REPRODUCTION AND DEVELOPMENT

 MULTICELLULARITY
- specialized cells with distinct Functions and
morphologies

(systems: circulation and respiration support cells)

[organ system- specialization ]

 Development
- driven by size limits, necessitates changer in organism
 REPRODUCTION
- organisms give birth/give rise to a new organism
 DEVELOPMENTAL BIOLOGY
- Investigates how a variety of interacting processes
generate an organism’s structural features that arise on
life cycle
5 ESSENTIAL DEVELOPMENT PROCESSES
1. Cell proliferation - reproduction of new cells via mitosis
-adding new cells to body, making it
large

2.) Programmed Cell Death- essential for development

- human: specific cells
between fingers must die
3.) Cell movement/Differential Expansion
- evident in migration /expansion
- gastrulation - exemplifies dramatic animal cell
movement
- testicular tissue - migrates during male development
4.) Induction- cell communication direct cell fate through
nearby
- involve morphogens
 5.) Cell Differentiation- transformation from an embryonic
cell to a specialized cell

EUKARYOTIC REPRODUCTIVE PROCESSES:

1. Sexual Reproduction
2. Asexual Reproduction – offers energy efficiency and speed
-only one organism is need to
produce a new offspring

NUMBERS OF WAYS TOME EUKARYOTIC REPRODUCE ASEXUALLY

 Mitosis- splitting into two halves but w/ nucleus
-all eukaryotes use mitosis, to produce new
organism/cell

- (prokaryotes: binary fission)

 Multiple fission- splitting into more than 2 cells
 Budding - outgrowth of a new cell from an old cell/ new
organism from old organism (corals)
 Fragmentation- mature organism split into fragments
capable of forming new organisms (sea stars)
 Parthenogenesis - development of unfertilized egg in to
new organism
 Polyembryony - Fertilized egg splits to form genetically
identical clones
 Vegetative Growth - growth of new organism without
spores / gametes
-common reproductive strategy in
plants

- rhizomes- ginger forms, massess of

stems
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
- combination of reproductive cells from two Individuals
to form a new offspring
 - requires time and energy to find a mate
- generates with gene combination
- asexually-reproducing - create genetically identical
clones

FERTILIZATION
- combination of sperm and an egg
- can occur inside or outside the body F
INTERNAL FERTILIZATION
- often land- based animals
- advantage of protecting the fertilized egg
- in F limits predation on embryos
ANIMAL MATING SYSTEM
1.) Monogamous systems - one male and one female are
paired for breeding season -
-rare
2.) Polygamy (polygamous) One male w/ multiple females
or vice versa

-polygyny- male mates w/ multiple females leaving

female to handle most parental care

3.) Promiscuous - females mates with multiple males (vice

versa)

-promiscuity -occurs when male is unable to sexually

monopolize a group

DIVERSITY OF ANIMAL REPRODUCTIVE ANATOMY

 reproductive structurers are similar
  begins w/ 2 gametes (eggs and sperms) ends w/
zygote which is Fertilized eggs
 males- sperms (found in testes)
 females- eggs (matures in the ovary)
- Egg cells - large cells
- requires energy and time to produce
- released from the ovary, they travel
to uterine tubes for Fertilization (internal
fertilization), released in aqeous environment
(external)

PLANT EMBRYO
-contain within a seed
-provider nutrients it needs to grow

ANIMAL EMBRYO

- develop within an egg, outside or within the females body

ADDITIONAL

TWO FOLD COST OF SEX (if it contribute (2) same

number of offspring)

a) Sexual population - remains the same size of generation

b) Asexual population- doubles in size

NUTRIENT PROCUREMENT AND PROCESSING

Nutrition - provides nutrients to develop, grow, heal, give energy
Modes of nutrition:
Autotrophic - makes own food
Heterotrophic - cannot make own food
Digestion - breaks down food into smaller pieces
Digestive system - organs that break down food
Human Digestive System
Ingestion - taking in food
Absorption - nutrients going into blood
Digestion - breaking down food
Elimination - undigested food leaves body
Parts of Digestive System:
Mouth - Chews food
Esophagus - Food pipe to stomach
Stomach - Digests food
Liver - Makes bile for fats
Gallbladder - Stores bile
Pancreas - Makes enzymes to digest proteins and starches

