Unit 1 - Fundamentals of Chemistry

All about atoms

What is an atom?
The atom is the basic building block for all matter in the universe. Atoms are extremely small and
are made up of a few even smaller particles. The basic particles that make up an atom are
electrons, protons, and neutrons. ... They can change and undergo chemical reactions, sharing
electrons with other atoms.

Parts of an atom
Nucleus: Positively charged central region of an atom, composed of protons
and neutrons.
Protons: A positively charged particle that is located at the centre of the atom
in the nucleus. More protons = increase in atomic number
Neutrons: Located in the nucleus of the atom with no charge. The number of
neutrons can impact the stability of the element. Too many or too few
neutrons can make the atom unstable. More neutrons = increase in mass
number, heavier
Electrons: A subatomic particle that has a negative charge located on the
shells of an atom. More electrons = negative ionic charge

More about electrons

- There can only be 2 electrons on the first shell of an atom and on the others there can be 8
electrons.
- The number of electrons per shell is determined by the formula 2n2.
- Valence electrons are the electrons on the outermost shell of an atom.
- Rutherford said that electrons moved in circles around the nucleus, but that would be
incorrect as the electron would then crash into the nucleus and destroy the atom.
- Niels Bohr worked from Rutherford’s model and said that electrons moved in fixed orbits
also known as discrete orbits.

Periodic table
- The periodic table is a table of all known elements, with the elements in increasing order
according to their atomic number.
- Vertical columns are groups. Rows are called periods.
- Group symbolises the number of electrons. Elements in the same group will have the same
number of valence electrons. Example: All elements in Group 1 have one valence electron.
- Period symbolises the number of shells an element has. All the elements in a period will
have the same number of shells. Example: All elements in Period 1 have one shell.
- Atomic number is equal to the number of protons or electrons.
 - Atomic mass number is equal to the total number of neutrons and protons in an atom.
- There will be equal amounts of protons and electrons in an atom if it has no charge.

Electronic configurations:
Example sodium (Na);
Protons - 11
Electrons - 11

First shell - 2 electrons

Second shell - 8 electrons
Third shell - 1 electrons

Written electronic configuration: 2.8.1

Drawn electronic configuration of Na:

BOHR atomic models:

Lewis dot diagrams:

They show the valence electrons of an atom. They are used to portray ionic bonds.

Isotopes:
- Isotopes are the different versions of the same
element due to the different numbers of neutrons.
- The mass of the isotope varies according to the
number of neutrons in an atom.
- Every isotope of an element has the same
number of protons.
- There are decimals in an atom’s atomic mass
due to its relative atomic mass.

Relative atomic mass:

- The relative atomic mass is the average value for the mass for the isotopes in the element.
- Formula: [mass 1 x percentage (%)] + [mass 2 x percentage (%)]
- Example: Chlorine = (35 x 75%) + (37 + 25%) = 35.5

Ionic bonding
Ions: a charged atom or molecule.
Cation: positively charged ion.
Anion: negatively charged ion.

Ionic Bonding: Electrostatic attraction between a metal and non-metal. The metal loses an
electron and the non-metal gains an electron.
When ionic bonds occur, the elements bond in pairs and then they bond in groups, creating an
ionic crystal.
Ionic Compounds: Ionic compounds have an overall neutral charge as the number of electrons
distributed would be equal.

Types of Ions
Monatomic ion: a single ion. Example: Helium.
Polyatomic ion: formed from groups of ions. Example: Oxygen.
They have a charge as the number of electrons and protons in the compound are not balanced.
Example: Ammonia = NH4

Polyatomic ions

Covalent bonding
- Bonding between two nonmetals.
- Share electron(s) with another atom instead of
gaining or losing.
- No conductivity.
 <----------Ionic vs Covalent compounds-------->

- High melting/boiling point - Low melting/boiling point

- Hard/brittle - Soft/flexible
- Good insulators - More flammable
- Conductors when dissolved - They usually don’t dissolve well in
- They form crystal lattices–fixed shape water
- Not as volatile as covalent compounds - Don’t produce electricity when
dissolved
- They have a more loose shape and
structure
- Volatile
- Not strong enough to take their own
electrons for themselves.

