performance,
even if something approximating this extraordinary picture were brought onstage,
it seems unlikely that the entire theatre audience would have been able to see it,
whatever its artistic merits.
the painter goes on to suggest that his preferred mode of representation is
superior to language, not least in its ability to depict the sufferings of others:
44
hunt, ‘shakespeare and the Paragone’, p. 50.
45
gent, Picture and Poetry, p. 39. Barkan comments that ‘ekphrasis – however
influenced by art works or influential upon them – is passed on in an inheritance more from
homer, Ovid, and petrarch than from Zeuxis, the domus aurea, and Botticelli’ (‘Making
pictures speak’, p. 332). But see also hulse’s discussion of the relationship between philip
sidney and Nicholas hilliard in The Rule of Art, ch. 5.
16 Narrating the Visual in Shakespeare
described in the induction to the Shrew are in fact highly literary; they are based
upon mythological tales that appear in Ovid’s Metamorphoses.46 indeed, as Braider
has shown, the whole doctrine of ut pictura poesis had a ‘fundamentally literary
bias’. he suggests that ‘the doctrine had at bottom less to do with painting than
with a highly rhetorical ideal of poetry and the literary aims and interests of which
poetry was the pre-eminent expression’.47 Braider offers several pieces of evidence
for the literariness of the doctrine, three of which can be summarised here. First,
the authorities that early modern writers drew upon to describe the notion of ut
pictura poesis were themselves writers and commentators on rhetoric. the great
paintings of antiquity that so fascinated renaissance writers were lost, and only
accessible via the works of writers such as pliny and plutarch.48 second, one of
the main reasons that writers of the period were drawn to discussing the relative
merits of visual and verbal art was that it offered them an opportunity to show off
their rhetorical skills. as lucy gent has written, the praise or dispraise of visual art
was ‘a favoured debating topic, because it lent itself to eloquence’.49 and third, the
very notion of ut pictura poesis can be turned on its head. if poetry can resemble
painting, then paintings can resemble poetry. in other words, the phrase reveals a
symmetry and equivalence between the two modes of representation as much as it
points to the superiority of the visual arts.
some of these concerns are explored in the work of shakespeare’s
contemporaries. For while the most famous instances of ekphrasis are to be
found in classical literature – such as homer’s description of achilles’ shield in
book 18 of the Iliad and Virgil’s description of aeneas’ shield in book 8 of the
Aeneid – there was something of a rediscovery of the delights of ekphrasis in the
renaissance.50 For some writers of the period, ekphrasis offered an effective – and
46
see Jonathan Bate, Shakespeare and Ovid (Oxford: clarendon press, 1993),
pp. 118–19. see also The Taming of the Shrew, ed. g.r. hibbard (harmondsworth: penguin,
1968), note to induction 2.48–59.
47
see Braider, ‘the paradoxical sisterhood’, pp. 170–73 (quotations on p. 170).
48
The close affinity between rhetoric and the visual arts is hinted at in Don Quixote,
when Don Quixote reflects upon the difficulties of describing his beloved Dulcinea, and
suggests – in a characteristically rhetorical manner – that she is beyond the representational
powers of both the great artists of antiquity and the ancient rhetoricians: ‘to what purpose
should i set out to delineate and depict … the beauty of the peerless dulcinea, when this
is a burden worthy of better shoulders than mine, an undertaking to be entrusted to the
brushes of parrhasius, timanthus and apelles and to the chisels of lysippus, to paint her
on wood and sculpt her out of bronze, and to ciceronian and demosthenic rhetoric to
praise her?’ (cervantes, Don Quixote, trans. John rutherford (harmondsworth: penguin,
2000), p. 706).
49
gent, Picture and Poetry, p. 39.
50
catherine Belsey has recently described it as ‘a favourite device of the period’ in
‘The Rape of Lucrece’, in patrick cheney (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Shakespeare’s
Poetry (cambridge: cambridge university press, 2007), pp. 90–107 (p. 100). see also claire
preston, ‘ekphrasis: painting in Words’, in sylvia adamson, gavin alexander and katrin
ettenhuber (eds.), Renaissance Figures of Speech (cambridge: cambridge university
press, 2007), pp. 115–29.