Animal Nutrition
Nutrients - carbs, fats, proteins, vitamins, minerals
Feeders:
Substrate - eats food source
Filter - strains food from water
Fluid - sucks nutrients from other animals
Bulk - swallows’ large amounts
Digestive compartments:
Food vacuoles - break down food in cell
Gastrovascular cavity - single opening for food in/out
Complete - tube with mouth and anus
Accessory organs - liver, gallbladder, pancreas
Plant Nutrition
Nutrients - water, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, potassium, etc.
Photosynthesis - uses light to make food
Leaves - where photosynthesis happens
Roots - absorb water and nutrients
Absorption routes - symplast, apoplast
Structures - root hairs, root nodules
Carnivorous Plants:
Venus Flytrap - Traps insects when hairs touched
Pitcher Plant - Catches insects in pitcher shape
Yellow Pitcher Plant - Uses rainwater to attract insects
Cobra Lily - Confuses insects with see-through leaves
Sundew - Sticky leaves catch insects
Monkey Cup - Traps and digests insects in cup leaves

GAS EXCHANGE
• the uptake of molecular oxygen from the surrounding and the
discharge of carbon dioxide to the surrounding
• often called respiratory exchange or respiration
Oxygen - needed in tissues for aerobic cellular respiration to
occur and extract ATP from food.
Carbon Dioxide - must be released to prevent physiological
pH in tissues from being acidic.

Basic Principle Influencing Gas Exchange

1. To allow for gas exchange, it must be moist, large enough, and
protected from desiccation.
2. Respiratory Systems rely on the diffusion of gases down
pressure gradients.
• Fick's Law states that the amount of diffusion of a gas across
membrane is proportional to
the surface area and the difference in partial pressure
between the two sides are inversely
proportional to the thickness of the membrane.
3. Surface-to-volume ratio
• As the animal grows, the surface area increases at a
lesser rate than its volume, making
the diffusion of gases into interior more difficult.
4. Ventilations - refers to the movement of the respiratory
medium (air/water) over the respiratory surface.
5. Respiratory pigments/proteins - bind and transport gases.
• Vertebrates - hemoglobin
• Invertebrates - hemocyanin
Structure of Gas Exchange in Plants
I. Stomates in leaves
II. Lenticels in stems
III. Root hairs on aerial roots
IV. Pneumatophores or the later roots of mangroves

Respiratory Surfaces or Organs in Invertebrates

 I. Cell surface or cell membrane - used in unicellular
organisms
II. Integumentary exchange - general body or skin used by
animals with high surface-to-volume ratio
III.External gills - used by invertebrates that lives in aquatic
habitats.
IV. Tracheal Systems in Arthropods - utilizing fine air-
conducting tubules to provide gaseous exchange at the
cellular level.

Respiratory Surfaces in Vertebrates

I. External gills - thin, vascularized epidermis that project
from the body surface of a few amphibians.
II. Internal Gills - water flows over the gills and blood
circulates through them in opposite direction.
III.Lungs - shapes as a cavity or sac.
• in body tissues, oxygen diffuses from blood - interstitial
fluid – cells

Breathing Mechanism in Vertebrates

 Amphibians ventilates their lungs by positive pressure
breathing which forces the air down the trachea
 Birds use system of air sacs as blower to keep air flowing
through the lungs in one direction only, preventing the
mixing of incoming and outgoing air
 Mammals use negative pressure breathing to ventilate their
lungs, expanding their volume and contracting their rib
muscles and diaphragm, but this reduces the efficiency of
ventilations.

Human Respiratory System

- The human respiratory system, including the lungs, takes in
oxygen and expels carbon
 dioxide, providing continuous oxygen flow removing waste
products from the blood.
- Conducting airways, divided into upper and lower systems,
pump atmospheric air in and
out of the body, with the respiratory system filtered and
moistened by mucus.

Coordination of Gas Exchange and Circulation

I. Oxygen Transport
- Oxygen diffuses from the lungs into blood plasma, forming
oxyhemoglobin. Hemoglobin loses oxygen in tissues with
high metabolism, low oxygen partial pressure, warmer blood,
higher carbon dioxide partial pressure, and lower pH.
II. Carbon Dioxide Transport
- Carbon Dioxide diffuses into blood plasma and red blood
cells, forming 70% bicarbonate and carbonic acid. Enzyme
carbonic anhydrase enhances formation in red blood cells.
III. Coordination of Air Flow with Blood Flow
- Gas exchange in alveoli is most efficient when air flow
equals blood flow, and local controls within the lungs correct
imbalances by constricting bronchioles and arterioles.

IV. The Control of Respiration in Vertebrates

- The nervous system regulates oxygen and carbon dioxide
levels through breathing, brain monitoring, and aorta and
carotid artery sensors, ensuring overall body health and
balance

• Animals that inhabit high altitudes have larger hearts and

lungs, and hemoglobin with a high affinity for biding oxygen.
• Many diving animals have unusually high hematocrits and
also muscles with high amounts of myoglobin
 Asthma, emphysema, and pneumonia are respiratory
disorders characterozed by increased resistance to airflow,
decreased lung function, smoking, and chronic bronchitis,
with being a leading global cause of death.

