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Table of Contents

Preface................................................................................................................................................... xv

Acknowledgment................................................................................................................................. xix

Chapter 1
Global Responsibility and The Future of Migration................................................................................ 1
Serpil Kir Elitas, Hatay Mustafa Kemal University, Turkey

Chapter 2
A Critical Review on the Current Status of Human Rights in the Shed of International Law: A
Case From Rohingya’s in Bangladesh................................................................................................... 15
Parimal Kumar Roy, Bangladesh Public Administration Training Centre, Bangladesh
Pias Kumar Das, Exim Bank Limited, Bangladesh
Chandrima Das, Jahangirnagar University, Bangladesh

Chapter 3
Reflections of the Global Convention on Refugees and Its Implications in the International Press..... 32
Türker Elitaş, Hatay Mustafa Kemal University, Turkey

Chapter 4
Evaluating Lebanon’s Economic Policy Response to the Syrian Refugee Crisis: Challenges and
Alternatives............................................................................................................................................ 49
Mohamad Zreik, University of Cambridge, UK

Chapter 5
Human Migration Analysis Using Machine Learning........................................................................... 68
Narendra Kumar Rao Bangole, Mohan Babu University, India
Lingam Thanvitha, Sree Vidyanikethan Engineering College, India
T. Benazir Suraiya, Sree Vidyanikethan Engineering College, India
Y. N. V. Shashank, Sree Vidyanikethan Engineering College, India
N. Loka Harshith, Sree Vidyanikethan Engineering College, India

Chapter 6
Afghans Ante Portas: Looking at Immigrants in Turkiye Through Google’s Peephole........................ 80
Savaş Keskin, Bayburt University, Turkey
Gökhan Kömür, Bayburt University, Turkey

Chapter 7
Navigating Migrant Education in the USA: A Comprehensive Study of the Florida Panhandle
Area...................................................................................................................................................... 101
Gissella Valle, Independent Researcher, USA

Chapter 8
Migration and Refugees: Bibliometric Analysis of Turkish Academic Literature.............................. 119
Serpil Kir Elitaş, Hatay Mustafa Kemal University, Turkey
Türker Elitaş, Hatay Mustafa Kemal University, Turkey

Chapter 9
Crime and Criminality: An Analysis of English Media Reportage on Migrant Workers in Kerala,
India..................................................................................................................................................... 133
Vinishya Mary Philip, Independent Researcher, India

Chapter 10
Representation of Migration From Central Asia to Russia in Post-Soviet Cinema............................. 154
Niyazi Ayhan, Kyrgyzstan Turkey Manas University, Kyrgyzstan
Regina Camankulova, Kyrgyzstan Turkey Manas University, Kyrgyzstan

Chapter 11
Use of Digital Technologies in Migration and Asylum Management................................................. 169
Hasret Duman, Hatay Mustafa Kemal University, Turkey

Chapter 12
Migration Narratives During the COVID-19 Pandemic...................................................................... 189
Tripti Bhushan, O.P. Jindal Global University, India

Chapter 13
Migration News in Turkey and the Language of Emotion................................................................... 206
Cemile Uzun, Fırat Üniversitesi, Turkey

Chapter 14
Migrant Children in Southern Europe: Media Representation of Exclusion in the Spanish
Television............................................................................................................................................. 229
Lola Bañon Castellón, Valencia University, Spain

Chapter 15
The Representation of Migrants in the Mainstream and Critical News Media................................... 248
Ilkay Yıldız, Bingöl Üniversitesi, Turkey
Nural Imik Tanyildizi, Fırat University, Turkey

Chapter 16
Media Bias and “Othering”: A Critical Discourse on News Framing of the Rohingya Crisis
Settlement in Bangladesh and India..................................................................................................... 264
S. M. Aamir Ali, Symbiosis Law School Pune, Symbiosis International University (Deemed),
Pune, India
Anuttama Ghose, School of Law, Dr. Vishwanath Karad MIT-World Peace University, Pune, India
Syed Mohd Uzair Iqbal, Symbiosis Law School Pune, Symbiosis International University
(Deemed), Pune, India

Chapter 17
Exploring United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees’ (UNHCR) TikTok Landscape:
Insights Into Migration Representations.............................................................................................. 278
Zindan Çakıcı, Üsküdar University, Turkey
Emre Meriç, Istanbul Bilgi University, Turkey

Compilation of References................................................................................................................ 296

About the Contributors..................................................................................................................... 332

Index.................................................................................................................................................... 336
Detailed Table of Contents

Preface................................................................................................................................................... xv

Acknowledgment................................................................................................................................. xix

Chapter 1
Global Responsibility and The Future of Migration................................................................................ 1
Serpil Kir Elitas, Hatay Mustafa Kemal University, Turkey

Migration has always played a significant role in shaping societies and cultures. Migration today plays
a crucial role in shaping the global agenda on sustainable development and the quest for decent work
opportunities. As the world becomes more interconnected, it is essential for policy-makers to view
migration as an opportunity rather than a threat. Migration is not just a national issue, but a global
responsibility. By adopting a comprehensive approach that takes into account the link between migration
and development, we can harness its potential to expand economic opportunities, reduce poverty, and
accelerate the diffusion of new ideas and technologies. Furthermore, youth migration is a critical factor
in human capital accumulation for future generations and should be seen as a driving force for social
and economic growth. In this chapter, the authors delve into the various factors driving migration, the
challenges faced by refugees, and the impact of migration on both the countries of origin and destination.

As an abstinence of the UN Refugee Convention, Bangladesh does not have an obligation to protect her
inward refugees, and the Rohingya are one of the challenging concerns. This chapter aims to discuss human
rights in light of international treaties/documents concerning the Rohingya community in Bangladesh
when they are a stateless community, not refugees. Methodologically, this study takes the critical discourse
analysis approach aided by secondary data. The study found that the community is competing with the
majority of Bengali to access the common resources or property pools like forests, rivers, and beaches.
This study concludes with a solid proposal of international legal frameworks’ ratification and to make
some local legal provisions for policy accelerating to reach the SDGs 2030.

Chapter 3
Reflections of the Global Convention on Refugees and Its Implications in the International Press..... 32
Türker Elitaş, Hatay Mustafa Kemal University, Turkey

Various subjective and objective factors such as wars, famine, hunger, and oligarchic governance continue
to impel individuals to relocate. Often, these factors leave individuals with little choice but to seek
refuge within or beyond their borders. This study focuses on the global refugee consensus announced in
New York in 2018, which serves as an actionable plan. Employing discourse analysis methodology, the
study aims to elucidate how this agreement, often underscored by developed countries, is portrayed in
the international press. The international media outlet Euronews was selected as a sample for analysis.
The findings of the study indicate that international powers, instead of actively seeking solutions to the
issue, primarily aim to devise a roadmap for the ‘other’ to address the problem.

This chapter critically evaluates the policy measures enacted by Lebanon in response to the economic
turmoil following the Syrian refugee influx. The analysis encompasses a spectrum of policy areas, including
but not limited to monetary policy, fiscal adjustments, and labour market regulation. It scrutinizes the
efficacy of these policies, highlighting both their strengths and potential weaknesses. Moreover, the
chapter debates the long-term viability of the Lebanese government’s responses, especially in relation
to persistent challenges such as employment, price stability, and external trade. Additionally, the chapter
provides a discourse on alternative policy strategies, inviting policymakers to consider varied approaches
that may prove more effective in counteracting the economic impacts of the crisis. The core argument
posits that Lebanon is at a critical juncture where policy decisions hold significant weight in determining
the nation’s economic destiny.

