Module-2

1.Classification of fuel

Ans: Fuels can be classified based on various criteria such as their origin, physical state,
chemical composition, and their primary use. Here's a general classification:

1. Origin-based Classification:
o Fossil Fuels: Derived from the remains of ancient plants and animals.
Examples include coal, petroleum (crude oil), natural gas.
o Renewable Fuels: Derived from replenishable sources. Examples include
biomass (wood, agricultural residues), biofuels (ethanol, biodiesel), wind
energy, solar energy, hydroelectric power, geothermal energy.
2. Physical State-based Classification:
o Solid Fuels: Generally includes coal, charcoal, and some biomass.
o Liquid Fuels: Such as petroleum, diesel, gasoline, and biofuels like ethanol
and biodiesel.
o Gaseous Fuels: Including natural gas, biogas, and hydrogen.
3. Chemical Composition-based Classification:
o Hydrocarbons: Fuels primarily composed of hydrogen and carbon atoms, like
natural gas, gasoline, diesel, and propane.
o Non-hydrocarbon Fuels: Such as hydrogen, alcohols (like ethanol and
methanol), and some biofuels.
4. Primary Use-based Classification:
o Transportation Fuels: Mainly gasoline, diesel, aviation fuel, and biofuels.
o Industrial Fuels: Including coal, natural gas, and petroleum products used in
various industries.
o Residential and Commercial Fuels: Such as natural gas, heating oil, and
propane.
o Power Generation Fuels: Like coal, natural gas, nuclear fuel, and renewable
sources such as wind, solar, hydro, and geothermal.
5. Environmental Impact-based Classification:
o Conventional Fuels: Such as coal and petroleum, which often have higher
emissions and environmental impacts.
o Cleaner Fuels: Including natural gas, biofuels, and renewable energy sources,
which generally have lower emissions and are considered more
environmentally friendly.

This classification system helps to organize fuels based on their properties, sources, and
applications, which is important for understanding their usage, environmental impact, and
potential alternatives.

2. LCV is higher than NCV?

Ans: LCV (Lower Calorific Value) and NCV (Net Calorific Value) are both measures of the
amount of energy released when a fuel is burned completely. However, they differ in their
calculation methods and what they represent:

1. Lower Calorific Value (LCV): Also known as the Gross Calorific Value (GCV) or
High Heating Value (HHV), LCV is the total amount of heat released when a fuel is
 burned completely and the products of combustion are cooled to the initial
temperature of the fuel and any water vapor formed is condensed. LCV includes the
latent heat of vaporization of water produced during combustion. It is typically higher
than NCV because it accounts for the heat released when water vapor condenses back
into liquid form.
2. Net Calorific Value (NCV): Also known as the Lower Heating Value (LHV), NCV
is the total amount of heat released when a fuel is burned completely, but it excludes
the heat released by the condensation of water vapor formed during combustion. NCV
represents the usable heat energy available from the combustion process. It is
generally lower than LCV because it doesn't account for the latent heat of
vaporization of water.

So, in summary, LCV is typically higher than NCV because it includes the heat released by
the condensation of water vapor, while NCV does not.

3.Explain how cetane number is related to the quality of diesel.

Ans: The cetane number is a measure of the ignition quality of diesel fuel. It indicates how
easily the fuel ignites under compression in a diesel engine. A higher cetane number
generally signifies better ignition quality, while a lower cetane number indicates poorer
ignition quality.

Here's how the cetane number is related to the quality of diesel:

1. Ignition Performance: Diesel engines rely on compression ignition, where fuel is

injected into the combustion chamber and ignited solely by the heat generated during
compression. A higher cetane number means the fuel ignites more readily when
injected into the high-pressure, high-temperature environment of the combustion
chamber. This results in smoother and more efficient combustion, leading to better
engine performance.
2. Cold Starting: Diesel engines can struggle with cold starting, especially in colder
climates. Diesel fuels with higher cetane numbers have better cold-starting
performance because they ignite more easily even at lower temperatures. This reduces
the need for glow plugs or other auxiliary starting aids, ensuring quicker and more
reliable engine starts in cold conditions.
3. Engine Noise and Emissions: The cetane number also influences engine noise and
exhaust emissions. Fuels with higher cetane numbers typically produce quieter
combustion and lower levels of emissions, including particulate matter (soot) and
nitrogen oxides (NOx). This is because efficient and complete combustion reduces the
formation of these pollutants.
4. Fuel Stability and Shelf Life: Diesel fuels with higher cetane numbers tend to be
more stable and have a longer shelf life. This is because they contain fewer
components that can degrade over time, leading to better storage stability and reduced
risk of fuel deterioration, which can cause engine performance issues.

