DC MACHINES

MODULE - 4

Prepared by
SHREEDHAR NAIK B S
Assistant Professor
Electrical and Electronics Engineering department

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 Armature Reaction in DC Machines
In a DC machine, two kinds of magnetic fluxes are present; 'armature flux' and 'main field flux'. The effect
of armature flux on the main field flux is called as armature reaction.

MNA and GNA: EMF is induced in the armature conductors when they cut the magnetic field lines. There is an
axis (or, you may say, a plane) along which armature conductors move parallel to the flux lines and, hence, they
do not cut the flux lines while on that plane. MNA (Magnetic Neutral Axis) may be defined as the axis along
which no emf is generated in the armature conductors as they move parallel to the flux lines. Brushes are always
placed along the MNA because reversal of current in the armature conductors takes place along this axis.

GNA (Geometrical Neutral Axis) may be defined as the axis which is perpendicular to the stator field axis.

Armature Reaction: The effect of armature reaction is well illustrated in the figure below.

Consider, no current is flowing in the armature conductors and only the field winding is energized (as
shown in the first figure of the above image). In this case, magnetic flux lines of the field poles are uniform
and symmetrical to the polar axis. The 'Magnetic Neutral Axis' (M.N.A.) coincides with the 'Geometric
Neutral Axis' (G.N.A.). The second figure in the above image shows armature flux lines due to the armature
current. Field poles are de-energised

Fig: Armature reaction

Now, when a DC machine is running, both the fluxes (flux due to the armature conductors and flux due to
the field winding) will be present at a time. The armature flux superimposes with the main field flux and,
hence, disturbs the main field flux (as shown in third figure the of above image). This effect is called as
armature reaction in DC machines.

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 The Adverse Effects Of Armature Reaction:

1. Armature reaction weakens the main flux. In case of a dc generator, weakening of the main flux reduces
the generated voltage.
2. Armature reaction distorts the main flux, hence the position of M.N.A. gets shifted (M.N.A. is
perpendicular to the flux lines of main field flux). Brushes should be placed on the M.N.A., otherwise,
it will lead to sparking at the surface of brushes. So, due to armature reaction, it is hard to determine
the exact position of the MNA

For a loaded dc generator, MNA will be shifted in the direction of the rotation. On the other hand, for a
loaded dc motor, MNA will be shifted in the direction opposite to that of the rotation.

How To Reduce Armature Reaction?

Usually, no special efforts are taken for small machines (up to few kilowatts) to reduce the armature
reaction. But for large DC machines, compensating winding and interpoles are used to get rid of the ill
effects of armature reaction.

Compensating winding: Now we know that the armature reaction is due to the presence of armature flux.
Armature flux is produced due to the current flowing in armature conductors. Now, if we place another
winding in close proximity of the armature winding and if it carries the same current but in the opposite
direction as that of the armature current, then this will nullify the armature field. Such an additional winding
is called as compensating winding and it is placed on the pole faces. Compensating winding is connected
in series with the armature winding in such a way that it carries the current in opposite direction.

Interpoles: Interpoles are the small auxiliary poles placed between the main field poles. Winding on
the interpoles is connected in series with the armature. Each interpole is wound in such a way that its
magnetic polarity is same as that of the main pole ahead of it. Interpoles nullify the quadrature axis
armature flux.

Demagnetizing and Cross Magnetizing Conductors

The conductors which are responsible for producing demagnetizing and distortion effects are shown in the
Fig.1.

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 The brushes are lying along the new position of MNA which is at angle θ from GNA. The
conductors in the region AOC = BOD = 2θ at the top and bottom of the armature are carrying current in
such a direction as to send the flux in armature from right to left. Thus these conductors are in direct
opposition to main field and called demagnetizing armature conductors.

The remaining armature conductors which are lying in the region AOD and BOC carry current in such
a direction as to send the flux pointing vertically downwards i.e. at right angles to the main field flux. Hence
these conductors are called cross magnetizing armature conductors which will cause distortion in main field
flux.