TRANSPORT AND CIRCULATION

Xylem and phloem are two types of vascular tissue in plants
that work together to transport essential materials throughout the
plant. They are like the highways of the plant kingdom, delivering
water, nutrients, and food where they are needed.

Xylem:

Function: Transports water and dissolved minerals from the roots

to the leaves.

Structure: Made up of dead cells called tracheids and tracheary

elements. These cells are hollow and have lignin-reinforced walls,
which allow water to flow freely.

Location: Found in the center of vascular bundles in stems and

roots.

Phloem:

Function: Transports food (sugars and other organic nutrients)

made in the leaves to other parts of the plant, including the roots,
fruits, and flowers.

Structure: Made up of living cells called sieve elements. These

cells have thin walls and pores that allow the passage of dissolved
food molecules.

Location: Found on the outer side of vascular bundles in stems

and roots.
Here are some additional facts about xylem and phloem:

• The flow of water in xylem is mainly driven by a process called

transpiration, where water evaporates from the leaves and pulls
water up from the roots.

•The flow of food in phloem is driven by differences in sugar

concentration between different parts of the plant.

• Xylem and phloem are essential for the survival of all vascular
plants, which include trees, shrubs, and herbaceous plants.Xylem
and phloem work together in a complementary way.

• Water and minerals transported by xylem provide the raw

materials for photosynthesis in the leaves.

• The food produced by photosynthesis is then transported by

phloem to other parts of the plant for growth, development, and
storage.
•Hemolymph
-A fluid equivalent to blood in most invertebrates, occupying the
hemocoel.

• Circulatory System
-It is also known as the cardiovascular system, is like a
superhighway that delivers vital supplies to every comer of an
animal’s body. It’s made up of three key components:

• Closed Circulatory System

- Closed Circulatory System is one in which blood is always
contained within vessels.
•Open Circulatory System
-Open circulatory system is one in which there is a mixing of
the blood and interstitial to make up the hemolymph.
- In an open circulatory system, the blood is not enclosed in
blood vessels.
- It is pumped into a cavity called the hemocoel.
Heart Structure:

The heart, a muscular pump, has four chambers – two upper atria
and two lower ventricles.

•The atria receiving blood and the ventricles pumping it out

•The atria receive blood from the body and lungs, while the
ventricles serve as powerful pumping stations.

Blood that low in oxygen enters the right atrium, flows through
the tricuspid valve to the right ventricle, and is then pumped to
the lungs. After oxygenation, it enters the left atrium, passes
through the mitral valve to the left ventricle, and is pumped to the
body through the aorta. This journey involves intricate
coordination of chambers and valves.

Blood Vessels:

These are tubes carrying blood throughout the body. Thre are 3
main types: Arteries, veins, and capillaries

•Arteries carry oxygen-rich blood under high pressure.

•Veins return blood low in oxygen.

•Capillaries enable the exchange of oxygen, nutrients, and

waste products between blood and cells.

Blood, a complex substance coursing through our bodies, is more

than a simple red liquid. It comprises distinct components, each
playing a vital role in sustaining life.

THE 4 COMPONENTS OF BLOOD:

1. RED BLOOD CELLS:

The red blood cell’s main function is to carry oxygen from the
lungs and deliver it throughout our body. Red blood cells also
transport waste such as carbon dioxide back to our lungs to be
exhaled. Red blood cells can carry oxygen due to a protein called
hemoglobin.
HEMOGLOBIN is made of two main parts: the “heme” group and
the “globin” group. The HEME group contains iron which gives the
red color to the red blood cell. The GLOBIN group is a protein that
helps the red blood cell carry and hold oxygen in place as it
moves throughout the body.

Functions:
✓ Delivering oxygen to cells
✓ Removing carbon dioxide from cells

2. WHITE BLOOD CELLS:

White blood cells are like your body’s defenders. They’re like
soldiers patrolling the bloodstream, constantly searching for
invaders like bacteria and viruses.

There are 5 main types of white blood cells:

•Lymphocytes
•Monocytes
•Eosinophils
•Basophils
•Neutrophils

Functions:
✓ Fighting infection
✓ Destroying foreign cells
✓ Helping wounds heal

3. Plasma:
Constituting 55% of blood volume, plasma serves as the liquid
highway for blood components. Plasma contains important
substances like:

• PROTEINS: These help with blood clotting, transporting

hormones, and fighting infection.
• ELECTROLYTES: These minerals, like sodium and potassium,
help regulate fluids and nerve impulses.
• NUTRIENTS: These include sugars, fats, and amino acids that
are delivered to cells for energy and building blocks.