Naming ionic bonds

Metal + Non-metal ending with -ide

Examples:
NaBr - Sodium Bromide
TiBr - Titanium Bromide

Practice:
1. Cu3P -
2. SnSe2 -
3. K2O -
4. MgI2 -

Answers: 1. Copper (I) Phosphide, 2. Tin (IV) Selenide, 3. Potassium Oxide and 4. Magnesium
Iodide.
Explanation for answer number 2:
Selenide has a negative charge of two. There must be 4 tin to balance 2 selenide ions.

Nomenclature with transition

Iron (III) Oxide

Iron = transition metal

III = charge of transition metal
Oxide = oxygen
Fe3O-2
Changes to: Fe2O3

Nomenclature with transition

Name of metal + Polyatomic ion

Calcium Phosphate
Ca2PO4-3
Changes to: Ca3(PO4)2

Naming covalent bonds

Mono - One
Di - Two
Tri - Three
Tetra - Four
Penta - Five
Hexa - Six
Hepta - Seven
Octa - Eight
Nona - Nine
Deca - Ten

(Prefix + nonmetal) + (prefix + non-metal ending in -ide)

Do not balance charges in covalent compounds.

Properties of halogens
- Group 17/7 in periodic table
- 7 electrons in outermost energy level
- Group 7 elements form molecules joined by a covalent bond; for example, F2.
- Melting and boiling points increase as we go down group 7.
- Reactivity decreases as you go down the periodic table due to the number of shells
between the valence electrons and the core. More force is required to attract a valence
electron, therefore, the atom becomes more stable.

Properties of alkali metals:

- Group 1 periodic table
- Reactivity increases as we go down the periodic table
- One electron in outer energy level
- Soft
 - Reacts rapidly with oxygen
- Reacts with water
- Volatility increases as we go down the group
- Easier to give away valence electrons as the number of atom shells increases due to the
weakening of the electrostatic attraction between the valence shell and the nucleus.
Alkali metal + water= metal hydroxide + hydrogen

Alkali metal + oxygen = metal oxide

Alkali metals are kept under oil as they react with oxygen easily.
Properties of noble gases
- Full outer shells
- Least reactive elements
- Follow the octet rule which the atom’s preference to have 8 atoms on the outer shell
- It is most stable - in order for an atom to be stable, there needs to be balanced forces
among the particles in an atom.

Metallic bonding
- Between metals (of course)
- Electrons in a metal are delocalized, which allows conductivity in a metal
- There is a strong electrostatic attraction between the positive nuclei to the free flowing
electrons, which holds everything together in a regular structure. The delocalized
electrons also make a metal strong.

Most metal characteristics

- Strength
- Usually solid at room temp.
- Good conductors of heat and electricity (due to delocalized electrons)
- Malleable - easily bent or hammered
- Pure metals have a regular structure which allows the metal to be malleable.

Alloys
- 2 or more different elements
- Stronger than pure metals
- Harder than pure metals
- Disrupts regular structure (the layers cannot slide anymore)

Giant Covalent Structures

Carbon allotropes:
- Graphite
 - Diamond

Diamond Graphite

- Joined by very strong covalent bonds - Made of layers

- Very hard - Within layers, there are strong bonds
- Very high melting point - Only 3 covalent bonds per carbon
- Doesn’t conduct electricity atom.
- All electrons are fixed and held - 4th electron becomes delocalized
tightly–no flow of electricity - Conducts electricity due to the
- Each carbon atom in a diamond has 4 electrons’ ability to move between
covalent bonds. layers.
- Weak forces between layers
- Very high melting point
- Soft
- Layers of carbon can slide past each
other.
Fullerenes:
- The carbon atoms join together to make a large hollow cage
- Hollow shaped molecules are fullerenes
- The structure of fullerenes is based on hexagonal rings of carbon atoms
- However, they may also have rings of 6 or 7 carbon atoms
-
Cylindrical fullerenes called carbon nanotubes properties:
- High tensile strength
- High electricity conduction because of bonding