These conductors are shown in the Fig. 2

Fig. 2 Conductors which are responsible for producing Cross magnetization ffects

Calculation of Demagnetizing and Cross Magnetizing Amp-Turns

Let us the number of demagnetizing and cross magnetizing amp-turns.

Let Z = Total number of armature conductors P = Number of poles
I = Armature conductor current in Amperes

= Ia/2 for simplex wave winding

= Ia/P for simplex lap winding

θm = Forward lead of brush in mechanical degrees.

The conductors which are responsible for demagnetizing ampere-turns are lying in the region
spanning 4 θm degrees. The region is between angles AOC and BOD, as shown in the Fig. 2.

... Total number of armature conductors lying in angles AOC and BOD.

Since two conductors from one turn,

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 The conductor which are responsible fro cross magnetizing ampere turns are lying between the angles
AOD and BOC, as shown in the Fig.2.

Total armature-conductors / pole = Z/P

From above we have found an expression for demagnetizing conductors per pole.

Since two conductors from one turn,

If the brush shift angle is given in electrical degrees then it should be converted into mechanical
degrees by using the relation,

Example : A wave wound 4 pole d.c. generator with 480 armature conductors supplies a current of 144
A. The brushes are given an actual lead of 10o. Calculate the demagnetizing and cross magnetizing amp
turns per pole.
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Solution :

P = 4, Z = 480, Ia = 144 A

For wave wound,

I = Ia/2 = 144/2 = 72 A

θm = 10o

Compensating Winding and Interpoles in DC Generator

In DC compound machine setup by armature current opposes magnetic field flux, this is known as armature
reaction. The armature reaction has two effects (i) Demagnetizing effect and (ii) Cross magnetizing effect.
Demagnetizing effect weakens the main field flux which in turn decreases the induced
e.m.f (as E ∝ Ø)). To overcome this effect a few extra turns/poles are added in series to main field
winding. This creates a series field which serves two purposes,

(i) It helps to neutralize the demagnetizing effect of armature reaction.

(ii) If wound for cumulative compounded machine the electrical performance will be improved.

Compensating winding:

All armature conductors placed under the main poles region produces e.m.f which is at right angle (90°) to
the main field e.m.f. This e.m.f causes distortion in main field flux. This is known as cross magnetizing
effect. To minimize the cross magnetizing effect compensating winding is used. This compensating
winding produces an m.m.f which opposes the m.m.f produced by armature conductors.

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This objective is achieved by connecting compensating winding in series with armature winding. In absence
of compensating winding, cross magnetizing effect causes sparking at the commutators and short circuiting
the whole armature winding.
Let, Zc = Number of compensating conductors/pole, Za = Number of active armature conductors/pole
Ia = Armature current.
ZcIa= Za (Ia/A) Where, Ia/A=Armature current/conductor, Zc= Za/A
Compensating Winding Disadvantages: This winding neutralizes the cross magnetizing effect due to armature
conductors only but not due to interpolar region. This winding is used in large machine in which load is
fluctuating.
Interpoles: Cross magnetizing effect in interpolar region is by interpoles (also known as compoles (or)
commutating poles). These interpoles are small in size and placed in between the main poles of yoke. Like
compensating winding, interpoles are also connected in series with armature winding such that the m.m.f
produced by them opposes the m.m.f produced by armature conductor in interpolar region. In generators,
the interpole polarity is same as that of main pole ahead such that they induce an e.m.f which is known as
commutating or reversing e.m.f. This commutating e.m.f minimizes the reactance e.m.f and hence sparks
or arcs are eliminated.

Fig: Intepoles

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Compensating winding and Interpoles are used for same purpose but the difference between them is,
interpoles produce e.m.f for neutralizing reactance e.m.f whereas compensating winding produces an
m.m.f which opposes the m.m.f produced by conductors.