Functions:
✓ Transporting blood cells, nutrients, and waste products
✓ Regulating blood pressure and volume
✓ Helping with blood clotting

4. Platelets:
These minute cell fragments are indispensable for blood clotting,
rushing to wounds and forming sticky plugs to staunch bleeding.

Function:
✓ Helping with blood clotting
✓ Prevent excessive bleeding

1. Systemic Circulation:
- The journey starts with oxygenated blood pumped out of the
left ventricle into the aorta.

- This blood travels through the systemic arteries, arterioles,

and capillary beds, supplying oxygen and nutrients to body
tissues.

- Oxygen and nutrients are released, and carbon dioxide is

absorbed in the capillaries.
- Deoxygenated blood then moves through venules into
systemic veins, eventually reaching the superior and inferior
venae cavae.

- The venae cavae transport deoxygenated blood back to the

right atrium, completing the systemic loop.

2. Pulmonary Circulation:
- Deoxygenated blood exits the right ventricle and passes
through the pulmonary trunk.
 - The pulmonary trunk splits into the right and left pulmonary
arteries, carrying blood to the lungs.

- In the lungs, carbon dioxide is released, and oxygen is

absorbed through the alveoli in tiny air sacs.

- Oxygenated blood flows through venules into pulmonary veins,

transporting it to the left atrium.

- This marks the completion of the pulmonary loop.

Key Points – Pulmonary Circulation:

1. Starting Point:
- Begins with deoxygenated blood returning from the body.
- Blood enters the right atrium of the heart.

2. Pump and Pathway:

- Pumped from the right ventricle to the lungs.
- Travels through pulmonary arteries.

3. Gas Exchange:
- In the lungs, oxygen is added, and carbon dioxide is released.
- Oxygenates the blood during this process.

4. Return Journey:
- Oxygenated blood returns to the left atrium of the heart.

5. Circuit Completion:
- Completes the pulmonary circuit by returning oxygenated
blood to the left atrium.

Key Points – Systemic Circulation:

1. Starting Point:
- Originates with oxygenated blood from the left ventricle.

2. Pump and Pathway:

- Pumped into the aorta, the largest artery in the body.
 - Travels through systemic arteries.

3. Tissue Supply:
- Supplies oxygen and nutrients to body tissues.
- Exchanges gases, releasing oxygen and absorbing carbon
dioxide.

4. Return Journey:
- Deoxygenated blood returns through venules and systemic
veins.

5. Vena Cava Connection:

- Drains into the superior and inferior venae cavae.

6. Heart’s Right Atrium:

- Deoxygenated blood returns to the right atrium of the heart.

7. Circuit Continuation:
- Begins anew as deoxygenated blood is pumped into the
pulmonary circulation.

8. Crucial Role:
- Essential for maintaining oxygen supply to all body cells.
- Removes carbon dioxide and waste products from tissues.

REGULATION OF BODY FLUIDS

1. **Internal Environment:**
- Extracellular fluid bathes cells, comprising interstitial fluid and blood.
2. **Osmolarity:**
- Solute concentration expressed in mOsm/L.
3. **Osmosis:**
 - Movement of water across a selectively permeable membrane from higher to
lower solute concentration.
4. **Osmoregulation:**
- Process of maintaining water and ion balance for proper bodily functions
5. **Excretion:**
- Elimination of metabolic wastes, including ammonia, urea, and uric acid, to
maintain water and ion balance.
6. **Types of Animals Based on Osmolarity:**
- Osmoconformers: Match body fluid osmolarity to the environment.
- Osmoregulators: Actively regulate internal osmolarity.
**Excretory System:**
1. **Functions:**
- Collection and Filtration- Captures and filters metabolic waste products
efficiently.
- Waste Product Management- Processes and manages metabolic by-products
effectively.
- Elimination-Removes waste from the body systematically.
2. **In Invertebrates:**
- Contractile Vacuoles- Expels excess water to prevent cell lysis.
- Nephridia- Tubular organs for filtration and excretion.
- Malpighian Tubules- Tubules in insects secreting uric acid waste.
- Protonephridia (Flame Bulb System)- Tubules with flame cells for filtration.
**Mammalian Urinary System:**
1. **Components:**
- Kidneys, Ureters, Bladder, Urethra.
- Reniculated kidneys in marine mammals.
2. **Nephron Components:**
- Bowman’s Capsule-Capsule collecting filtrate in glomerulus.
- Renal Tubule-Tubular structure processing filtrate.
- Peritubular Capillaries-Capillaries surrounding renal tubules, reabsorption.
- Collecting Duct-Duct consolidating and transporting urine.
3. **Nephron Functions:**
- Glomerular filtration, tubular reabsorption, tubular secretion.
4. **Urine Formation Mechanism:**
- Filtration, reabsorption, secretion.
5. **Regulation of Kidney Function:**
- Autoregulation in juxtaglomerular apparatus - The juxtaglomerular apparatus
autonomously adjusts afferent arteriole diameter to maintain stable blood flow
and filtration in response to minor blood pressure fluctuations.

- Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) for water conservation - ADH, released in response

to increased body fluid osmolarity, enhances water reabsorption in distal tubules
and collecting ducts, concentrating urine and conserving water.

- Aldosterone for sodium reabsorption - When sodium loss occurs, renin

secretion leads to aldosterone release, stimulating distal tubule and collecting
duct reabsorption of sodium, preventing extracellular fluid volume reduction.

- Thirst response in the hypothalamus - Hypothalamic receptors, detecting

elevated solute concentration, inhibit saliva production and induce the urge to
drink, helping regulate body fluid balance.

6. **Factors Influencing Filtration:**

- Blood pressure, capillary permeability, blood flow volume.
 IMMUNE SYSTEM
What is IMMUNE SYSTEM?
- The immune system functions as a host defense mechanism.
- Comprising a variety of biological structures and processes.
Types of immune system:
1. Innate Immune System:
- Provides a very quick but non-specific response to pathogens.
•Barriers: Skin, mucous membranes, and secretions act as the first line of
defense.
•Internal defenses: Phagocytic cells, natural killer cells, antimicrobial
proteins, and the inflammatory response.
2. Adaptive Immune System:
- Activated if pathogens evade innate defenses.
•Humoral Response: Involves antibodies (immunoglobulins) produced by B
cells.
 Antibodies bind to antigens, neutralizing or destroying pathogens.
 Five major antibody types: IgM, IgD, IgG, IgA, and IgE.
A. IgM is the first antibody produced. It coats the pathogen and
promotes endocytosis by macrophages.
B. IgG is a major antibody produced. It activates the other parts of
the immune response and leads to neutralization and destruction of
pathogen.
C. IgA is the important antibody for the mucosal immune response. It
prevents pathogens from crossing the epithelium and entering the
blood stream.
D. IgE activates mast cells and leads to the production of histamine,
which is why it is also associated with allergic reactions.
 E. IgD. (The role of this antibody is still unclear at this point.)ns.
•Cellular Response: Mediated by T lymphocytes targeting infected cells.
 Helper T cells release cytokines to activate T cells and initiate
cytotoxic responses.

INFLAMMATION
- Critical role in immunity, mobilizing immune cells to damaged tissues.
- Goals include preventing infection, repairing damaged tissue, and
recruiting effector cells.

CHEMICAL AND NERVOUS SYSTEM

CHEMICAL CONTROL - under the regulation of endocrine system
& includes various hormones. Slow acting but the effect is long
term.
NERVOUS CONTROL - under the regulation of the nervous
system with it's system of neuronal mechanisms. Fast acting and
the effect is short term.
NERVOUS SYSTEM - responsible for coordinating the functions
of the other body systems. It also gathers information, processes
the information and elicits a corresponding response to the
stimulus.

2 MAIN DIVISIONS of Nervous System.

Central Nervous System (CNS).
BRAIN and SPINAL CORD.
BRAIN - is the main control center. It receives and processes
sensory information, initiates responses, stores memories,
generates thoughts & emotions.
SPINAL CORD - connects the brain to other nerves of the body.
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS).
nerves that branch out from the brain and spinal cord to specific
body parts.
MOTOR NEURONS - CNS to muscles and glands.
SENSORY NEURONS - Sensory organs to CNS.
MOTOR NEURONS DIVIDED FURTHER INTO:
SOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTEM - controls voluntary body
movements.
AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM - controls involuntary.
AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM DIVIDED INTO:
SYMPATHETIC DIVISION - “Fight or Flight”
PARASYMPATHETIC DIVISION - “Rest or Digest”
NEURON - basic structural & functional unit of the nervous
system.
ACTION POTENTIAL OR AN IMPULSE - a neuron transmits
electrical signals across the system and lets a body part respond
accordingly.
IMPULSE - sudden change in the electric potential of cell
membrane.