Fullerenes:
- they could be used for drug delivery into the body
- They can also be used as lubricants and as catalysts because of the large surface area to
volume ratio of their nanoparticles
Unit 2 - Chemical Calculations
Stoichiometry
A lot of met–math..math

Diatomic elements: (elements that always come as 2 atoms together)

Have No Fear Of Ice Cold Beer:
Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Fluorine, Oxygen, Iodine, Chlorine, Bromine

Relative atomic mass:

Unit: Amu - atomic mass unit

Percentage yield and atom economy:

The atom economy of a reaction is a measure of the amount of starting materials that end up as
useful products.

The
percentage
yield shows
how much
product is
obtained
compared
to the maximum possible mass. The atom economy of a reaction gives the percentage of atoms in
reactants that form a desired product.

Concentration:
Concentration: Amount of solute/ volume of solute = mass/volume
Or
Concentration: moles/volume
 3 3
1000 𝑐𝑚 = 1 𝑑𝑚 or 1 litre
22.4 L of gas = 1 mole

Empirical formula:

Mass (g) (M)

Atomic mass (Ar)

M/Ar - moles

(M/Ar) / (min of M/AR )

Molecular formula: molar mass / empirical mass

Moles= grams/atomic mass

23
1 Mole/avogadro’s number= 6.022 x 10 atoms or molecules

Atoms: To convert from moles to atoms, multiply the molar amount by Avogadro's number. To
convert from atoms to moles, divide the atom amount by
Avogadro's number

Molecules: moles x avogadro’s number

Unit 3 - Energetics
Types of reactions
Endothermic reaction - absorbs energy, the solution becomes colder.
Exothermic reaction - releases energy, the solution becomes warmer.

Question: The men in the picture are warming themselves by the fire. Explain why burning
wood releases energy.

Burning wood releases energy as combustion is an exothermic reaction, thus it releases heat,
increasing the temperature, allowing people in the image to warm themselves up.

Enthalpy change is the name given to the amount of heat evolved or absorbed in a reaction.

Negative value for energy released.

Positive value for energy absorbed.

Energy level diagrams

Unit 4 - Rate of reactions

Indicators that show a chemical reaction has taken place:

- colour change
- effervescence
- precipitation
- energy (temperature) change
How the rate of a reaction is measured will depend on what the reaction is and what product
forms.

Reactions That Produce Gases Such as Oxygen or Carbon Dioxide

- The volume of oxygen produced can be measured using the gas
syringe method.
- The gas collects in the syringe, pushing out against the plunger.
- The volume of gas that has been produced can be read from the
markings on the syringe.

Changes in Mass
- The rate of a reaction that produces a gas can also be measured
by calculating the mass loss as the gas forms and escapes from the reaction flask.
- This method can be used for reactions that produce carbon dioxide or oxygen, but are not
very accurate for reactions that give off hydrogen because the mass is too low to be
accurately measured. Measuring changes in mass may also be suitable for other types of
reactions.
Precipitation Reactions
 - In a reaction in which a precipitate is formed, the amount of precipitate formed in a period
of time can be used as a measure of the reaction rate.
- For example, when sodium thiosulphate reacts with an acid, a yellow precipitate of sulfur
is formed.
**Precipitate: the formation of an insoluble salt when two solutions containing soluble salts are
combined.

Unit 5 - Equilibrium
Equilibrium: a state in which opposing forces or influences are balanced.

Dynamic equilibrium: A system in a steady state since forward reaction and backward
reaction occur at the same rate. There is no overall change in the amount of products and
reactants, even though the reactions are ongoing. This only takes place in a closed system
otherwise the products would escape.

An open system can exchange both energy and matter with its surroundings. A closed system, on
the other hand, can exchange only energy with its surroundings, not matter.

What are reversible reactions?

Are reactions that can be reversed by changing the conditions. The products formed react together
to form the reactant again.

- Reversible reactions that happen in a closed

system eventually reach dynamic
equilibrium.