When we consider data analysis and machine learning, we usually discover it beneficial for business
applications. However, both have immense potential to assist in the resolution of a wide range of issues
which are classified as “social phenomena”. The aim of the project is to offer a machine learning solution
for a problem that falls under that category: human migration. The project’s main goal is to research
datasets, preprocess datasets, develop a machine learning model to predict whether a country’s net human
migration rate (the number of incoming human migrants vs the number of outgoing human migrants)
fell into the category of positive or negative. The methodology involves data pre-processing, feature
engineering, and the application of machine learning algorithms such as decision trees, neural networks.
The model is trained and validated using historical data, ensuring its accuracy and generalizability.

Bauman’s approach, conceptualised as ‘strangers at out door/ante portas’, requires a relationship that requires
us to look at immigrants from inside the door. This study focuses on how Afghans, who are collectively
expected to be hated as the new ‘dangerous’ strangers, appear in Turkiye. The images provided by Google
searches become a sufficient ‘peephole’ through which to collectively see and imagine Afghans. This
is because the ‘peephole’ metaphor encompasses a symbolic context in which the fear of the ‘strangers
at out door (ante portas)’, the desire to see/observe them, and the parallax effect can be symbolically
represented at a common root. In the study, by typing “Afghans” and “Afghan Migrants” in Turkish into
the Google search bar, the visual (photographic) search results are used to establish relationships with
alienation and otherness in the visual representation of Afghan identity.

This chapter is part of a study carried out as part of a final master’s creative project in the School of
Communications at Florida State University. A social marketing communication campaign was created
for the Migrant Education Program from the Florida Panhandle Area Educational Consortium. The study
was the foundation for developing effective strategies for influencing behavior change by understanding
the intended population (perceptions, needs, and barriers). In this sense, this initial research stage brought
valuable insights to describe the target audience and determine the best ways to reach them. For that
purpose, a literature review and, from the qualitative perspective, mini-focus group discussions were
conducted. The formative research yielded parents’ perceptions and experiences, specifically beliefs,
values, language barriers, parents’ involvement in their kids’ education, and communication channels.

In recent years, poverty, conflict, climate change, and many other factors have been the cause of mass
displacement in countries around the world. As a result, the migration and displacement of people has
become one of the most important problems in the world. This study is important because it analyses
thesis on mass displacement according to different criteria. It contributes to the literature and sets an
example for researchers who will work in this field. The main objective of this study is to conduct a
bibliometric analysis of the dissertations published on the topic of “migration and refugee” by determining
the development processes and characteristics of the dissertations published in all fields in Turkey
between 2012 and 2023. For this purpose, the dissertations that were scanned and published by YÖKTez
(National Dissertation Centre of the Council of Higher Education) in Turkey and that have the title, key
word, abstract, and subject heading ‘Migration and Refugees’ were examined.

Worldwide, migration as a phenomenon is at the center of various debates and mass media plays a critical
role in this regard by enabling the production of public opinion. While Kerala is well known as a state that
sends out migrant workers to other states and countries for work of various forms, the past two decades
have witnessed a demographic shift through the large influx of workers from the northern and eastern
parts of the country to Kerala for wage work spanning all sectors of the economy. The society in Kerala
and its media have portrayed migrant workers in different ways at different points in time. This study
has undertaken a qualitative analysis of select media reports spanning an eight-year period from 2016 to
2023 to examine English media coverage of issues surrounding migrant laborers, especially around the
issue of crime and criminality. The study finds that much reportage has portrayed migrants negatively
and unfavorably and this has had an impact on the perception of the local population of these workers.

This chapter examines the representation of migration by cinema, particularly focusing on the period
after the collapse of the Soviet Union when migration movements from Central Asia to Russia intensified.
Migration presents various challenges for individuals and communities, making it essential to consider
cinema as a critical lens to understand migrant experiences, identity formation, and integration. The chapter
aims to evaluate how migration is depicted in films and its association with migrant experiences. Using a
comprehensive film analysis method, the study delves into the difficulties faced by individuals migrating
from Central Asia to Russia during this period, emphasizing the importance of comparing cinematic
representations with methodologies used in social sciences and cultural studies to comprehensively grasp
the experiences and challenges of migrants.

Chapter 11
Use of Digital Technologies in Migration and Asylum Management................................................. 169
Hasret Duman, Hatay Mustafa Kemal University, Turkey

Migration is a multidimensional, complex, and global issue. The fact that migration is a multidimensional
and complex phenomenon causes measurements to contain uncertainties and makes it difficult to create
migration models. In addition, tracking refugees, asylum seekers, and other people in need of international
protection is also necessary in migration management. Therefore, it is of prime importance to take
advantage of developing digital technologies for more effective migration management. Therefore, in this
study, some countries were examined to provide a concrete perspective on the use of digital technologies
in migration and asylum management.

Chapter 12
Migration Narratives During the COVID-19 Pandemic...................................................................... 189
Tripti Bhushan, O.P. Jindal Global University, India

The chapter delves into the multifaceted stories and experiences of individuals and communities navigating
migratory journeys amidst the unprecedented global challenges posed by the COVID-19 pandemic.
In this exploration, the chapter aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of the impact of the
pandemic on migration dynamics, shedding light on the narratives that emerged during this tumultuous
period. It then delves into the unique challenges posed by the pandemic, including border closures, travel
restrictions, and the exacerbation of pre-existing inequalities faced by migrants.

Chapter 13
Migration News in Turkey and the Language of Emotion................................................................... 206
Cemile Uzun, Fırat Üniversitesi, Turkey

Analyzing the emotional tone used in migration-related news articles is important for revealing how
language patterns employed in news texts influence society. This study aimed to determine which emotional
tones are used in migration-related newspaper articles in Turkey. To achieve this goal, the emotional
tone of migration-related news articles from four newspapers published in Turkey—Hürriyet, Posta,
Sabah, and Cumhuriyet—was examined. Tokuhisa, Inui, and Matsumoto’s emotional tone analysis was
employed to classify the emotional tone of the news articles. From the obtained data, it was determined
which emotional tone predominates in migration-related news articles in these newspapers. This analysis
is crucial for uncovering how emotional tone is utilized in migration-related news articles and identifying
the factors that influence the emotional tone used.

One of the growing phenomena in southern European migration is the increasing number of children
travelling alone. Their stigmatisation is partly due to the discourse disseminated by some media and social
networks. This study analyses the treatment of unaccompanied foreign children and adolescents, often
labelled with the acronym MENA, by Spanish television news programmes. The sample of this study
covers productions broadcast on the first screen and reduplicated in the digital sphere. It is concluded
that, in general, there has been an evolution in professional awareness of the media treatment of their
image, this being more evident in public television. However, there is a negative assignment of meaning
to foreign minors due to the arguments put forward by extreme right-wing parties, which have gained
presence in both traditional and digital media.

Migration is a phenomenon that has existed since the beginning of human history. The migrations in
history were made for such climatic differences, finding better food, and living in more suitable places.
However, in the last few centuries, migrations have been mostly carried out for purposes such as wars,
conflicts, and adaptation to the new world order. Turkey is a country exposed to migration due to wars in
neighboring countries. This study tried to reveal how issues such as migration, immigrants, and refugees,
which are considered important problems all over the world in both mainstream and critical news media.

The research population consists of all digital newspapers published in Turkey. In this study, Hürriyet,
Sabah, and Yenişafak newspapers, such as Cumhuriyet, Evrensel, and Sözcü newspapers, were selected
as samples to represent the mainstream media. The news about immigrants in the selected newspapers
was examined using the discourse analysis method.