COMMUTATION:
The process of reversal of current in the short circuited armature coil is called ‘Commutation’. This process
of reversal takes place when coil is passing through the interpolar axis (q-axis), the coil is short circuited
through commutator segments. Commutation takes place simultaneously for ‘P’ coils in a lap- wound
machine and two coil sets of P/2 coils each in a wave-wound machine.

The process of commutation of coil ‘B’ is shown below. In figure ‘1.29’ coil ‘B’ carries current from left
to right and is about to be short circuited in figure ‘1.30’ brush has moved by 1/3 rd of its width and the
brush current supplied by the coil are as shown. In figure ‘1.31’ coil ‘B’ carries no current as the brush is
at the middle of the short circuit period and the brush current in supplied by coil C and coil A. In figure
‘1.32’ the coil B which was carrying current from left to right carries current from right to left. In fig ‘1.33’
spark is shown which is due to the reactance voltage. As the coil is embedded in the armature slots, which
has high permeability, the coil possess appreciable amount of self-inductance. The current is changed from
+I to –I. So due to self-inductance and variation in the current from +I to –I, a voltage is induced in the coil
which is given by L dI/dt. Fig ‘1.34’ shows the variation of current plotted on the time axis. Sparking can
be avoided by the use of interpoles or commutating-poles.

Fig: Commutation process

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METHODS OF IMPROVING COMMUTATION:

Methods of Improving Commutation: There are two practical ways of improving commutation i.e. of
making current reversal in the short-circuited coil as sparkless as possible. These methods are known as
(i) Resistance commutation and (ii) emf. Commutation (which is done with the help of either brush lead or
interpoles, usually the later).

Resistance Commutation: This method of improving commutation consists of replacing low-resistance

Cu brushes by comparatively high-resistance carbon brushes. When current I from coil C reach the
commutator segment b, it has two parallel paths open to it. The first part is straight from bar ‘b’ to the brush
and the other parallel path is via the short-circuited coil B to bar ‘a’ and then to the brush. If the Cu brushes
are used, then there is no inducement for the current to follow the second longer path, it would preferably
follow the first path. But when carbon brushes having high resistance are used, then current I coming from
C will prefer to pass through the second path. The additional advantages of carbon brushes are that (i) they
are to some degree self-lubricating and polish the commutator and (ii) should sparking occur, they would
damage the commutator less than when Cu brushes are used. But some of their minor disadvantages are: (i)
Due to their high contact resistance (which is beneficial to sparkless commutation) a loss of approximately
2 volt is caused. Hence, they are not much suitable for small machines where this voltage forms an
appreciable percentage loss. (ii) Owing to this large loss, the commutator has to be made somewhat larger
than with Cu brushes in order to dissipate heat efficiently without greater rise of temperature. (iii) Because
of their lower current density (about 7-8 A/cm2 as compared to 25-30 A/cm2 for Cu brushes) they need
larger brush holders.

Fig: Resistance Commutation

EMF Commutation: In this method, arrangement is made to neutralize the reactance voltage by producing
a reversing emf in the short-circuited coil under commutation. This reversing emf, as the name shows, is
an emf in opposition to the reactance voltage and if its value is made equal to the latter, it will completely
wipe it off, thereby producing quick reversal of current in the short-circuited coil which will result in
sparkless commutation. The reversing emf may be produced in two ways: (i) either by giving the brushes a
forward lead sufficient enough to bring the short-circuited coil under the influence of next pole of opposite
polarity or (ii) by using Interpoles. The first method was used in the early machines but has now been
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abandoned due to many other difficulties it brings along with.