Neuronal Structure:
- Neurons, the fundamental units of the nervous system, consist
of dendrites, soma, axon, and axon terminals.
- The soma contains the nucleus and organelles, while the axon
transmits impulses to axon terminals.
Impulse Transmission:
- Stimulated neurons transmit action potentials or impulses,
causing a sudden change in the cell membrane's electric
potential.
- Myelin sheath on axons facilitates faster impulse conduction.
Synaptic Transmission
- Neurons connect at synapses, where neurotransmitters
facilitate the transmission of impulses between axons.
- Events at the axon terminal stimulate the next neuron in a
series.
Endocrine System:
- The endocrine system, comprised of ductless glands, releases
hormones for chemical coordination of body functions.
- Coordination between the endocrine and nervous systems
occurs through feedback mechanisms.
Hormonal Disorders:
- Disorders arise from under- or over-secretion of hormones,
affecting target tissues or organs.
HYPOTHALAMUS- is a section of the brain responsible for the
production of many of the body's essential hormones, chemical
substances that help control different cells and organs.
HYPOTHALAMUS PHYSIOLOGIC FUNCTIONS :
- temperature regulation
- thirst, hunger
- sleep, mood
- sex drive
- the release of other hormones within the body
• Growth-hormone-releasing hormone Stimulates release of GH
from the pituitary gland
•Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) Stimulates release of
ACTH from pituitary gland
•Thyroid-releasing hormone -Stimulates release of TSH from
thyroid gland
• Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) Stimulates release of
FSH and LH from pituitary gland
•Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) Promotes reabsorption of H₂O by
kidneys
•Oxytocin Induces labor and milk release from the mammary
glands in females
ANTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND
PITUITARY GLAND - A small structure at the base of the brain
which releases a wide variety of hormones that, in turn, control
the activity of the body's other hormone glands.
ANTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND :
• Growth Hormone (GH) Stimulates growth
•Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) The function of ACTH is to
regulate levels of the steroid hormone cortisol, which released
from the adrenal gland.
• Stimulates adrenal glands to secrete glucocorticoids such as
cortisol
• Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) Stimulates thyroid gland to
secrete thyroxine
• Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and Luteinizing Hormone
(LH) Involved in production of sex hormone; regulates menstrual
cycle in females
• Prolactin (PRL) Stimulates mammary gland growth and milk
production in females
PARATHYROID GLAND
• Parathyroid Hormone Increases blood Ca²+
THYROID GLAND
Thyroxine -Increases metabolic rate and heart rate; promotes
growth
Tropism refers to the growth or movement of an organism or a
part of an organism in response to an external stimulus. This
stimulus can be light, gravity, chemicals, or other environmental
factors. Positive tropism is when the organism moves towards the
stimulus, while negative tropism is when it moves away.

HERE'S A DIFFERENT TYPES OF TROPISM INCLUDE:

GEOTROPISM (response to gravity)- gravity causes a response in
a plant’s growth.
HYDROTROPISM (response to water)- the way a plants growth or
bends in a respond to water.
THIGMOTROPISM (response to mechanical stimulation)- plants
bend or growth because of touch.
PHOTOTROPISM- (response to light)- the way a plants growth or
bend in response to light.
• Hormones are chemical messengers in plants.

• They regulate various biochemical and physiological responses

that include seed germination, flowering, photosynthesis, fruit
ripening and shoot and root development.
STIMULUS- anything in the environment (light, water, heat,
pressure, wind, touch, etc) that triggers a physiological change in
an organis
RESPONSE- the corresponding reaction to an environmental
stimulus. In the long run, a series of responses will enable an
organism to adapt and survive
TAXIS- is the directed movement towards or away from a
stimulus.
• Single-Celled Organisms In single-celled organisms, the
response is driven by irritability in the cell fluid.
• Simple Organisms (Algae, Protozoans, Fungi) exhibit taxis,
where movement towards or away from a stimulus occurs. This
directional response is a precursor to more intricate coordination
mechanisms found in larger organisms.
• Multicellular Organisms In larger organisms, a control
mechanism, or controller, integrates responses from different
body parts. Chemical regulation and nervous regulation are the
two fundamental mechanisms facilitation integration in
multicellular organisms
Chemical Regulation - Hormones play a crucial role in chemical
regulation. Produced by specific cell groups, hormones influence
metabolism and trigger synthesis in target cells
Nervous Regulation - In animals, the nervous system acts as
another integrative system.

SENSORY AND MOTOR MECHANISM

The SENSORY SYSTEM is composed of sense organs that are
sensitive to the
signals from the environment.