The persecution of Rohingya Muslim minority in Myanmar’s Rakhine state garnered significant
international news coverage. According to normative theory, media in various nations are expected to
report on an issue differently due to variations in the socio-political systems. This chapter analyses the
news media portrayal of the Rohingya issue in India and Myanmar. These nations have varying degrees
of engagement and diverse media systems. This chapter attempts to highlight on the idea of “othering”
as it has been seen through the lens of identity politics. Further, this chapter aims to examine how each
newspaper handles the Rohingya problem based on the overall message sent in the headlines. Newspapers
deliberately craft the phrasing of their headlines. The linguistic structure and ideological perspectives
of the two mediums are examined.

This study rigorously examines UNHCR’s portrayal of migrants on TikTok through systematic
content analysis. By scrutinizing various aspects of the organization’s communication strategies such
as messaging functionalities, video formats, emotional tonalities, and representation of migrants, the
research unveils UNHCR’s primary use of TikTok for disseminating information on migrant rights and
personal narratives, fostering community cohesion, and encouraging actionable engagement. Moreover,
the findings underscore UNHCR’s nuanced depiction of migrants, moving beyond stereotypical narratives
and effectively leveraging TikTok’s features to amplify migrant voices and advocate for their rights. This
strategic approach contributes to a comprehensive understanding of migrants, shedding light on their
diverse experiences, challenges, and aspirations.

Compilation of References................................................................................................................ 296

About the Contributors..................................................................................................................... 332

Index.................................................................................................................................................... 336
xv

Preface

In an increasingly globalized world, the role of the media in shaping public perceptions and attitudes
towards complex social issues such as migration and asylum has become more important than ever. This
book, Media Representation of Migrants and Refugees, is a timely and important contribution to our
understanding of how different media outlets and different perspectives portray these people and the
critical consequences of such representations.
The global migration landscape has undergone significant transformations in recent years, resulting
in an increased need to address the often one-dimensional and even biased narratives that dominate
mainstream media (Shomron & Tirosh, 2020). Policymakers and integration experts are grappling with
the challenges of communicating effectively about the realities of migration as public discourse becomes
increasingly polarised and vulnerable to the spread of harmful stereotypes (Ahad & Banulescu-Bogdan,
2019).
The global conversation on migrants, refugees, and those in transit is too often clouded by biases,
misconceptions, and distortions. Media representations, while pivotal in shaping public opinion, frequently
fall prey to perpetuating stereotypes, fostering discrimination, and distorting realities. This perpetuates
a climate where migrants and refugees are often misunderstood, marginalized, and subjected to hate
speech. These narratives not only impede efforts towards inclusive societies but also exacerbate the
polarization of public discourse on migration.
In response to this pressing need, Media Representation of Migrants and Refugees emerges as a crucial
intervention. This book aims to shed light on the complex interplay between media, public opinion, and
the lived experiences of migrants and refugees. It provides a comprehensive analysis of how various
media platforms, from traditional news outlets to social media, have framed the narratives surrounding
these marginalized groups, and the subsequent impact on their social and political inclusion within host
societies. This edited volume aspires to provide a comprehensive solution by gathering interdisciplin-
ary perspectives to critically examine and challenge prevailing media narratives. By convening scholars
and practitioners from diverse fields such as Social Sciences, Humanities, Media, Communications, and
Government, our aim is to cultivate a nuanced understanding of the intricate relationship between media
representations and the lived experiences of migrants.
The chapters in this edited reference book, Media Representation of Migrants and Refugees, offer a
diverse array of perspectives and analyses on one of the most pressing issues of our time. From exploring
the multifaceted nature of migration as both an opportunity and a challenge to examining the intricate
dynamics of policy responses and media portrayals, each chapter delves into critical aspects of the mi-
gration narrative. Through methodologies ranging from Critical Discourse Analysis to machine learning
algorithms, these chapters dissect the complexities of migration and refugee experiences across various

Preface

contexts, shedding light on issues such as human rights, economic impacts, media representations, and
the intersectionality of identity. Together, they provide invaluable insights for scholars, policymakers,
media professionals, and anyone seeking a deeper understanding of the intricacies surrounding media
representation and migration in today’s interconnected world.
Through rigorous research and insightful case studies, the authors of this volume offer a deeper
understanding of the media capabilities that can empower migrants and refugees to assert their own
narratives and amplify their voices. In this context, the book consists of 17 chapters.
In the first chapter, titled “Global Responsibility and The Future of Migration,” the importance of
migration in shaping societies and cultures is emphasized, and a holistic approach is adopted based on
the idea that migration is not a threat but a national issue and a global responsibility. Considering the
link between migration and development, the potential of migration to expand economic opportunities,
reduce poverty, and accelerate the diffusion of new ideas and technologies is discussed. Other topics
include the various factors affecting migration, the challenges faced by refugees, and the impact of mi-
gration on both countries of origin and destination.
In the second chapter, titled “A Critical Review on the Current Status of Human Rights in the Shed
of International Law: A Case from Rohingya’s in Bangladesh,” aims to discuss the human rights of the
Rohingya community in Bangladesh in the light of international treaties/documents when they are not
refugees but a stateless community. The study concludes with a robust proposal to ratify international
legal frameworks and make some domestic legal provisions for policies that will accelerate the achieve-
ment of the Sustainable Development Goals 2030.
The third chapter, titled “Reflections of the Global Convention on Refugees and its Implications in
the International Press,” focuses on the global exile agreement blazoned in New York in 2018, which
serves as an practicable plan. Employing discourse analysis methodology, the study aims to interpret
how this agreement, frequently underlined by developed countries, is portrayed in the transnational press.
The fourth chapter, titled “Evaluating Lebanon’s Economic Policy Response to the Syrian Refugee
Crisis: Challenges and Alternatives,” critically evaluates the policy measures enacted by Lebanon in re-
sponse to the profitable turmoil following the Syrian exile influx. The analysis encompasses a spectrum of
policy areas, including but not limited to fiscal policy, fiscal acclimations, and labour request regulation.
The fifth chapter, titled “Human Migration Analysis Using Machine Learning,” discusses data prepro-
cessing, feature engineering, and the utilization of machine learning algorithms for accurate predictions.
The sixth chapter, titled “Afghans Ante Portas: Looking at Immigrants in Turkey Through the Google’s
Peephole,” investigates how Afghans are portrayed in Turkish media through Google search results. It
utilizes Bauman’s concept of ‘Strangers at Out Door’ to analyze the visual representation and perception
of Afghan identity. The images provided by Google searches become a sufficient ‘peephole’ through
which to collectively see and imagine Afghans.
Chapter 7, titled “Navigating Migrant Education in the USA: A Comprehensive Study of the Florida
Panhandle Area,” presents a study on developing effective strategies for behavior change within migrant
communities. Through literature review and mini-focus group discussions, the chapter provides insights
into addressing barriers and enhancing communication channels.