Le chatelier's principle: When a system at equilibrium is subjected to a change of conditions, the

system will respond to minimize the effect of the change (counteract the change):
 - concentration
- pressure
- temperature
- Catalyst
Na (g) + 3H2 (g) <—> 2NH3 (G) - Haber's process
- The system is favoured away from what is added and toward what is removed.
Concentration:
- increased concentration will respond in the system decreasing the concentration
- Decreased concentration will respond in the system increasing the concentration

Pressure:
- If the pressure increases the system will decrease the pressure (the reaction will shift to
the side with the least number of particles)
- If pressure decreases the system will increase the pressure (the reaction will shift to the
most number of particles)

Temperature:
- Increased temperature will favour endothermic reaction
- The decreased temperature will favour the exothermic reaction

Catalyst:
- Catalyst: only changes the rate of the reaction and won’t affect the equilibrium

Haber's process:
Na (g) + 3H2 (g) <—> 2NH3 (G) - Haber's process
----> exothermic
The Haber process is the industrial process for the manufacture of ammonia from hydrogen and
nitrogen. Hydrogen is obtained from the reaction of methane and steam, producing carbon
monoxide as a byproduct. The hydrogen produced from this reaction also reacts with oxygen from
the air, producing water and leaving nitrogen behind. Recall the air is 77% nitrogen. These gases
are then compressed and delivered to the reactor where ammonia is produced. These gases are
then cooled off and ammonia is liquified, ready to be tapped off. Unused hydrogen and nitrogen
are recycled back to the reactor.

- The Haber's process uses chatelier's principle to maximise ammonia production while
keeping operation and production costs in mind.
- It is expensive to build and operate a plant that can withstand high pressure
- Fertilizers are produced from large scale production of ammonia

Exothermic and endothermic:

Exothermic is when energy is released/transferred to the surrounding.
Endothermic is when energy is absorbed from the surroundings or where energy is transferred
from the surroundings.

The Haber Process is used in the manufacturing of ammonia from nitrogen and hydrogen.

Unit 6: Organic
Chemistry
Stem
1- meth
2- eth
3- prop
4- but
5- pent
6- hex
7- hept
8- oct
9- non
10- dec

side chains
hydrocarbon: if it only has hydrogen and carbons
1 - methyl
 2 - ethyl ​
3 - propyl
4 - butyl
5- pentyl

Functional groups

Alkane
-ane

Alkene
-ene

Alcohols
-ol

Carboxylic acids
-oic acid

Esters
-oate
Isomers
They have the same chemical formula but have different structures, hence different chemical
properties.

Naming side chains:

1) Identify the ending of the chain
2) Identify longest chain
3) Number the chain from left -> right and right -> left
4) To choose the direction when naming, pick the direction where the first side chain is as
the lowest number, or if there’s a functional group, the functional group should be first
the side chains can be later (4,5 di-ethyl hex-2-ene)
5) Count the number of carbons in the side chain, and then name it, using -yl
6) Name in alphabetical order (ethyl then, methyl)
o Sidechain, root (2-methyl pentane)
❖ If another element is added to the carbon, then name it: number – element
beginning
❖ Only halogens can be added to the carbon (Br- Bromo, Cl-Chloro, F- Fluoro, I- Iodo,
At-Astato)
❖ If 2 of the side chains are the same, then it is named with a prefix with the number
of times the side chain is there. Eg 2,3 dimethylheptane
❖ If there are 2 equally long chains, then the formula will be the same

Branches Number

Methyl 1

Ethyl 2

Propyl 3

Butyl 4

Pentyl 5

Hexyl 6

Heptyl 7
Esterification:
The chemical reaction takes place during the formation of the
ester called esterification.
This process combines a carboxylic acid (RCOOH) with an
alcohol (ROH) to form an ester (RCOOR) and water.

When alcohol is reacted with carboxylic acid in the presence of

sulphuric acid a compound is formed. This compound is called
ester.
CH3COOH + CH3CH2COOH → CH3COOCH2CH3
When carboxylic acids are heated with alcohols in the presence of a catalyst which is acid at such
time esters are produced.