The senses are:

1. OLFACTION (smell)
2. GUSTATION (taste)
3. SOMATOSENSATION (sensations associated with the skin
and body)
4. AUDITION (hearing)
5. EQUILIBRIUM (balance) and
6. VISION.
GENERAL SENSES
• Somatosensation- respond to stimuli like temperature, pain,
pressure, and vibration.
• Vestibular sensation - an organism’s sense of spatial
orientation and balance,
proprioception (position of bones, joints, and muscles), and the
sense of limb
position used to track kinesthesia (limb movement) are part of
somatosensation.
PARTS OF THE HUMAN EYE
1. Sclera
- Outermost layer of the
eyeball.
2. Cornea and Conjunctiva
- Transparent cornea in front
of the sclera.
- Conjunctiva lines eyelids
and front of the eyeball.
3. Choroid and Iris
- Choroid surrounds the sclera.
- Iris, responsible for eye color, is formed from the choroid.
4. Vision Process
- Vision begins with light passing through the pupil.
- Light then enters a transparent lens that focuses images on the
retina.
5. Retina and Photoreceptor Cells
- Retina contains photoreceptor cells.
- Photoreceptor cells transduce light energy into action potentials.
6. Optic Nerve and Brain Processing
- Nerve impulses travel along the optic nerve to corresponding
visual areas of the brain.
- Formation of an image occurs in the brain.
Summary of Key Points:
Photoreceptors in the Human Retina:
1. Rod Cells:
- Use rhodopsin pigment.
- Function in night vision (scotopic vision).
- Do not mediate color vision, low spatial acuity.
2.Cones:
- Distinguish colors.
- Active in bright light (photopic vision).
- Responsible for color vision and high spatial acuity.
- Three types: S-cones, M-cones, and L-cones.

Evolution of Eyes in the Animal Kingdom:

1. Eye cups in flatworms and invertebrates.
2. Compound eyes in insects and arthropods.
3. Single lens eyes in squid.
Hearing in the Human Ear:
1. Outer Ear:
- Lobes catch sound waves.
- Channel waves to eardrums.
2. Middle Ear:
- Eardrum amplifies sound wave vibrations.
- Amplification through hammer, anvil, and stirrup bones.
3. Eustachian Tube:
- Equalizes air pressure between middle and outer ear.
4. Inner Ear:
- Cochlea in inner ear.
- Cochlea has fluid-filled channels.
5. Vibrations:
- Waves in oval window produce pressure waves.
- Waves travel through cochlea canals.
6. Hair Cells:
- Cochlear hair cells stimulated by vibrations.
- Stimulate auditory neurons.

Odor and Taste Senses:

 Odor:
- Chemoreceptors in nose detect odor molecules.
- Olfactory chemoreceptors activated in upper nasal cavity.
- Odor molecules bind to receptor molecules, initiating
potentials.
 Taste:
- Chemoreceptors in taste buds detect salty, bitter, sweet, and
sour tastes.
- Taste perception shares signal mechanisms with smell.
 Common Cold and Age-Related Changes:
- Common cold can disrupt smell, leading to taste loss.
- Tasting abilities and smell decline with age; significant by age
50.
Motor Mechanism:
- Animals move for essential activities like finding food, mates,
and adapting to the environment.
- Various methods of animal locomotion include self-propelled
modes (running, swimming, jumping, flying) and passive
locomotion (sailing, kiting, rolling, phoresis).
Types of Skeleton:
a. Hydrostatic Skeleton:
- Found in aquatic and burrowing animals.
- Involves a fluid-filled body compartment under pressure,
supporting the body without solid bones.
- Examples: Hydra, some invertebrates, and earthworms.
b. Exoskeleton:
- Rigid, armor-like covering outside the body.
- Common in arthropods (insects, crustaceans).
- Insects shed their exoskeleton as they grow.
- Also found in clams and snails.
c. Endoskeleton:
- Rigid and flexible support inside the body.
- Composed of bones, cartilage, and muscles.
 - Examples: Human skeleton (206 bones in adults),
echinoderms with calcium plates.
- Functions include support, mineral and lipid storage, blood
cell production, organ protection, and enabling movement.
3. Skeletal System in Vertebrates:
- Divided into two main parts: the axial skeleton and the
appendicular skeleton.
a. Axial Skeleton:
- Components: Skull, backbone (spinal cord), rib cage.
- Comprises bones in the head and trunk of the human body.
- Consists of five parts: human skull, ossicles of the inner ear,
hyoid bone of the throat, chest, and vertebral column.
- Together with the appendicular skeleton, forms the complete
skeleton.
b. Appendicular Skeleton:
- Components: Bones of the appendages (arms, legs, fins) and
bones linking appendages to the axial skeleton (pectoral and
pelvic girdles).
- Includes pectoral girdle, upper limbs, pelvic girdle, and lower
limbs.
- Together with the axial skeleton, forms the complete
skeleton.
Muscle Tissue Types:
1. Skeletal Muscle Tissue: Found in organs and passages, not
under voluntary control, one nucleus per cell, responsible for
movement.
2. Smooth Muscle Tissue: Found in hollow organs, involuntary,
no striations.
3. Cardiac Muscle Tissue: Exclusive to the heart, involuntary,
striated with branched appearance and intercalated disks.
Sliding Filament Theory of Muscular Contraction:
 Muscle contraction relies on sarcomere shortening between Z
lines in skeletal muscle, housing sliding thick and thin
filaments. The sliding filament theory details cross-bridges
between myosin and actin, generating filament movement and
resulting in the characteristic striation pattern. Contraction
involves Z line proximity, I band reduction, A band
maintenance, and thin filament overlap, explaining sarcomere
variations during muscle states.