xvi
Preface

Chapter 8, titled “Migration and Refugees: Bibliometric Analysis of Turkish Academic Literature,”
conducts a bibliometric analysis of dissertations published in Turkey, contributing to the literature on
migration and refugees.
In Chapter 9, titled “Crime and Criminality: An Analysis of English Media Reportage on Migrant
Workers in Kerala, India,” the authors have undertaken select media reports spanning an eight year period
from 2016 to 2023 to examine English media coverage of issues surrounding migrant laborers, especially
around the issue of crime and criminality, focusing on issues of crime and criminality.
Chapter 10, titled “Representation of Migration from Central Asia to Russia in Post-Soviet Cinema,”
examines how migration is depicted in films post-Soviet Union collapse, emphasizing the importance
of cinema in understanding migrant experiences.
In Chapter 11, titled “Use of Digital Technologies in Migration and Asylum Management,” explores
the use of digital technologies for effective migration and asylum management in selected countries.
Chapter 12, titled “Migration Narratives During the COVID-19 Pandemic,” investigates the impact of
the pandemic on migration dynamics and narratives, highlighting unique challenges faced by migrants.
Chapter 13, titled “Migration News in Turkey and the Language of Emotion,” analyzes emotional
tones in migration-related news articles from Turkish newspapers, uncovering their influence on public
perception.
Chapter 14, titled “Migrant Children in Southern Europe: Media Representation of Exclusion in the
Spanish Television,” examines Spanish television news portrayal of unaccompanied foreign children,
addressing stigmatization and political influences.
Chapter 15, titled “The Representation of Migrants in the Mainstream and Critical News Media,”
utilizes discourse analysis to examine news coverage of immigrants in Turkish newspapers, shedding
light on mainstream media representations.
Chapter 16, titled “Media Bias and ‘Othering’: A Critical Discourse on News Framing of the Ro-
hingya Crisis Settlement in Bangladesh and India,” compares news media portrayal of the Rohingya
crisis in India and Myanmar, exploring variations in ideological perspectives and linguistic structures.
Chapter 17, titled “Exploring United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees’ (UNHCR) TikTok
Landscape: Insights Into Migration Representations,” conducts a systematic content analysis of UNHCR’s
TikTok communication strategies, highlighting its role in amplifying migrant voices and advocating for
their rights.
Through meticulous analysis and empirical studies, this book endeavors to unveil underlying biases,
spotlight best practices, and offer constructive alternatives for crafting more inclusive narratives. It is a
vital resource for academics, researchers, policymakers, and media professionals alike, who are dedicated
to comprehending and addressing the complexities of media representation within the realm of migration.
I envision this book serving as a beacon for those in Social Sciences, Humanities, Media, Com-
munications, Education, Government, and Law, furnishing them with invaluable insights and strategies
for combating stereotypes, nurturing empathy, and fostering a more enlightened and inclusive public
discourse on migration.

Serpil Kir Elitas

Hatay Mustafa Kemal University, Turkey

xvii
Preface

REFERENCES

Ahad, A., & Banulescu-Bogdan, N. (2019). Communicating strategically about immigrant integration:
Policymaker perspectives. Migration Policy Institute Europe.
Shomron, B., & Tirosh, N. (2021). Contemporary migrants and media capabilities–understanding com-
munication rights in international migration policies. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 47(17),
4040–4057. doi:10.1080/1369183X.2020.1758553

xviii
154

Chapter 10
Representation of Migration
From Central Asia to Russia
in Post-Soviet Cinema
Niyazi Ayhan
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6839-6422
Kyrgyzstan Turkey Manas University, Kyrgyzstan

Regina Camankulova
Kyrgyzstan Turkey Manas University, Kyrgyzstan

ABSTRACT
This chapter examines the representation of migration by cinema, particularly focusing on the period
after the collapse of the Soviet Union when migration movements from Central Asia to Russia intensified.
Migration presents various challenges for individuals and communities, making it essential to consider
cinema as a critical lens to understand migrant experiences, identity formation, and integration. The
chapter aims to evaluate how migration is depicted in films and its association with migrant experiences.
Using a comprehensive film analysis method, the study delves into the difficulties faced by individuals
migrating from Central Asia to Russia during this period, emphasizing the importance of comparing
cinematic representations with methodologies used in social sciences and cultural studies to compre-
hensively grasp the experiences and challenges of migrants.

INTRODUCTION

Migration can be defined as the movement of individuals, families, and communities from one place
to another due to geographical, economic, social, cultural, or political reasons. The reasons behind this
movement can vary; sometimes driven by the search for economic opportunities, and sometimes trig-
gered by external factors such as political instability, war, or natural disasters.

DOI: 10.4018/979-8-3693-3459-1.ch010

Copyright © 2024, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

Representation of Migration From Central Asia to Russia in Post-Soviet Cinema

The phenomenon of migration is generally categorized into two main types: internal migration and
international migration. Internal migration refers to the movement of individuals or communities within
their own country, usually driven by economic opportunities, job prospects, or the search for better living
conditions. International migration, on the other hand, involves the movement of individuals or com-
munities from one country to another, often triggered by political instability, war, natural disasters, or
economic reasons. Both types of migration can cause significant changes in individuals’ lives and often
challenge their ability to adapt to new conditions.
After the collapse of the Soviet Union, large regional migration waves occurred. Especially due to
economic, ethnic, and social reasons, individuals and families migrated to new countries or regions.
Economic difficulties led to migration movements in the countries where the Soviet Union collapsed. For
example, many European countries, such as Germany and Sweden, accepted economic migrants from
former Eastern Bloc countries. Another migration wave is the migration from Central Asia to Russia.
These migration movements have brought a series of challenges for both the migrants and the receiving
societies in terms of integration.
This study aims to understand the post-Soviet migration movements, particularly the challenges
faced by individuals migrating from Central Asia to Russia, and how these phenomena are represented
in cinema. The study aims to provide a new perspective to the literature through an in-depth analysis of
the migration phenomenon. It also seeks to investigate how the migration phenomenon is represented
in cinema and how these representations are related to the experiences of migrants.
The representation of the migration phenomenon in cinema, the experiences of migrants, the chal-
lenges they face, and how these challenges are perceived by society are significant research areas in social
sciences and cultural studies. Cinema is considered an effective tool for understanding the migration
phenomenon and conveying migrant experiences. Cinematic representations can be key to understand-
ing the social, cultural, and political dimensions of the migration phenomenon. Especially the migration
movements after the collapse of the Soviet Union offer rich material to examine how such migration
phenomena are addressed in cinema. In this context, the representation of the migration phenomenon in
cinema provides a perspective to understand the experiences of migrants, identity formation processes,
integration, and the sense of belonging between migrants and local communities.
In the following sections of the study, a detailed analysis will be presented of how the migration
phenomenon is addressed in cinema, the experiences of migrants, and how these experiences are rep-
resented in cinema. This analysis aims to contribute to the understanding of the migration phenomenon
and to reach a wider audience with the experiences of migrants.

THE COMPLEXITY OF MIGRATION: PROBLEMS AND SUGGESTIONS

Today, there is not yet a general theory explaining the phenomenon of migration. The main reason for
this deficiency is the diversity of factors leading to migration (Gezgin, 2011). In general migration is the
movement of individuals, families, or communities from one place to another. This movement usually
takes place for geographical, economic, social, cultural, or political reasons. Migration occurs as a result
of human mobility and usually aims to improve the living conditions of individuals.
According to Castles, de Haas, and Miller (2014), migration is generally divided into two internal
and external migration. Internal migration is the movement of individuals or communities from one
region to another within their own country. This type of migration usually takes place in search of eco-