In summary, the cetane number is a crucial indicator of diesel fuel quality, affecting not only
engine performance and emissions but also factors like cold-starting capability and fuel
stability. Diesel fuels with higher cetane numbers are generally preferred for their better
ignition characteristics and overall engine performance.
4.Use of primary and secondary fuel.

Ans: Primary and secondary fuels are terms often used in the context of energy systems and
processes. Here's how they are typically defined and their respective uses:

1. Primary Fuel:
o Definition: Primary fuels are the raw materials or energy sources that are
directly extracted from nature or produced through natural processes. They are
the primary sources of energy.
o Examples: Crude oil, coal, natural gas, sunlight, wind, water (for
hydroelectric power), biomass (wood, agricultural residues), uranium (for
nuclear power).
o Uses: Primary fuels are used directly for energy generation or converted into
more convenient forms of energy like electricity, heat, or mechanical energy.
For example, crude oil is refined into gasoline and diesel for transportation,
coal is burned for electricity generation, and sunlight is converted into
electricity through solar panels.
2. Secondary Fuel:
o Definition: Secondary fuels are derived from primary fuels through
processing, refining, or conversion processes. They are produced from primary
fuels to make them more suitable for specific applications or to improve
efficiency.
o Examples: Gasoline, diesel, propane, natural gas (after processing),
electricity.
o Uses: Secondary fuels are used for various purposes, including transportation,
heating, cooking, and electricity generation. They are often more convenient,
cleaner, and efficient to use compared to primary fuels. For example, gasoline
and diesel are used as transportation fuels, natural gas is used for heating and
cooking, and electricity is used for various applications in homes, industries,
and transportation (electric vehicles).

In summary, primary fuels are the raw energy sources extracted from nature, while secondary
fuels are derived from primary fuels through processing or conversion processes to make
them more suitable for specific applications. Both primary and secondary fuels play essential
roles in meeting energy demands and powering various aspects of modern society.

5.Determination of percentage of moisture content and volatile matter content using

proximate analysis.

Ans: Proximate analysis is a common method used to determine the moisture content, volatile
matter content, fixed carbon content, and ash content of solid fuels such as coal, biomass, and
solid waste. Here's how the percentage of moisture content and volatile matter content are
determined using proximate analysis:

1. **Moisture Content**: - The moisture content represents the amount of water present in
the sample. - To determine the moisture content, a sample of the solid fuel is weighed and
then heated at a specified temperature (usually around 105°C or 110°C) for a specific period
(typically 1 hour or until a constant weight is achieved). - After heating, the sample is re-
weighed. The loss in weight during heating represents the moisture content of the sample. -
The percentage of moisture content is calculated using the formula: \[ \text{Moisture content
(\%)} = \frac{{\text{Initial weight} - \text{Final weight}}}{{\text{Initial weight}}} \times
100 \]

2. **Volatile Matter Content**: - The volatile matter content represents the combustible
gases and vapors released when the sample is heated. - To determine the volatile matter
content, a separate portion of the sample is heated in a controlled environment (such as a
furnace) at a specified temperature (usually around 900°C to 1000°C) for a specific period
(typically 7 minutes to 15 minutes). - During heating, the volatile matter is driven off, leaving
behind fixed carbon and ash. - The percentage of volatile matter content is calculated using
the formula: \[ \text{Volatile matter (\%)} = \frac{{\text{Weight of volatile
matter}}}{{\text{Weight of sample}}} \times 100 \] In summary, proximate analysis
involves heating the sample under controlled conditions to determine the percentage of
moisture content and volatile matter content. These parameters are essential for evaluating
the quality and combustion characteristics of solid fuels.

7. Explain how octane number is related to the quality of gasoline.

Ans: The octane number is a measure of the anti-knock properties of gasoline, indicating how
well it resists premature detonation or knocking in an internal combustion engine. The higher
the octane number, the better the gasoline's resistance to knocking, and therefore, the higher
its quality. Here's how the octane number is related to the quality of gasoline:

1. Prevention of Engine Knocking: Engine knocking, also known as detonation, occurs

when the air-fuel mixture in the combustion chamber ignites spontaneously or
unevenly before the piston reaches the top of its compression stroke. This premature
ignition causes a sharp metallic "knocking" sound and can damage the engine over
time. Gasoline with higher octane numbers is less prone to causing knocking because
it has a higher resistance to auto-ignition under high-pressure, high-temperature
conditions in the engine cylinder.
2. Improved Engine Performance: High-performance and high-compression ratio
engines require gasoline with higher octane numbers to operate efficiently without
knocking. Using gasoline with the appropriate octane rating for the engine's design
helps ensure smooth combustion, optimal power output, and improved fuel efficiency.
Lower-quality gasoline with insufficient octane rating may result in reduced engine
performance, lower fuel efficiency, and potential engine damage due to knocking.
3. Compatibility with Advanced Engine Technologies: Modern engines, especially
those equipped with turbochargers, direct fuel injection, and variable valve timing
systems, often require gasoline with higher octane ratings to maximize performance
and efficiency. Such advanced engine technologies operate at higher temperatures and
pressures, increasing the risk of knocking if lower-octane gasoline is used. Higher-
quality gasoline with higher octane ratings is essential for the proper functioning and
longevity of these advanced engine systems.
4. Emissions Reduction: Gasoline with higher octane numbers tends to burn more
cleanly and efficiently, resulting in lower emissions of harmful pollutants such as
carbon monoxide (CO), hydrocarbons (HC), and nitrogen oxides (NOx). Using
higher-quality gasoline with higher octane ratings can contribute to reducing vehicle
emissions and improving air quality.
In summary, the octane number is a critical indicator of gasoline quality, directly influencing
engine performance, efficiency, emissions, and overall engine health. Gasoline with higher
octane ratings is generally considered of higher quality and is necessary for ensuring optimal
operation of modern, high-performance engines.

8.Determination of percentage of carbon hydrogen and sulphur by ultimate analysis.

Ans: Ultimate analysis is a method used to determine the elemental composition of a

substance, particularly solid fuels such as coal, biomass, and petroleum products. It provides
information about the percentage of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), sulfur (S), nitrogen (N),
oxygen (O), and other elements present in the sample. Here's how the percentages of carbon,
hydrogen, and sulfur are determined by ultimate analysis:

1. **Carbon (C) Content**:

- To determine the carbon content, a sample of the fuel is combusted in a controlled

environment, usually in the presence of excess oxygen or pure oxygen.

- During combustion, all the carbon in the sample is converted to carbon dioxide (CO2),
which is then quantitatively measured using methods such as gas chromatography or infrared
spectroscopy.

- The percentage of carbon in the sample is calculated based on the amount of carbon
dioxide produced during combustion.

- The formula to calculate the percentage of carbon is:

\[ \text{Carbon (\%)} = \frac{{\text{Mass of carbon in sample}}}{{\text{Mass of

sample}}} \times 100 \]

2. **Hydrogen (H) Content**:

- Similarly, the hydrogen content is determined by combusting a sample of the fuel in the
presence of excess oxygen or pure oxygen.

- During combustion, the hydrogen in the sample reacts with oxygen to form water (H2O),
which is then quantitatively measured.

- The percentage of hydrogen in the sample is calculated based on the amount of water
produced during combustion.

- The formula to calculate the percentage of hydrogen is:

\[ \text{Hydrogen (\%)} = \frac{{\text{Mass of hydrogen in sample}}}{{\text{Mass of

sample}}} \times 100 \]

3. **Sulfur (S) Content**:

 - The sulfur content is determined separately from carbon and hydrogen, typically using
methods such as combustion followed by titration or instrumental analysis such as X-ray
fluorescence (XRF) or inductively coupled plasma (ICP) spectroscopy.

- In combustion-based methods, the sample is combusted to convert sulfur to sulfur dioxide

(SO2), which is then captured and quantitatively analyzed.

- The percentage of sulfur in the sample is calculated based on the amount of sulfur dioxide
produced during combustion.

- The formula to calculate the percentage of sulfur is:

\[ \text{Sulfur (\%)} = \frac{{\text{Mass of sulfur in sample}}}{{\text{Mass of

sample}}} \times 100 \]

In summary, ultimate analysis provides valuable information about the elemental

composition of a fuel, including the percentages of carbon, hydrogen, and sulfur. These
parameters are essential for characterizing the fuel's properties, combustion behavior, and
environmental impact.

9.Correlation between Octane number and quality of gases in an explain how variation in the
Octane number impact the fuel performance and engine efficiency

Ans: The correlation between octane number and the quality of gasoline lies in the fuel's
ability to resist knocking in an engine. Higher octane numbers indicate better resistance to
knocking, which is crucial for maintaining engine performance, efficiency, and durability.
Here's how variation in the octane number impacts fuel performance and engine efficiency:

1. Engine Knocking Prevention:

o Higher octane numbers indicate greater resistance to knocking, which occurs
when the air-fuel mixture ignites prematurely or unevenly in the engine
cylinder. Engine knocking can lead to engine damage over time if not
controlled.
o Gasoline with lower octane numbers is more prone to causing knocking,
particularly in high-performance or high-compression ratio engines. This can
result in reduced engine efficiency, power output, and potentially increased
fuel consumption.
2. Optimized Ignition Timing:
o Engines equipped with electronic control systems adjust ignition timing based
on various factors, including the octane rating of the gasoline used. Higher-
octane gasoline allows for more aggressive ignition timing, optimizing
combustion efficiency and engine performance.
o Lower-octane gasoline may require conservative ignition timing settings to
prevent knocking, which can compromise engine performance and efficiency.
3. Improved Fuel Economy:
o Higher-octane gasoline can improve fuel economy in certain engine types,
particularly in turbocharged or direct-injection engines that operate at higher
temperatures and pressures.
 oHigher octane allows for more efficient combustion, reducing the risk of
incomplete combustion and wasted fuel. This can lead to better fuel economy
and lower emissions.
4. Enhanced Engine Performance:
o Vehicles designed for higher-performance or turbocharged engines often
require gasoline with higher octane ratings to achieve their full potential.
o Higher-octane gasoline allows for more aggressive engine tuning, higher boost
pressures, and increased power output without risking engine damage from
knocking.
5. Reduced Emissions:
o Improved combustion efficiency resulting from higher-octane gasoline can
lead to lower emissions of pollutants such as carbon monoxide (CO),
hydrocarbons (HC), and nitrogen oxides (NOx).
o Lower emissions contribute to improved air quality and compliance with
environmental regulations.

In summary, variation in octane number significantly impacts fuel performance and engine
efficiency by influencing the engine's ability to resist knocking, optimize combustion timing,
improve fuel economy, enhance engine performance, and reduce emissions. Choosing
gasoline with the appropriate octane rating for a specific engine type and performance
requirements is essential for maximizing efficiency and maintaining engine health.

10.How Octane number is related to quality of diesel fuel

Ans: Octane number is a measure of the anti-knock properties of gasoline, indicating its
resistance to premature ignition or knocking in a spark-ignition engine. However, diesel fuel
is used in compression-ignition engines, where ignition occurs solely due to the heat
generated by compressing the air-fuel mixture in the combustion chamber, rather than by a
spark. Therefore, octane number is not directly related to the quality of diesel fuel.

Instead, the quality of diesel fuel is typically assessed based on parameters such as cetane
number, which is analogous to octane number but for diesel fuel. The cetane number
represents the ignition quality of diesel fuel—the higher the cetane number, the shorter the
ignition delay period and the better the fuel's combustion characteristics in a compression-
ignition engine.

Here's how the cetane number, rather than the octane number, is related to the quality of
diesel fuel:

1. Ignition Performance: Diesel engines rely on compression ignition, where the fuel-
air mixture ignites spontaneously when compressed to a certain temperature and
pressure. A higher cetane number indicates shorter ignition delays, meaning the fuel
ignites more readily upon compression. This leads to smoother combustion, better
engine performance, and reduced emissions.
2. Cold Starting: Diesel engines can experience difficulties in cold starting, especially
in colder climates. Diesel fuel with higher cetane numbers has better ignition
properties at low temperatures, resulting in easier and quicker cold starts.
3. Engine Efficiency: Diesel fuel with a higher cetane number typically burns more
efficiently, producing more power and better fuel economy. This is because it allows
for more complete combustion of the fuel-air mixture within the engine cylinder.
 4. Emissions Reduction: Diesel fuel with higher cetane numbers tends to produce fewer
emissions of pollutants such as particulate matter (soot) and nitrogen oxides (NOx).
This contributes to improved air quality and compliance with emission regulations.

In summary, while octane number is crucial for assessing the quality of gasoline, the cetane
number is the key parameter for evaluating the quality of diesel fuel. A higher cetane number
indicates better ignition performance, engine efficiency, and emissions characteristics in
compression-ignition engines.

11.Classify fuels based on their occurrence and physical state example must be there

Ans: Fuels can be classified based on their occurrence in nature and their physical state.
Here's a classification with examples:

1. **Based on Occurrence**:

- **Natural Fuels**: Fuels that occur naturally in the environment.

- Example: Crude oil (petroleum), natural gas, coal, wood, peat.

- **Synthetic Fuels**: Fuels that are produced through human-made processes or by

converting other substances.

- Example: Synthetic gasoline (produced from coal or biomass), hydrogen (produced

through electrolysis or steam reforming).

2. **Based on Physical State**:

- **Solid Fuels**: Fuels that exist in a solid state at room temperature.

- Example: Coal, wood, charcoal, biomass pellets.

- **Liquid Fuels**: Fuels that exist in a liquid state at room temperature.

- Example: Crude oil (petroleum), gasoline, diesel, kerosene, ethanol.

- **Gaseous Fuels**: Fuels that exist in a gaseous state at room temperature.

- Example: Natural gas (methane), propane, hydrogen, biogas.

By combining these classifications, we can categorize fuels according to both their

occurrence in nature and their physical state. For instance:

- Natural solid fuels: Coal, wood.

- Natural liquid fuels: Crude oil (petroleum).

- Natural gaseous fuels: Natural gas.

- Synthetic liquid fuels: Synthetic gasoline.

- Synthetic gaseous fuels: Hydrogen.