Interpoles of Compoles: These are small poles fixed to the yoke and spaced in between the main poles.
They are wound with comparatively few heavy gauge Cu wire turns and are connected in series with the
armature so that they carry full armature current. Their polarity, in the case of a generator, is the same as
that of the main pole ahead in the direction of rotation. The function of interpoles is two-fold: (i) As their
polarity is the same as that of the main pole ahead, they induce an emf in the coil (under commutation)
which helps the reversal of current. The emf induced by the compoles is known as commutating or reversing
emf. The commutating emf neutralizes the reactance emf thereby making commutation sparkless. With
interpoles, sparkless commutation can be obtained up to 20 to 30% overload with fixed brush position. In
fact, interpoles raise sparking limit of a machine to almost the same value as heating limit. Hence, for a
given output, an interpole machine can be made smaller and, therefore, cheaper than a non-interpolar
machine. As interpoles carry armature current, their commutating emf is proportional to the armature
current. This ensures automatic neutralization of reactance voltage which is also due to armature current.
(ii) Another function of the interpoles is to neutralize the cross-magnetising effect of armature reaction.
Hence, brushes are not to be shifted from the original position.

Fig: Interpoles of Compoles

OF as before, represents the mmf due to main poles. OA represents the cross-magnetizing mmf due to
armature. BC which represents mmf due to interpoles, is obviously in opposition to OA, hence they cancel
each other out. This cancellation of cross-magnetization is automatic and for all loads because both are
produced by the same armature current. The distinction between the interpoles and compensating windings
should be clearly understood. Both are connected in series and their m.m.fs. are such as to neutralize
armature reaction. But compoles additionally supply mmf for counteracting the reactance voltage induced
in the coil undergoing commutation. Moreover, the action of the compoles is localized; they have negligible
effect on the armature reaction occurring on the remainder of the armature periphery.

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 DC MOTORS AND TESTING

WORKING PRINCIPLE OF A DC MOTOR

The DC motor is the device which converts the direct current into the mechanical work. It works on the
principle of Lorentz Law, which states that “the current carrying conductor placed in a magnetic and electric
field experience a force”. And that force is called the Lorentz force. The Fleming left-hand rule gives the
direction of the force.

Fleming Left Hand Rule

If the thumb, middle finger and the index finger of the left hand are displaced from each other by an angle
of 90°, the middle finger represents the direction of the magnetic field. The index finger represents the
direction of the current, and the thumb shows the direction of forces acting on the conductor.

Fig: Flemings left hand rule

The formula calculates the magnitude of the force,

Before understanding the working of DC motor first, we have to know about their construction. The
armature and stator are the two main parts of the DC motor. The armature is the rotating part, and the stator
is their stationary part. The armature coil is connected to the DC supply.

The armature coil consists the commutators and brushes. The commutators convert the AC induces in the
armature into DC and brushes transfer the current from rotating part of the motor to the stationary external
load. The armature is placed between the north and south pole of the permanent or electromagnet.

For simplicity, consider that the armature has only one coil which is placed between the magnetic field
shown below in the figure A. When the DC supply is given to the armature coil the current starts flowing
through it. This current develops their own field around the coil. Figure B shows the field induces around
the coil.
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 Fig: magnetic field induces around the coil.

By the interaction of the fields (produces by the coil and the magnet), resultant field develops across the
conductor. The resultant field tends to regain its original position, i.e. in the axis of the main field. The field
exerts the force at the ends of the conductor, and thus the coil starts rotating.

Fig: Field produced due to poles alone

Let the field produces by the main field be Fm, and this field rotates in the clockwise direction. When the
current flows in the coil, they produce their own magnetic field says Fr. The field Fr tries to come in the
direction of the main field. Thereby, the torque act on the armature coil.

Fig: Field produced due to conductors alone

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The actual DC motor consists a large number of armature coils. The speed of the motor is directly
proportional to the number of coils used in the motor. These coils are kept under the impact of the magnetic
field.

The one end of the conductors are kept under the influence of North Pole, and the other end is kept under
the influence of the South Pole. The current enters into the armature coil through the North Pole and move
outwards through the South Pole. When the coil moves from one brush to another, at the same time the
polarity of the coil also changes. Thus, the direction of the force or torque acting on the coil remains same.