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nomic opportunities, job opportunities, or better living conditions. External migration is the movement
of individuals or communities from one country to another. This type of migration is usually caused by
political instability, war, natural disasters, or economic reasons.
The phenomenon of migration, which manifests itself in a compulsory state, brings along some
problems for individuals and societies that have to migrate. In general, we can classify these problems
as integration difficulties, economic difficulties, social discrimination, legal problems, psychological
problems, and educational problems.
Integration problems are the difficulties experienced by migrants in adapting to the new cultural,
social and economic environment. Factors such as language barriers, cultural differences, social norms
and values complicate the integration process (Vertovec, 2007). To solve this problem, local language
training programmes should be organised for migrants. Language support programmes enable migrants
to integrate into work, education and social life more quickly (Portes and Rumbaut, (2001). In addition,
cultural awareness programmes should aim to promote social cohesion and integration (Alba and Nee
2003). In this way, it is possible to solve social problems for both the individuals migrating and the
country of origin. Another problem faced by migrants is economic difficulties. From this point of view,
migrants experience problems in finding a job, finding suitable housing and maintaining economic
well-being in the new country. Vocational training and skills development programmes should be or-
ganised for migrants (Kofman, 2004), as well as temporary financial support, unemployment insurance
and social assistance programmes to improve the economic situation of migrants (Bloemraad, 2006). In
terms of social problems, the problem of social discrimination is the biggest problem faced by migrants,
especially triggering the integration problems of migrants. It refers to the situation of being subjected
to discrimination based on factors such as ethnic origin, language, religion or gender (Essed, 1991).
As stated by Pettigrew and Tropp (2006), programmes and activities that encourage the coexistence of
different cultures and ethnic groups should be organised. The message that cultural diversity and ethnic
differences are richness should be spread to the society. Migrants can have problems with their legal
status, visas, residence permits and work permits. There may be problems with the lack of validity of
legal documents. This situation poses a problem for both the migrant and the country of origin (Baldwin-
Edwards and Kraler, 2009). Legal counselling and guidance services should be provided for individuals
who face legal problems. Information and guidance services should be provided on legal rights, legal
processes and other legal issues (Rhode, 2004).
Many studies have revealed that individuals who migrate often experience psychological problems.
According to the study conducted by Steel et al. (2009), migration can cause psychological problems
such as stress, anxiety, depression and trauma in individuals. They stated that the process of adaptation
to a new culture and social environment can be psychologically challenging. Assuming the language
barrier when immigrants come to a new country, in this framework, providing therapy for immigrants
in their mother tongue or therapy through a translator can make the therapy process more effective
(Watter, 2001:1710). Another important problem is related to education. Children of migrant families
may have difficulties adapting to the education system. Issues such as language problems, restrictions
in access to educational opportunities and social cohesion may affect the educational process (Suárez-
Orozco and Suárez-Orozco 2001:37). In this respect, it is important that education workers are trained
and informed about working with migrant children. This can enable them to support migrant children
more effectively (Gay, 2010:45).

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MIGRATION MOVEMENTS AFTER THE SOVIET UNION:

ECONOMIC, ETHNIC, CINEMATOGRAPHIC PERSPECTIVE

After the collapse of the Soviet Union, there have been large regional waves of migration. After the dis-
solution of the Soviet Union, individuals and families migrated to new countries or regions for economic,
political, ethnic and social reasons. The reasons for this migration mobility can be listed as economic
reasons, ethnic and social reasons, political reasons, research and education.
Individuals who migrate usually migrate for economic reasons when they cannot find sufficient job
opportunities in their home countries or when they seek better job opportunities (Massey et al. 1993).
After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, economic problems emerged in the countries that broke away
from the Soviet Union, and therefore the necessity to migrate to other countries arose.
In the post-Soviet period, many countries in Europe, especially Germany and Sweden, have accepted
economic migrants. Germany, in particular, has accepted migrants from the former Eastern Bloc countries
to the east of Germany (King and Fielding, 1999).
Due to the ethnic diversity of the Soviet Union, some individuals were subjected to social and po-
litical pressures. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, ethnic and social tensions in some regions
led individuals to migrate. For example, ethnic tensions and pressures in Central Asia led individuals
to migrate (Olcott, 1995). In some migrations, individuals and societies who were expelled from their
homelands due to exile during the Soviet period returned to their homelands. For example, many indi-
viduals and families, especially ethnic Russians, migrated to Russia. In particular, there has been a great
wave of migration to Russia from Central Asian countries, the Caucasus and the Baltic states (King,
2004). In addition, there has also been a migration movement to the Central Asian republics. Especially
due to ethnic tensions and oppression, individuals migrated to other Central Asian republics or Russia
(Buckley, 1995).
To summarise briefly, Russia has faced a great wave of migration after the collapse of the Soviet
Union. This migration wave consists of both ethnic Russians and Central Asians. For this reason, indi-
viduals who migrated to Russia from their own countries faced immigration problems.
In particular, Central Asian citizens migrating to Russia faced integration problems due to differ-
ences in language, culture and lifestyle. Due to ethnic and cultural differences, negative stereotypes and
discriminatory attitudes towards migrants have become one of the most important factors that make the
social integration of migrants difficult (Laruelle, 2009) Kosmarskaya and Agadjanian, 2006). Migrants
migrating from Central Asia may experience social and psychological problems due to reasons such as
living apart from their families, social isolation, discrimination and social pressure. These problems can
negatively affect the emotional and psychological health of migrants (Agadjanian and Menjívar 2008).
Migrants in Russia and problems related to migrants have also found a place in cinema as a social
problem. The representation of individuals migrating from Central Asia to Russia and other countries
in cinema has addressed issues such as migration, integration, identity and belonging. These representa-
tions reveal the difficulties and experiences faced by migrants by dealing with the migrant experience,
social and cultural adaptation, discrimination and social exclusion. In the films, the integration problems,
language and cultural differences, difficulties in finding a job and social exclusion experienced by im-
migrants (Yurchak, 2006) These films reveal the difficulties and discrimination faced by immigrants in
social life (Kozlov, 2010).

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Although these problems are also represented in Russian cinema, they are also frequently encountered
in Central Asian cinema, which is the other side of migration. In Central Asian cinemas, the experiences
of individuals migrating to Russia and other countries, the difficulties faced by migrants, integration
problems, and the search for belonging and identity are the main themes of these films (Cooley, 2009).
The following section analyses the representation of migration and migration problems in cinema
from the perspective of an immigrant woman through the phenomenon of migration and cinema. In this
respect, information on the cinematographic expression of the difficulties experienced by immigrants
coming to Russia from Central Asia in the post-Soviet period is presented.

ANALYSIS OF THE FILM AYKA AS A REPRESENTATION OF MIGRATION

The aim of this study is to understand how the phenomenon of migration is addressed in cinema and how
these representations are related to the experiences of migrants. To achieve this objective, a comprehensive
film analysis method was employed. The following sections provide the synopsis and analysis of the film.

Film Synopsis

The main character of this movie is Ayka, a young girl. Ayka is a young girl who immigrates to Rus-
sia to pay her debts. However, she is raped there and becomes pregnant. After giving birth to the baby,
she runs away, leaving him in the delivery room. Because he has to go back to work to pay her debts.
However, since the place where she works is illegal, he cannot get paid for his labor.
After giving birth, she immediately tries to find another job. Additionally, she has difficulty find-
ing a skilled job in the city of Moscow because he is unregistered. While dealing with people who owe
money, the landlord also asks about the rent of the house. Ayka falls into a trap while trying to solve a
problem. When she cannot cope with these difficulties, she decides to pay the debt by selling her child.
The film draws attention to the social problems faced by immigrants by telling Ayka’s struggle to cope
with the difficulties she experienced and her painful story.