Halogenation in light (alkane):

Alkane + halogen ---> alkyl halide + hydrogen halide
This happens in the presence of light

The reaction of Methyl bromide

CH4+Br2 → CH3Br + HBr

The reaction of ethyl bromide

C2H8+Br2→ CH7Br+HBr

Alkenes:
Testing for alkenes
C=C
- Bromine test is to differentiate between alkanes and alkenes
- An alkene will turn brown bromine water colourless as the bromine reacts with the
carbon-carbon double bond.
- This reaction will occur for unsaturated compounds containing carbon-carbon double
bonds.
- An alkane undergoes no reaction with bromine water and therefore there is no colour
change.
- Bromine replaces the double bond in alkene and is added to the carbon and the double
bond breaks. Alkene becomes alkane

Additional reactions:

- The reaction of alkenes and alkynes with hydrogen gas, a halogen compound or a
hydrogen halide compound.
- A reaction in which two or more molecules combine to form a bigger molecule is called an
addition reaction.
Polymerisation

- Small monomer units join together to form a large polymer molecule.

Addition

- Many small unsaturated monomers combine —> large polymer

- Propene (monomer) —> poly (propene) polymer

← Singular propene (monomer)

- When 2 or more of these join to make a chain the double

bond breaks and forms a chain called poly (propene) polymer.

Monomer - Mono - one

Polymer - Poly - many

Combustion
Fuels +oxygen = energy (heat/light)
Hydrocarbon+oxygen → carbon dioxide + water + heat energy

- Fuel is burned and reacts with oxygen to release energy.

- Combustion is another name for burning

Complete combustion
- This is when
- Complete combustion occurs in an unlimited supply of air, oxygen in particular.
- Complete combustion is also known as clean combustion in which the hydrocarbon will
burn out completely with the oxygen and leave only two byproducts, water, and carbon
dioxide.

Plentiful air elements react fully O2

Hydrocarbons gas/petrol
Carbon oxidized to CO2
Hydrogen oxidized to H2O

Hydrocarbon + O2 => CO2 + H2O

Eg. Propane + oxygen -> carbon dioxide + water
C3H8 + 5 O2 -> 3 CO2 + 4 H2O

Incomplete combustion
- Incomplete combustion takes place when the air is in limited supply.
 - It is known as dirty combustion due to lack of oxygen, the fuel will not react completely.
- This, in turn, produces carbon monoxide and soot instead of carbon dioxide.

Poor supply oxygen

Products: H2O, CO, C

Hydrocarbon + Oxygen -> carbon monoxide + carbon + water

Cracking:
Reaction larger saturated hydrocarbon molecules are broken down into smaller, more useful
hydrocarbon molecules some of which are unsaturated.

Alkane → Alkane + alkene

Hexane → butane +ethene

C16H34. One product is alkane 10C

Write balanced symbols equation cracking.

Methods
- Cracking in presence of a catalyst → temp 550 degrees celsius and catalyst (zeolite) which
contains aluminium oxide and silicon oxide
- Steam → temp→ 800 degrees celsius no catalyst

Fractional distillation
- Crude oil is the term used to describe unprocessed oil.
- It is a valuable resource that provides us with a great number of hydrocarbons.
- Different fractions of hydrocarbons must be separated by fractional distillation for them to
be useful.
- Crude oil is a mixture of hydrocarbons with different chain lengths. Some being short
molecules and some being very long.
- Intermolecular forces act between molecules and the longer the molecules the greater the
intermolecular forces.
- Small molecules have weaker intermolecular forces and so they require less energy to
break them apart and turn them into a gas. They have a lower boiling point.
- The longer molecules have greater intermolecular forces, therefore, require more energy
and higher temperature to break them apart. They have higher boiling points.

➔ Crude oil is heated up to a high temperature outside of the fractionating column.