The torque induces in the coil become zero when the armature coil is perpendicular to the main field. The
zero torque means the motor stops rotating. For solving this problem, the number of armature coil is used
in the rotor. So if one of their coils is perpendicular to the field, then the other coils induce the torque. And
the rotor moves continuously.

Also, for obtaining the continuous torque, the arrangement is kept in such a way that whenever the coils cut
the magnetic neutral axis of the magnet the direction of current in the coils become reversed. This can be
done with the help of the commutator.

Back Emf and its Significance in DC Motor

When a dc voltage V is applied across the motor terminals, the armature starts rotating due to the torque
developed in it.

As the armature rotates, armature conductors cut the pole magnetic field, therefore, as per law of
electromagnetic induction, an emf called back emf is induced in them.

The back emf (also called counter emf) is given by

Where, P=number of poles of dc motor, Φ= flux per pole, Z=total number of armature conductors, N=armature

speed, A=number of parallel paths in armature winding, as all other parameters are constant, therefore, Eb ∝ N

As per Lenz's law, "the induced emf always opposes the cause of its production”.
Here, the cause of generation of back emf is the rotation of armature. Rotation
of armature is due to armature torque. Torque is due to armature current
and armature current is due to supply dc voltage V. Therefore, the ultimate cause of
production of Eb is the supply voltage V.
Therefore, back emf is always directed opposite to supply voltage V.

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Significance of back emf in dc motor
(1) As the back emf opposes supply voltage V, therefore, supply voltage has to force current through the
armature against the back emf, to keep armature rotating. The electric work done in overcoming and causing
the current to flow against the back emf is converted into mechanical energy developed in the armature.

It follows, therefore, that energy conversion in a dc motor is only possible due to the production of back
emf.

Mechanical power developed in the armature = EbIa

(2) Back emf makes dc motor a self-regulating motor i.e Eb makes motor to adjust Ia automatically as per
the load torque requirement. Let’s see how.

From the motor figure,

V and Ra are fixed, therefore, armature current Ia depends on back emf, which in turn depends on speed
of the motor.

(a) When the motor is running at no-load, small torque (Ta=KIa ) is required by the motor to overcome
friction and windage. Therefore, a small current is drawn by the motor armature and the back emf is almost
equal to the supply voltage.

(b) If the motor is suddenly loaded, the load torque beomes greater than the armature torque and the motor
starts to slow down. As motor speed decreases, back emf decreases and therefore, armature current starts
increasing. With increasing Ia , armature torque increases and at some point it becomes equal to the load
torque. At that moment, motor stops slowing down and keeps running at this new speed.

(c) If the load on the motor is suddenly reduced, the driving torque becomes more than the load torque
and the motor starts accelerating. As the motor speed increases, back emf increases and therefore, armature
current decreases. Due to this reducing armature current, armature developed torque decreases and at some
point becomes equal to the load torque. That point onwards, motor will stop accelerating and will start
rotating uniformly at this new slightly increased speed.

So, this shows how important is back emf in dc motor. Without back emf, the electromagnetic energy
conversion would not have been possible at the first place.

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Power Equation of a D.C. Motor

The voltage equation of a d.c. motor is given by,

V = Eb + Ia Ra

Multiplying both sides of the above equation by Ia we get,

V Ia = Eb Ia + Ia 2 Ra

This equation is called power equation of a d.c. motor.

VIa = Net electrical power input to the armature measured in watts.

Ia2Ra = Power loss due the resistance of the armature called armature copper loss.

So difference between VIa and Ia2Ra i.e. input - losses gives the output of the armature.

So Eb Ia is called electrical equivalent of gross mechanical power developed by the armature.

This is denoted as Pm.

... Power input to the armature - Armature copper loss = Gross mechanical power developed in the
armature.