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Valcour, ou Le Roman Philosophique. Tome 3
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Language: French
ALINE ET VALCOUR,
OU
LE ROMAN
PHILOSOPHIQUE.
________________________________________
CINQUIÈME PARTIE.
[Illustration: Fuis, lache! dès que tu es assez vil pour nous refuser
tes services, fuis et ne nous outrage point.]
ALINE ET VALCOUR,
OU
LE ROMAN
PHILOSOPHIQUE.
________________________________________
________________________________________
1795.
________________________________________
ALINE ET VALCOUR,
________________________________________
LETTRE TRENTE-SIXIÈME,
Déterville à Valcour.
Verfeuille, le 17 Novembre.
N'est-ce donc point une chose odieuse, mon cher Valcour, qu'un
malheureux jeune homme, uniquement coupable du sentiment qui
fait naître les vertus. . . . Après avoir parcouru la terre, après avoir
bravé tous les périls qui peuvent s'affronter, ne rencontre d'écueils,
de tourmens; de malheurs, qu'à la porte de sa patrie: et bientôt au
centre de cette même Patrie, qu'il ne peut revoir qu'en la maudissant
. . . Oui, j'ose le dire, ces fatalités font naître bien des réflexions, et
j'aime mieux les taire que les dévoiler. L'amitié qu'inspire l'infortuné
Sainville y répandroit trop d'amertume.
C'était Aline et lui, Valcour, c'était tous deux que ce train avait
pour objet . . . Aline et lui, t'entends-je dire? Eh quelle bisarrerie les
rassemble? écoute, et tout va s'éclaircir.
Voilà, mon cher Valcour, tout ce que nous avons pu savoir sur
cette partie, et comme rien n'en est encore éclairci, j'imagine
qu'avant d'achever la lecture de ma lettre, tu vas te livrer à mille
combinaisons; formons-en donc quelqu'unes avec toi,
quelqu'interruption qu'il en doive résulter aux choses intéressantes
qu'il me reste encore à t'apprendre.
Paris, ce 18 novembre.
Quoi qu'il en soit, dis-moi si tu vis jamais rien de plus plaisant que
l'arrivée de cette jolie aventurière chez ma femme; que la sainte et
touchante hospitalité que lui accorde la bonne et chère épouse; que
la manière subite dont je suis averti de tout cela; que ce père, que
ce bon gentilhomme Breton, qui sollicite mon agrément, pour faire
enlever son fils chez ma femme, où la renommée lui apprend qu'il
existe, et que cette occasion singulière, enfin, de faire tout
naturellement capturer notre charmante Aline, au lieu de la dulcinée
du fils de notre gentilhomme en colère. Hein . . . qu'ose-tu dire? . . .
Ose tu prétendre à présent, que ce n'est pas une main divine, qui
vient mettre à la fois dans nos lacs ces deux touchantes créatures.
Oh! pour le coup, adieu tout de bon, il est deux heures du matin
et je tombe de sommeil.
LETTRE TRENTE-HUITIÈME,
Déterville à Valcour.
Verfeuille, le 16 Novembre.
________________________________________
HISTOIRE DE LEONORE.
________________________________________
Ce fut quatre jours après la mauvaise réponse que lui avait valu
son impudent écrit, que Sainville imagina de me laisser seule au
jardin des figues de l'isle de Malamoco, de noirs pressentimens
m'agitaient sans que je pusse en démêler la cause; vingt fois je fus
tentée d'arrêter Sainville, tantôt je voulais lui tout avouer, l'instant
d'après je voulais lui inspirer de la jalousie, sans lui dévoiler mes
motifs. . . . Je chancelais . . . je balbutiais, mes pleurs l'inondaient
malgré moi, sa vertueuse sécurité n'entendait rien, et il partit sans
que j'eusse trouvé le courage de lui dévoiler ce perfide secret. Il ne
fût pas plutôt éloigné, que je sentis l'horreur de ma position, et
qu'un mouvement involontaire m'avertit que j'allais bientôt y
succomber.