➔ The hot crude oil, now mostly in vapour form is pumped into the column.
➔ The column has a heat gradient and is very hot at the bottom, going cooler as we move up
to the top.
➔ Even at the very bottom of the column where the temperature is still high, some long chain
molecules with high boiling points begin to condense back into a liquid form and are
collected at the bottom of the column.
 ➔ The rest of the molecules start to rise in the column, making their way up through the
bubble caps in each tray. The bubble caps slow down the rate of the rising vapour and
eventually the vapours get too cool, condense and are collected as liquids in the trays.
➔ Small molecules have low boiling points and so condense much higher in the column
where the temperature is still cool.
➔ Hydrocarbons with similar boiling points are collected in the same tray and this is why
they are known as fractions, they are mixtures of hydrocarbons with similar boiling points

**Each fraction has important uses for example, petrol for vehicles,kerosene for aircrafts etc.

Unit 7: Reactions
Everything in reactions

Redox reactions
Oxidation and Reduction reactions show how electrons move between atoms.
Oxidation: loss of electrons
Reduction: gain of electrons (a way to remember this is that since electrons are negative, it
reduces the vibe of the atoms)

Image with the Green guy:

In the reaction that shows ionic bonding, Na has been oxidized as it received an electron,
whereas, Cl has been reduced as it gained an electron.

Displacement reactions
Displacement reactions are mainly used for metal extraction. This process involves a metal and a
compound of a different metal. In order to extract the metal without its compound, displacement
reactions are used.

In order to extract A from AB, metal C is

added to the equation and it is more
reactive than A. This makes BC bond and
the metal A is extracted. Zinc is more reactive than Copper. So, it displaces copper and bonds with
sulphate. Zinc acts as a reducing agent as it gains sulphate and Copper is oxidized as it loses
sulphate.

In order to extract minerals, the metal oxides are heated with carbon or
hydrogen in order to extract the metal. The metals that are more reactive than
carbon go through the process of electrolysis.

Electrolysis:
La processus
Electrolysis is the process by which ionic substances
are decomposed (broken down) into simpler
substances when an electric current is passed through
them.

Electricity is the flow of electrons or ions. For

electrolysis to work, the compound must contain ions.
Covalent compounds cannot act as electrolytes because they contain
neutral atoms.

The ions must be free to move, which is

possible when an ionic substance is dissolved in water or it is melted.
For example, if electricity is passed through molten lead bromide, the
lead bromide is broken down to form lead and bromine.

In a normal electrolytic cell, the cathode is negative and attracts cations.

The anode is positive and attracts anions.
Cations - positive ions
Anions - negative ions

In a spontaneous electrolytic system, the cathode is positive and attracts

anions whereas the anode is negative and attracts cations.

Unit 8: Separation Techniques

Separation techniques and other year 7 stuff
Solute - A substance that is dissolved in a solution is called a solute.
Solvent - A substance that has the ability to dissolve a given solute to form a solution with it.
(liquid of the solution)
Soluble - Able to be dissolved
Solution - Mixture of two or more substances.
 Mixture - A substance made by mixing other substances together.

Introduction
Compounds Mixtures

Compounds have a fixed composition (the ratio of elements Mixtures don’t have a fixed composition (the proportions
present is always the same in any particular compound) vary depending on the amount of each substance mixed
together)

Chemical reactions must be used to separate the elements in The different elements or compounds in a mixture can be
a compound. separated again more easily. (by physical means using
difference in properties of each substance in the mixture)

There are chemical bonds between atoms of the different There are no chemical bonds between atoms of the different
elements in the compound. substances in a mixture.

Different Separation Techniques

basis of separation separation technique(s)

filtration; dialysis; size-exclusion

size
chromatography

mass or density centrifugation

complex formation masking

change in physical state distillation; sublimation; recrystallization

partitioning between phases extraction; chromatography

Physical separation
Hand-picking, sieving, filtration, using a magnet etc.

Filtration
Filtration is the process where insoluble solid matter is separated from the liquid. It is a method of
physical separation.
For this process, filter paper and a funnel is most commonly used.
A real-life example: Hot water with coffee being filtered to provide liquid coffee filtrate.

Chromatography
Chromatography is a separation method where the
separation of a mixture occurs. Used for separating a
mixture of chemical substances into its individual
components, so that the individual components can be thoroughly analyzed.
Used for drug testing in athletes etc.