Film Analysis

In Terry Martin’s book “The Affirmative Action Empire” (2001), various concepts related to shaping
ethnic identity are discussed, including primordial ethnicity, backward nations, friendship of the peoples,
and Russian cultural and linguistic dominance. During the 1920s, the Soviet nationality policy, termed by
Terry Martin as the ‘Soviet Affirmative Action’ program, aimed to foster trust and collaboration among
the previously oppressed colonial peoples of the tsarist empire. It sought to achieve this by supporting the
development of their previously suppressed national identities through state-sponsored efforts. However,
by the late 1930s, the policy shifted towards primordialism. In addition to establishing ethnic homelands,
national elites, languages, and cultures for the ethnic minorities of the USSR, the ‘Affirmative Action
Empire’ extensively employed ethnic labeling. This practice aimed to instill in the population the belief
that ethnicity was an inherent, fundamental, and crucial aspect of individual identity. The multi-tiered
system of national autonomies, the designation of some ethnic groups as ‘enemy’ or ‘backward’ nations,
and the post-war elevation of ethnic Russians as ‘first among equals’ instilled a sense of a specific ethnic
hierarchy. Stalin’s definition of Soviet cultures as ‘national in form, socialist in content’ moved the notion

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of ethnic identity away from ‘any fundamentally distinctive religious, legal, ideological, or customary
features’ to signify ‘symbolic ethnicity’ expressed through food, music, costume, folklore, and classic
literary works (Monastyreva, 2017, 228-229).
Terry Martin’s work examines the ethnic and national policies of the Russian Empire and the Soviet
Union, with a particular focus on the situation of ethnic groups and migrants in Central Asia. These
policies were often shaped by the centralized and oppressive nature of the state. While Martin’s work
delves into the consequences and effects of these policies, particularly focusing on the social status of
ethnic minorities and the challenges faced by migrants.
In this context, the representation of migrant characters in the film “Ayka” can be linked to Martin’s
theses. Migrants are often marginalized and disadvantaged, pushed to the fringes of society. The impact
of state policies exacerbates the challenges faced by migrants and further defines their place within soci-
ety. In “Ayka,” these themes are explored, and the struggles of a migrant character are depicted in detail.
According to this methodology, the director’s approach will be analyzed, including how effectively
they utilize the old Soviet myths in the film. The analysis will focus on the extent to which the director
incorporates and utilizes the Soviet-era myths of “friendship of the peoples” and multi-ethnic harmony
in the narrative and visual elements of the film.
For instance, the portrayal of diverse characters from different ethnic backgrounds living together
peacefully in the film may be seen as a reflection of the Soviet myth of unity among various nationali-
ties. Additionally, the director’s choice of settings, dialogues, and interactions between characters could
further reinforce this myth or, conversely, challenge it by depicting underlying tensions and conflicts
between ethnic groups.
By closely examining these aspects of the film, the analysis will determine the degree to which the
director effectively utilizes and perhaps subverts the old Soviet myths, providing insight into how his-
torical narratives are constructed and represented in contemporary cinema.
Furthermore, the director’s approach in the film reflects the myth of “friendship of the peoples” often
emphasized in the official propaganda of the Soviet Union. This myth creates an image of different ethnic
groups living together in peace and harmony. However, beneath this multicultural façade lie various social
and political tensions. “Ayka” delves into how these tensions are portrayed and how migrant characters
navigate this environment. Thus, the film goes beyond storytelling to help us understand the phenom-
enon of migration and the challenges faced by ethnic groups within a historical and political context.
The film “Ayka,” which tells the story of a migrant from Kyrgyzstan, was directed by Russian direc-
tor Sergey Dvortsevoy. The main role was played by actress Samal Yeslyamova from Kazakhstan. The
film received the Grand Prix at the 28th International Film Festival in Cottbus, Germany. Additionally,
the film was awarded the Jury Prize. This film made it to the shortlist for the Academy Awards. It was
also selected for the competition at the Cannes Film Festival in 2018 and earned the Best Actress award
for Samal Yeslyamova for her performance in the lead role.
“The director embarked on a journey to deeply explore the phenomenon of mothers from Central
Asia abandoning their children, drawing inspiration from news stories. They aimed to uncover the true
reasons behind these actions, which are primarily rooted in economic hardships and inadequate migra-
tion policies.
The economic struggles, in particular, can put families in dire situations, often leading them to abandon
their children as a last resort. Additionally, the inadequacy of migration policies can either force families
to migrate or fail to provide the necessary support and assistance when they do.

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The director took on this topic because he was shocked by reports in the press that around 250 Kyr-
gyz women had abandoned their children in Moscow in just one year. This fact left him in disbelief,
especially considering his Russian background from Kazakhstan and his understanding of the nature
of Asian women. He viewed this phenomenon as unnatural not only for any woman but especially for
Asian women. This shocking fact and his encounters with women who had abandoned their children
served as the basis for creating the film(kaktus media 2024)
This documentary-auter style film, which is close to nature, has received different reactions from
audiences in Kazakhstan. Some have tried to understand the pain of citizens working abroad, while oth-
ers have tried to avoid very sad films.
Even though it was shown four times a day, there were never more than six people attending each
screening in of the cinemas in Almaty. After the film, a few viewers shared their opinions. A young
couple said they really enjoyed it and were moved throughout the film. They mentioned how difficult
the lives of migrants going to Moscow are. However, an elderly woman commented, “Very depressing
movie, I wish I hadn’t watched it. There’s enough depression without the need for movies; just reading
the news is sufficient.”
Film critic from Kazakhstan Oleg Boretsky disagrees with some viewers’ opinions about “Ayka”
and does not consider the film to be “gloom and doom.” According to him, people who come to
see the film should know what to expect: the film is executed in a realistic manner, and director
Sergey Dvortsevoy, who also films documentaries, knows how to immerse the viewer in a real-
ity that is difficult to describe as cheerful. https://rus.azattyq.org/a/kazakhstan-aika-film-distribution/
29782612.html
Ayka is a young woman, aged 25, living as an undocumented immigrant in Moscow. The challenges
she faces only serve to strengthen her character. Despite giving birth recently, Ayka struggles relentlessly
to survive. She refuses to give up and works hard to earn money, standing on her own feet. In fact, the
film highlights the strong character structure of Central Asian women. Their efforts to support their
families and send money home despite facing numerous obstacles serve as evidence of their resilience.
The film could portray Ayka’s determination to survive amidst difficult circumstances, depicting her
struggles and inner turmoil. It could explore her emotional complexity and resilience in dealing with the
challenges she faces. By emphasizing the strong character of Central Asian women, such a film could
provide viewers with a profound exploration of societal and human issues, offering a deeply touching
experience. So begins her journey through the snowy capital in search of work and on the run from the
Kyrgyz mafia, from whom Aika once borrowed 200 thousand rubles for her own sewing workshop.
The film’s narrative is further strengthened by its framing shots, dialogues, and the use of weather
conditions as a backdrop. Through the events experienced by a young girl named Ayka, the story highlights
the economic and social hardships faced by women exposed to the phenomenon of migration. Particularly,
the heavy snowfall adds a realistic atmosphere to the film, emphasizing the events that unfold for the
protagonist and creating a more dramatic visual texture. This atmosphere allows the audience to deeply
feel the character’s harsh living conditions and underscores the difficulties underlying the phenomenon
of migration. By depicting the impact of economic and social changes on individuals, the film aims to
provoke thought and establish an emotional connection with the audience.
Despite all the difficulties, Moscow is considered a magic city where dreams can come true. This
emphasis is conveyed not only through beautiful city visuals but also through dialogues, such as in a
meeting Ayka attends while searching for a job, and in a conversation between a migrant Kyrgyz woman
and her daughter over the phone.