Condition for Maximum Power

For a motor from power equation it is known that,

Pm = Gross mechanical power developed = Eb Ia

= VIa - Ia2Ra

For maximum Pm, dPm/dIa = 0

... 0 = V - 2IaRa

... Ia = V/2Ra i.e. IaRa = V/2

Substituting in voltage equation,

V = Eb + IaRa = Eb + (V/2)

... Eb = V/2............................ Condition for maximum power

Key Point: This is practically impossible to achieve as for this, current required is much more than its
normal rated value. Large heat will be produced and efficiency of motor will be less than 50 %.
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TORQUE EQUATION OF A DC MOTOR

When a DC machine is loaded either as a motor or as a generator, the rotor conductors carry current. These
conductors lie in the magnetic field of the air gap. Thus, each conductor experiences a force. The conductors
lie near the surface of the rotor at a common radius from its centre. Hence, a torque is produced around the
circumference of the rotor, and the rotor starts rotating.

When the machine operates as a generator at a constant speed, this torque is equal and opposite to that
provided by the prime mover. When the machine is operating as a motor, the torque is transferred to the
shaft of the rotor and drives the mechanical load. The expression is same for the generator and motor.

When the current carrying current is placed in the magnetic field, a force is exerted or it which exerts turning
moment or torque F x r. This torque is produced due to the electromagnetic effect, hence is called
Electromagnetic torque. The torque which is produced in the armature is not fully used at the shaft for
doing the useful work. Some part of it where lost due to mechanical losses. The torque which is used for
doing useful work in known as the shaft torque.

Since,

Multiplying the equation (1) by Ia we get

Where,

VIa is the electrical power input to the armature.

I2aRa is the copper loss in the armature.

We know that,

Total electrical power supplied to the armature = Mechanical power developed by the armature +
losses due to armature resistance

Now, the mechanical power developed by the armature is Pm.

Also, the mechanical power rotating armature can be given regarding torque T and speed n.

Where n is in revolution per seconds (rps) and T is in Newton-Meter.

Hence,
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But,

Where N is the speed in revolution per minute (rpm) and

Where, n is the speed in (rps).

Therefore,

So, the torque equation is given as

For a particular DC Motor, the number of poles (P) and the number of conductors per parallel path (Z/A)
are constant.

Where,

Thus, from the above equation (5) it is clear that the torque produced in the armature is directly proportional
to the flux per pole and the armature current. Moreover, the direction of electromagnetic torque developed
in the armature depends upon the current in armature conductors. If either of the two is reversed the
direction of torque produced is reversed and hence the direction of rotation. But when both are reversed,
and direction of torque does not change.

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Shaft Torque:
In a DC Motor whole of the electromagnetic torque (T) developed in the armature is not available on the
shaft. A part of it is lost to overcome the iron and mechanical (friction and windage) losses. Therefore, shaft
torque (Tsh) is somewhat less than the torque developed in the armature.

Definition: Thus, in the case of DC motors, the actual torque available at the shaft for doing useful
mechanical work is known as Shaft Torque. It is so called because it is available on the shaft of the motor.
It is represented by the symbol Tsh. The output of the motor is given by the equation shown below where
Tsh is the shaft torque in r.p.s and the N is the rotation of the motor in r.p.m. The shaft torque is expressed
as

The difference between the armature torque and the shaft torque ( Ta – Tsh ) is known as the lost torque and
is due to the formation of the torque.

Brake Horse Power (B.H.P)

In the case of the motor, the mechanical power available at the shaft is known as Brake Horse Power. If Tsh
is the shaft torque in Newton Meter and N is the speed in r.p.m then,

The output brake horsepower is given by the equation (1) shown above.

TYPES OF DC MOTOR: A Direct Current Motor, DC is named according to the connection of the
field winding with the armature. Mainly there are two types of DC Motors. First, one is Separately
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Excited DC Motor and Self-excited DC Motor. The self-excited motors are further classified as Shunt
wound or shunt motor, Series wound or series motor and Compound wound or compound motor.