Distillation
Separation of soluble solids from solvent to obtain the liquid. For example seawater to drinking
water. Salt is left and water is separated and obtained.
Dry distillation is the heating of solid materials to produce gaseous products

Process: The material is heated, which leaves the solid in the beaker. The
gas travels to the cooling chamber, which liquifies and cools the gas. The
purified liquid then goes into the beaker on the other end.

Fractional Distillation
The same process as distillation, however, the temperature of the condenser
changes as the fractions progress. The temperature of the cooling chamber
is highest at the bottom and lowest at the top.

Crystallization
Crystallisation is used to produce solid crystals from a solution. When the
solution is warmed, some of the solvent evaporates leaving behind a more
concentrated solution.

To obtain large, regularly

shaped crystals
Put the solution in an evaporating basin. Warm
the solution by placing the evaporating basin
over a boiling water bath. Stop heating before all
the solvent has evaporated. After the remaining
solution has cooled down, pour the excess liquid
away (or filter it). Dry the crystals using a warm
oven or in air.

Unit 9: Acids and Alkalis

Acids:
An acid is a substance that produces hydrogen ions, H+(aq), when dissolved in water.The higher
the concentration of hydrogen ions in the solution, the lower the pH.

Alkalis:
An alkali is a substance that produces hydroxide ions, OH-(aq), when dissolved in water.

Strong acids include:

➔ hydrochloric acid
➔ sulfuric acid
➔ nitric acid

Strong alkalis include:

➔ sodium hydroxide
➔ potassium hydroxide

Dilute and concentrated:

➔ A concentrated acid contains a large number of acid particles dissolved per unit volume.
➔ A dilute acid contains a small number of acid particles dissolved per unit volume.

Neutralisation is the reaction between the

hydrogen ions in an acid and the hydroxide ions
in an alkali to produce water. The ionic equation
for neutralisation is (higher tier): H+(aq) +
OH-(aq) → H2O(l)

Hydrogen = + ion = acidic

Hydroxide = - ion = alkali

Acid reactions
Acid + metal hydroxide → metal salt + water
Acid + metal → metal salt + hydrogen
Acid + metal carbonate → metal salt + carbon dioxide + water
Acid + metal oxide → metal salt + water
Memorise these:
HCL - HYDROCHLORIC ACID
HNO3 - NITRIC ACID
H2SO4 - SULFURIC ACID
HYDROXIDE - OH^-
CARBONATE - CO3^-2

Titration: A technique where a solution of known concentration is used to

determine the concentration of an unknown solution
Add known (concentration) solution to a set volume of an unknown (conc.)
solution
Indicator is used to indicate the completion of the reaction

Apparatus:
- Pipette: to measure certain volume of unknown solution
- Burette: to measure known known solution, to add to unknown
- 250 cm^3 volume conical flask: for the unknown solution
- 1 White tile: to see the colour change in the solution
- 1 Clamp stand: to attach the burette
- 1 bottle of acid (HCl)
- 1 bottle of alkali (NaOH)
- pH indicator phenolphthalein: in acid colourless, in alkaline bright pink
Known: titrant unknown: titrand

Method:
1. Rinse the burette with the known solution, the pipette with the unknown solution, and the
conical flask with water.
2. Use a pipette to add 25 cm3 of acid/alkali (unknown) solution to the conical flask
3. Add a few drops of the indicator and put the conical flask on a white tile.
4. Fill the burette with acid/alkali (known). Flush the tap through to remove any air bubbles
into a sink. Ensure the burette is vertical
5. Note down the volume in the burette in the table.
6. Slowly add the titrant from the burette to the conical flask, while swirling to mix.
7. Stop adding the acid when the end-point is reached (when the colour first permanently
changes)
8. Note the final volume reading in the burette
9. Subtract the final volume from the start reading, to give the volume of the solution added
(the titre)
10. Repeat the steps
Sample table:

Concentration : moles / volume

mL to moles: mL/1000 → moles

Titration calculation steps: https://youtu.be/ovx-Sro4NXM

Convert
The volumes into dm3 by dividing by 1000
Find number of moles for known solution using concentration x
volume
Concentration of unknown solution = moles / volume
Use the moles value from the known solution, and volume is given (IN DM3)

In the example, there are 2 moles of sulfuric acid or 1 mole of sodium hydroxide.
Therefore, the concentration calculated would be for 2 moles. Divide that by 2 to find
the concentration for 1 mole.