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Representation of Migration From Central Asia to Russia in Post-Soviet Cinema

Figure 1. “Ayka” (2019), Sergey Dvortsevoy

In later scenes of the film, various success courses and job-finding seminars, which are particularly
relevant in recent times, are depicted. In this great city narrated through the voices of migrants, everyone
must work hard to survive. At “58:05” a man speaking at one of these meetings expresses the hardships
of life and work, stating, “You are living in Moscow. How lucky you are; people dream of this. Our
capital is a place of great opportunities. Everything depends on you. When I first arrived, I was about to
cry.” Such speeches highlight the presence of many individuals striving to find work and opportunities.
The concept of “global responsibility” signifies Russia’s perspective of taking on the responsibility to
assist politically, socially, and financially all former Soviet countries. Despite the independence of CIS
countries, they still rely on “big brothers” for support.
Despite the challenging living standards, when relatives call and ask, “How is Moscow?” the migrant
woman responds, “Moscow is beautiful, people are kind-hearted, the metro is like a museum,” reflecting
their love for the city despite the difficulties.
In the film “Ayka,” the living conditions and workplaces of migrants are depicted. Throughout the
film, migrants are shown to typically work in labor-intensive jobs, particularly in the service sector. This
general profile includes women working in service jobs such as car washing, snow shoveling, distributing
coffee flyers on the streets, and cleaning. The high number of migrants and some continuing to stay and
work illegally in the country leads city dwellers to remain indifferent to this situation. The difficulties
they face in daily life are perceived as ordinary by many.
Ayka is shown in the opening scene remaining in the maternity ward after giving birth. However, she
has to return to work immediately after giving birth, so she escapes through the window to go to work.
She needs to do this because she was supposed to receive her salary that day and had to repay her debts.
When it comes to giving birth and abandoning a child in a foreign country, it can have different reasons
based on cultural contexts. For example, factors like economic difficulties, social pressures, or family
dynamics can influence this behavior.
Ayka’s workplace is located in a neglected and old building, and the inside is quite dirty. It can be
understood from their conversations and appearances that the majority of the workers are of Asian and
Caucasian origin. The employer is of Kyrgyz nationality. At “7:45” minutes Ayka’s task is to clean the
feathers of chickens, and she will be paid for this job. Ayka cannot receive her salary that day; unexpect-
edly, the employer takes the chickens and runs away without paying, revealing that betrayal occurs by
individuals from her own nationality, the Kyrgyz people.

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Representation of Migration From Central Asia to Russia in Post-Soviet Cinema

As Ayka desperately searches for work, at “30:00” minutes she arrives at her previous workplace only
to find another Kyrgyz girl in her place, triggering an emotional response from Ayka. She is threatened
and warned that if she returns and sees her again, something bad will happen to her. Meanwhile, another
girl from their own nationality takes Ayka’s place. In this scene, in an environment where everything
seems to be resolved through violence, Ayka attempts to physically confront the girl who replaced her.
However, she encounters violence again, this time from a man present there.
These two scenes above may suggest that in coping with the challenging living conditions abroad,
migrants turn against each other and resort to dishonest, deceptive means as a result of their difficult
migration experiences and living conditions. While struggling to find employment, housing, and meet
basic needs, migrants may face increased competition and stress, leading to conflicts and heightened
rivalry among them.
The house where Ayka stays at “17:50” is quite an old structure both inside and out. Ayka lives with
4-5 other women in the same room. She has her own corner in the room, separated from the others by
curtains. The person who rents out the apartment is a man of Caucasian origin. There are also Asians
of different ethnic backgrounds living in the house. Overall, the living conditions of Asian migrants
indicate that the environment is dirty and illegal. The fact that the person renting the apartment prohibits
opening the windows in the mornings and evenings suggests how difficult the conditions are and creates
an impression of an unhealthy living space.
The director’s interview sheds light on the living conditions of migrants.”It was very difficult be-
cause they don’t let you in. Just catching someone on the street today and saying, ‘Can I see how you
live?’ - of course not. And they won’t let you in anyway. Even after a month of acquaintance. Because
even if they want to do it, the problem is that he is not the owner of the apartment, as migrants usually
don’t live alone. It’s very expensive to rent an apartment in Moscow and work like this, so they usually
rent a single bed, and five, six, seven people can live in one room. They pay not for the room, but for the
sleeping space. Any person in Moscow can rent such an apartment as their budget allows, but the prob-
lem is that these people’s budget doesn’t allow it. They save every penny: they buy the cheapest food in
the cheapest stores.” “People cannot live without rights. Even seemingly having registration and a work
permit, they often themselves do not know that the registration is illegal, that the papers are fake (tass.ru)
This film actually points to the need for a reconsideration of migration policies, alongside changes
in economic conditions and societal dynamics.

Figure 2. “Ayka” (2019), Sergey Dvortsevoy

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Representation of Migration From Central Asia to Russia in Post-Soviet Cinema

When the cleaning woman at the veterinary clinic realizes that Ayka’s situation isn’t good, at “47:57”
she gives her the doctor’s number and offers her pantyhose and tea to warm up. After that, at “01:11:25”
when Ayka starts working for two days in place of the woman who works as a cleaner at the veterinary
hospital when the cleaning woman’s child gets sick, she briefly smiles and dances in the small room while
playing music, highlighting a rare moment of happiness in the film. Throughout the film, it is the first
and only smile Generally, Ayka appears very unhappy throughout the film as she struggles to overcome
the difficulties she faces. Finding a job in a clean and warm place, even if only for a short time, brings a
temporary smile to her face. At least here, she can spend her day in a quiet and warm environment. Yet,
she continues to live in fear of constantly being evicted from her home and losing her job.
A clear, though tacit, positing of Russian superiority was accompanied by official calls for interethnic
harmony through the slogan “druzhba narodov” (the friendship of peoples). The story illustrates how a
man of Caucasian origin tries to survive by renting out his illegal rooms to other migrant nationals. At
the same time, at “51:28” Ayka’s visit to a doctor of Uzbek nationality for her postnatal gynecological
issues showcases an example of an unwritten agreement and compromise among them. The doctor’s
refusal to demand payment and instead saying “you brought me chickens for now, and you’ll owe me
700 rubles later” demonstrates a sense of trust and solidarity among them. However, the film also high-
lights that migrants are a group struggling with alienation and marginalization, hidden in the shadow of
the big city. They strive to survive within their own communities while coping with the difficulties of
belonging to a minority group. But at the same time, competition is also present.
In Russia, where many citizens from former Soviet Union countries are employed, there is still an
expectation for non-Russian nationals to know Russian language, history, and law. This emphasis on
language is also prominently displayed in the film.
İn scene “34:42” Ayka goes back to the car wash where she used to work, she is told she can’t work
there anymore because her residency permit has expired.
A Russian woman who came to wash her car gives her her business card and says:
“Are you looking for a job? Will you come to work for me? I need people with good Russian language
skills. Here is the address, come in two hours. Don’t be late.”
“When the police raid the illegal houses at “01:20:28”, they get angry that they don’t speak Russian
and Residence documents are missing.”
Police officer: “Where is your registration? Where are your documents? Why are you mumbling?
Are you in Russia or where? Speak Russian.
Migrant woman: Normal
Police officer: What’s normal? Why are you running around then? Let’s go to the department. Ev-
eryone for deportation.”
The fact that the Kyrgyz woman working at the veterinary clinic doesn’t know Russian is reinforced
when the doctor scolds her. At “45:46” the dialogue between the doctor and the cleaner is:

Doctor: “Why hasn’t my office been cleaned again?”

Cleaner: “Now. What now? I told you to clean every 30 minutes, not now. Hurry up.”

In scene “47:04” the dialogue between Ayka and the cleaner is:

Cleaner: “Kazhdie polchasa.”

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Representation of Migration From Central Asia to Russia in Post-Soviet Cinema

Ayka: “Every half hour.”

“Griazniy sneg,” what is this?

Ayka: “Dirty snow.”