FEEDBACK MECHANISM (HOMEOSTASIS)

Feedback mechanism is a physiological regulatory system that
either returns the body to a normal internal state (homeostasis)
or, less commonly, brings an internal system further away from
homeostasis.
Two mechanisms exist
-negative and positive.
-Negative feedback works to bring things back to normal.
For example: if your temperature rises, negative feedback
mechanisms kick in to cool you down.
-Positive feedback is less common, but it plays a role in
processes like blood clotting or childbirth, where the body moves
away from normal temporarily.
-Feedback mechanisms are like the body's smart adjustments,
keeping everything in balance and working smoothly.

-Homeostasis is like the body's way of maintaining a stable and

balanced internal environment, just like how a thermostat keeps
the temperature in a room constant.
-Homeostasis also applies to other aspects of your body, such as
maintaining a stable blood sugar level, pH balance, or even the
right amount of water in your body.

1. Set Point: The set point refers to the desired or target level of
a physiological variable that the body strives to maintain. It
represents the optimal value at which the body functions
efficiently.
2. Normal Range: The normal range is the range of values
around the set point within which a physiological variable is
considered to be in a healthy or normal state. It represents the
acceptable variation from the set point that still indicates a
healthy functioning of the body.
-the set point is the desired level of a physiological variable, while
the normal range is the range of values around the set point that
indicate a healthy state.
MAINTAINING HOMEOSTASIS
-Maintaining homeostasis in the human body involves a complex
process with four key components:
Stimulus: A signal from a variable outside the normal range
triggers the homeostatic response.
Sensor: Monitors the variable's values and sends data to the
control center.
Control Center: Compares the datawith normal values and, if
needed, sends a signal to the effector.
Effector: An organ, gland, or muscle that acts on the signal to
bring the variable back toward the set point.
-This intricate balancing act ensures the body maintains stability
despite fluctuations in internal and external conditions.
Blood glucose regulation is a vital process for maintaining
stable energy levels and overall health. After a meal, when blood
glucose levels rise, the pancreas releases insulin. Insulin helps
cells take up glucose for energy and stores excess glucose in the
liver as glycogen. When blood glucose levels drop, the pancreas
releases glucagon, which signals the liver to convert glycogen
back into glucose, preventing blood sugar from dropping too low.
In essence, insulin controls high blood sugar, while glucagon
prevents it from becoming too low. This feedback mechanism
ensures the balance needed for optimal health.
POSITIVE FEEDBACK
Positive feedback mechanisms amplify a process, causing an
increase in the original stimulus, unlike negative feedback that
aims to maintain balance. Examples include blood clotting and
childbirth.
 Blood clotting:

Blood clotting occurs in response to vessel damage. Platelets start

the process and release chemicals attracting more platelets,
creating a loop that continues until a clot forms to stop bleeding.
This positive feedback in clotting is crucial for efficient wound
healing.
 Childbirth:

In the context of childbirth, the positive feedback mechanism

amplifies the labor process. Uterine contractions stimulate the
release of oxytocin, enhancing contractions and triggering more
oxytocin release. This cycle persists until the baby is delivered.
The stretching of the cervix during contractions further stimulates
oxytocin release, aiding in the progression of labor. It's a
regulated process ensuring the successful delivery of the baby.
Negative Feedback
In a negative feedback loop, feedback serves to reduce an
excessive response
and keep a variable within the normal range. Examples of
processes controlled by
negative feedback include body temperature regulation and
control of blood glucose.
 Body Temperature

Body temperature regulation involves negative feedback whether

it lowers the
temperature or raises it.
 Cooling Down

-The hypothalamus, the body's temperature regulator, responds

to elevated temperature signals from skin and brain sensors. It
initiates actions to cool the body, including vasodilation, increased
sweat production, and enhanced lung heat loss.
-To cool down, the body employs vasodilation, allowing warm core
blood to reach the skin for heat radiation. Additionally, sweat
glands increase sweat production for evaporative cooling, and
deeper breathing, often through the mouth, enhances heat loss
from the lungs.
 Heating Up

-When the brain detects lower body temperature, it initiates

responses: skin blood vessels constrict to reduce heat loss,
skeletal muscles contract caus