Formula (if u prefer):

Unknown concentration = known concentration x (volume of known/volume of unknown)

Percentage error: theoretical value - experimental value / theoretical value x 100%

Antacids
Antacids are a class of medicines that
neutralize acid in the stomach. They
contain ingredients such as aluminum,
calcium, magnesium, or sodium
bicarbonate which act as bases (alkalis) to
counteract stomach acid and make its pH
more neutral.
Unit 10: Redox Reactions
Reactive shit that can’t keep their cool

Revision:
Reactivity series of Alkali Metals:
Least ————> Most
Lithium, Sodium, Potassium, Rubidium, Caesium, Francium

When the valence electrons are further away from the nucleus, with more shells in between as a
barrier, the electrostatic force of attraction decreases. The ionization energy decreases, making it
easier to remove the electrons, and therefore more reactive.

Things react to complete the octet rule.

Metals = positive ions

Reactivity: how easy is it to make a positive ion (to remove an electron)

Reactivity is measured by comparing their reactions in either acid or water, and by either how fast
or violent it is

Best way to measure reactvity of metal in acid is by measuring the temperature

Higher temperature = more reactive

Only most reactive metals will react with water, not all will

Metal + water —> alkali metal hydroxide (salt) + hydrogen

Metal Oxide + Acid —> Salt + Water

Half equation:
either the oxidation or reduction component of a redox reaction

Zn + CuSO4 ——> ZnSO4 + Cu

Oxidation half equation: [Zn —> Zn2+ + 2e-]

Reduction half equation: [Cu2+ + 2e- —> Cu]

Electrons (2e^-) in half equations should be able to cancel themselves.

Redox:
OIL RIG: Oxidation is Loss. Reduction is Gain.
Oxidising power: how good the oxidizing agent is able to accept electrons
Reducing power: how good the redcuing agent is able to donate electrons
Oxidizing agent: the agent that becomes reduced, but helps oxidize the other agent.
Reducing agent: the agent that becomes oxidized, but helps reduce the other agent.

Assigning oxidation numbers (not on classkick i

think)
Usually is done by assigning the number for the
more electronegative element
If it is:
an element on its own = 0 (even if there are more
atoms)
A monatomic ion: charge of the ion
Oxygen: -2 (generally) . if in peroxide (H2O2) = -1
Group IA: +1
Group IIA: +2
Group IIIA: +3
Group VI (halogen)I: -1 (unless with an element with higher
electronegativity) (positive with oxygen, value depends)

Hydrogen: non-metal= +1 | metal = -1

Halogen: if it is with oxygen, it must be positive. The number

depends on the others.

Reduction decreases oxidation number

Oxidation increases oxidation number

Electrolysis:
A process of metal extraction when the metal is too reactive and the materials that are able to
displace such metal is too expensive.

For concentrated solution of sodium chloride:

Electrolytic cell:
- Uses electrical energy to make a non-spontaneous redox reaction.
- Electrodes:
● Anode: negative electrode attracts positive ions
● Cathode: positive electrode attracts negative ions
Voltaic cell:

Zn (s) → Zn+2 + 2e- Cu2+ + 2e- → Cu (s)

Oxidised reduced

Net: Zn (s) + Cu 2+(aq) → Zn2+ (aq) +Cu(s)

More reactive metal undergoes oxidation ( Zn > Cu)

- Oxidation occurs at the anode (negative

electrode)
- Reduction occurs at the cathode (positive
electrode)
- The electrons from from the annpde to the
cathode in the wire producing an electric current
- The salad bridge completes the circuit and keeps the half-cells electrically neutral
- Annions migrate from the sald bridge to the anode
- Cations migrate from the salt bridge to the cathode
- Cathode reduction mass goes up as it gains electrons and anode oxidation mass goes down
- Voltaic cells produce electricity