These situations indicate that not being proficient in the language can lead to problems, emphasiz-
ing the need for migrants to know Russian for better positioning both in the job market and daily life.
The man who rents them the house trying to solve their residence issue by giving money to the police
is actually an indication of bribery and corruption.
When Ayka’s sister complains that people who give money keep coming to her house, at “01:16:20”
Ayka gets angry while talking to her on the phone. She tells her sister that she doesn’t need to teach
her anything, she doesn’t want a life where she’s given five coins after giving birth to five children, and
she plans to have her own business. Unfortunately, Ayka wants a life different from what she sees, but
certain circumstances force her into misery. Ayka desires a good life. She doesn’t want to have just as
much as everyone else. The big city offers her opportunities, but at what cost?
When a woman brings her dog to the vet and the baby in her lap starts crying, Ayka starts produc-
ing milk and has to go to her room to pump. The weakened woman reaches out to where the cleaning
woman hides her baby. She holds the baby’s red car and teddy bear for a while and then puts them aside.
Although Ayka tries to suppress her maternal instincts by denying that she left the child, she ultimately
succumbs to them. Due to harsh economic conditions, one must suppress their natural instincts. However,
showing at “01: 37:29” Ayka breastfeeding the dog’s puppy in the clinic serves as a warning to Ayka,
illustrating an example and aiming to restore some maternal feelings to her.
In other words, in “Ayka,” Dvortsevoy becomes an adept of the Spartan dramaturgy (but not direct-
ing) of the Dardenne brothers - one where the heroine and the viewer, squeezed in a vise, go through
10 black stripes of bad luck, injustice, and problems without a hint of resolution. Dvortsevoy seems to
be sure that the heroine will not hit rock bottom morally in the end, but at what cost this will come to
her - we can only guess. On the other hand, this ending looks artificial and far-fetched. The heroine is
not led to it by the story itself, but by an obvious metaphor: puppies sucking milk from their mother’s
bleeding nipples. https://www.film.ru/articles/recenziya-na-film-ayka

Figure 3. “Ayka” (2019), Sergey Dvortsevoy

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Representation of Migration From Central Asia to Russia in Post-Soviet Cinema

The film depicts indifference towards migrants who are struggling with harsh living conditions abroad.
Despite Ayka asking people on the street for job opportunities and the location of the toilet, most people
don’t feel the need to respond to these questions.
When she comes to pick up her baby from the maternity ward at “01:43:30”, she is met with accusa-
tory remarks from doctor: “Why do you all come to Moscow? Why don’t you give birth in your own
country? You come here and leave your babies behind. What did you think when you ran away? Other
woman take care of them? Where is your head?”
The high number of migrants leads to a negative attitude towards them, with some even resorting to
accusatory treatment. The problems they face in their daily lives are often ignored and misunderstood
by society. This reflects a significant critique of the difficulties migrants face and their place in society
depicted in the film.
The high number of migrants leads to a negative attitude towards them, with some even resorting to
accusatory treatment. The problems they face in their daily lives are often ignored and misunderstood
by society. This situation reflects a significant critique of the difficulties migrants face and their place
in society depicted in the film.

CONCLUSION

“The relationship between the themes addressed in Terry Martin’s work and the portrayal of migrant
characters in “Ayka” film has been thoroughly examined. Martin’s focus on ethnic minorities and mi-
grants in the Russian Empire and the Soviet Union provides a framework for understanding the depiction
of migrant characters in the film.
The director Sergey Dvortsevoy, born and raised in Central Asia, reflects the Soviet-era myth of
‘friendship of the peoples’ in the film. This myth emphasizes the multi-ethnic structure of the Soviet
Union and portrays an environment where different ethnic groups coexist peacefully.
“Ayka,” depicting the story of a migrant from Kyrgyzstan, underscores the significance of portraying
migration and ethnicity. The representation of the struggles faced by migrants, such as economic hard-
ships and societal marginalization, aligns with Martin’s examination of state policies and their impact
on ethnic groups.
The film’s narrative and visual elements, including framing shots and weather conditions, effectively
convey the challenges faced by the protagonist, Ayka, and other migrants. The portrayal of everyday
life and interactions among migrants reflects the realities of migration and the diverse experiences of
ethnic minorities in Russia.
Furthermore, the film highlights the importance of language proficiency for migrants in accessing
opportunities and navigating daily life. Ayka’s struggles with the Russian language underscore the bar-
riers faced by migrants in integration and employment.
At the heart of “Ayka” lies the theme of migration and its economic implications. Ayka’s journey
from her homeland to Russia in search of better opportunities reflects the harsh realities faced by many
migrants. The film vividly depicts the challenges of finding work, the exploitation faced in illegal em-
ployment, and the desperation to repay debts, highlighting the economic pressures driving migration.
Through Ayka’s experiences, the film sheds light on the social marginalization faced by migrants.
Ayka’s undocumented status in Moscow limits her access to decent employment and housing, exposing
the discrimination and indifference prevalent in society towards migrants. The portrayal of Ayka’s in-

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teractions with various characters underscores the complex dynamics of social exclusion and alienation
experienced by migrants.
In conclusion, the analysis provides a comprehensive exploration of how the themes in Terry Mar-
tin’s work intersect with the narrative and portrayal of migrant characters in “Ayka,” offering valuable
insights into migration, ethnicity, and societal dynamics.”
This film can bring the struggles of migrants to light, perhaps leading viewers and other officials to
have a closer understanding of the realities. It may have an impact on prompting more careful and urgent
solutions regarding migration policies at the state level. The difficulties faced by the main character are
not just one person’s problem; there are thousands of people with similar experiences. The film focuses
on understanding the root causes behind young women abandoning their children, alongside the economic
and residency issues faced by migrant workers abroad. It encompasses various issues such as societal
traditions, the mother-child relationship, generational continuity, human rights, and cultural traditions.
Thus, the film addresses not only an individual’s story but also a broader social and cultural context.
The demographic shift of Kyrgyzstani citizens migrating to Moscow, as depicted in the film, neces-
sitates a revision of migration policies. For example, social issues such as unemployment and language
barriers, as shown in the film, make it difficult for migrants to integrate into society. There is a need to
reconsider migration policies and laws to address these challenges.

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167

Representation of Migration From Central Asia to Russia in Post-Soviet Cinema

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

Central Asia: A region in Asia that includes five former Soviet republics: Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan,
Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan.
Cultural Studies: An interdisciplinary field that examines the ways in which culture creates and
transforms individual experiences, everyday life, social relations, and power structures.
Identity Formation: The process of shaping an individual’s identity through experiences, relation-
ships, and cultural influences, which can be influenced by migration.
Integration: The process by which immigrants become accepted into society, involving the establish-
ment of social relationships and the adoption of cultural norms and values of the host country.
Migrant Experience: The unique set of challenges, experiences, and perspectives faced by individu-
als or communities who have migrated from one place to another.
Migration: The movement of individuals, families, or communities from one place to another due
to various reasons such as geographical, economic, social, or political factors.
Representation: The portrayal or depiction of migration phenomena, experiences, and challenges
in various media forms, including cinema.
Soviet Union: A former federal union of 15 constituent republics, primarily located in Eastern Europe
and Northern Asia, that existed from 1922 to 1991.

168

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Serpil Kir Elitas

THE COMPLEXITY OF MIGRATION: PROBLEMS AND SUGGESTIONS

MIGRATION MOVEMENTS AFTER THE SOVIET UNION:

ANALYSIS OF THE FILM AYKA AS A REPRESENTATION OF MIGRATION

Figure 1. “Ayka” (2019), Sergey Dvortsevoy

Figure 2. “Ayka” (2019), Sergey Dvortsevoy

Doctor: “Why hasn’t my office been cleaned again?”

Cleaner: “Kazhdie polchasa.”

Ayka: “Every half hour.”

“Griazniy sneg,” what is this?

Ayka: “Dirty snow.”

Figure 3. “Ayka” (2019), Sergey Dvortsevoy

KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

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