The dc motor converts the electrical power into mechanical power is known as dc motor. The construction of
the dc motor and generator are same. But the dc motor has the wide range of speed and good speed regulation
which in electric traction. The working principle of the dc motor is based on the principle that the current carrying
conductor is placed in the magnetic field and a mechanical force experience by it. The DC motor is generally
used in the location where require protective enclosure, for example, drip- proof, the fireproof, etc. according to
the requirements. The detailed description of the various types of the motor is given below.

Separately Excited DC Motor: As the name signifies, the field coils or field windings are energized
by a separate DC source as shown in the circuit diagram shown below.

Separately Excited DC Motor

Self-Excited DC Motor: As the name implies self-excited, hence, in this type of motor, the current
in the windings is supplied by the machine or motor itself. Self-excited DC Motor is further divided
into shunt wound, and series wound motor. They are explained below in detail.

Shunt Wound Motor: This is the most common types of DC Motor. Here the field winding is
connected in parallel with the armature as shown in the figure below.

Shunt Wound DC Motor

The current, voltage and power equations for a shunt motor are written as follows.

By applying KCL at the junction A in the above figure.

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The sum of the incoming currents at A = Sum of the outgoing currents at A.

Where, I is the input line current, Ia is the armature current, Ish is the shunt field current, Equation (1) is the
current equation.
The voltage equations are written by using Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) for the field winding circuit.

For armature winding circuit the equation will be given as

The power equation is given as

Power input = mechanical power developed + losses in the armature + loss in the field.

Multiplying equation (3) by Ia we get the following equations.

Where, VIa is the electrical power supplied to the armature of the motor.
Series Wound Motor: In the series motor, the field winding is connected in series with the
armature winding. The connection diagram is shown below.

Series Wound Motor

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By applying the KCL in the above figure

Where,

Ise is the series field current

The voltage equation can be obtained by applying KVL in the above figure

The power equation is obtained by multiplying equation (8) by I we get

Power input = mechanical power developed + losses in the armature + losses in the field

Comparing the equation (9) and (10), we will get the equation shown below.

Compound Wound Motor

A DC Motor having both shunt and series field windings is called a Compound Motor. The connection
diagram of the compound motor is shown below.

Compound Motor

The compound motor is further subdivided as Cumulative Compound Motor and Differential Compound
Motor. In cumulative compound motor the flux produced by both the windings is in the same direction, i.e.

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In differential compound motor, the flux produced by the series field windings is opposite to the flux
produced by the shunt field winding, i.e.

The positive and negative sign indicates that direction of the flux produced in the field windings.

CHARACTERISTICS OF DC MOTORS

Generally, three characteristic curves are considered important for DC motors which are,

(i) Torque vs. armature current,

(ii) (ii) Speed vs. armature current and
(iii) (iii) Speed vs. torque.

These are explained below for each type of DC motor. These characteristics are determined by keeping the
following two relations in mind.
Ta ∝ ɸ.Ia and N ∝ Eb/ɸ

These above equations can be studied at - emf and torque equation of dc machine. For a DC motor,
magnitude of the back emf is given by the same emf equation of a dc generator i.e. Eb = PɸNZ / 60A. For a
machine, P, Z and A are constant, therefore, N ∝ Eb/ɸ

Characteristics Of DC Series Motors

Torque Vs. Armature Current (Ta-Ia)
This characteristic is also known as electrical characteristic. We know that torque is directly proportional
to the product of armature current and field flux, Ta ∝ ɸ.Ia. In DC series motors, field winding is connected
in series with the armature, i.e. Ia = If. Therefore, before magnetic saturation of the field, flux ɸ is directly
proportional to Ia. Hence, before magnetic saturation Ta α Ia2. Therefore, the Ta-Ia curve is parabola for
smaller values of Ia.

After magnetic saturation of the field poles, flux ɸ is independent of armature current Ia. Therefore, the
torque varies proportionally to Ia only, T ∝ Ia.Therefore, after magnetic saturation, Ta-Ia curve becomes a
straight line. The shaft torque (Tsh) is less than armature torque (Ta) due to stray losses. Hence, the curve
Tsh vs Ia lies slightly lower.

In DC series motors, (prior to magnetic saturation) torque increases as the square of armature current, these
motors are used where high starting torque is required.
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Speed Vs. Armature Current (N-Ia)

We know the relation, N ∝ Eb/ɸ

For small load current (and hence for small armature current) change in back emf Eb is small and it may be
neglected. Hence, for small currents speed is inversely proportional to ɸ. As we know, flux is directly
proportional to Ia, speed is inversely proportional to Ia. Therefore, when armature current is very small the
speed becomes dangerously high. That is why a series motor should never be started without some
mechanical load.

But, at heavy loads, armature current Ia is large. And hence, speed is low which results in decreased back
emf Eb. Due to decreased Eb, more armature current is allowed.

Speed Vs. Torque (N-Ta)

This characteristic is also called as mechanical characteristic. From the above two characteristics of DC
series motor, it can be found that when speed is high, torque is low and vice versa.

Characteristics Of DC Shunt Motors

Torque Vs. Armature Current (Ta-Ia)
In case of DC shunt motors, we can assume the field flux ɸ to be constant. Though at heavy loads, ɸ
decreases in a small amount due to increased armature reaction. As we are neglecting the change in the flux
ɸ, we can say that torque is proportional to armature current. Hence, the Ta-Ia characteristic for a dc shunt
motor will be a straight line through the origin. Since heavy starting load needs heavy starting current, shunt
motor should never be started on a heavy load.

Speed Vs. Armature Current (N-Ia)

As flux ɸ is assumed to be constant, we can say N ∝ Eb. But, as back emf is also almost constant, the speed
should remain constant. But practically, ɸ as well as Eb decreases with increase in load. Back emf Eb
decreases slightly more than ɸ, therefore, the speed decreases slightly. Generally, the speed decreases only
by 5 to 15% of full load speed. Therefore, a shunt motor can be assumed as a constant speed motor. In speed
vs. armature current characteristic in the following figure, the straight horizontal line represents the ideal
characteristic and the actual characteristic is shown by the dotted line.
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Characteristics Of DC Compound Motor

DC compound motors have both series as well as shunt winding. In a compound motor, if series and shunt
windings are connected such that series flux is in direction as that of the shunt flux then the motor is said
to be cumulatively compounded. And if the series flux is opposite to the direction of the shunt flux, then
the motor is said to be differentially compounded. Characteristics of both these compound motors are
explained below.

(a) Cumulative compound motor

Cumulative compound motors are used where series characteristics are required but the load is likely to be
removed completely. Series winding takes care of the heavy load, whereas the shunt winding prevents the
motor from running at dangerously high speed when the load is suddenly removed. These motors have
generally employed a flywheel, where sudden and temporary loads are applied like in rolling mills.

(b) Differential compound motor

Since in differential field motors, series flux opposes shunt flux, the total flux decreases with increase in
load. Due to this, the speed remains almost constant or even it may increase slightly with increase in load
(N ∝ Eb/ɸ). Differential compound motors are not commonly used, but they find limited applications in
experimental and research work.

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SPEED CONTROL OF DC MOTOR:

The dc motor converts the mechanical power into dc electrical power. One of the most important features
of the dc motor is that their speed can easily be control according to the requirement by using simple
methods. Such type of control is impossible in an AC motor.

The concept of the speed regulation is different from the speed control. In speed regulation, the speed of
the motor changes naturally whereas in dc motor the speed of the motor changes manually by the operator
or by some automatic control device. The speed of the DC Motor is given by the relation shown below.

The equation (1) that the speed is dependent upon the supply voltage V, the armature circuit resistance R a
and the field flux ϕ, which is produced by the field current.

For controlling the speed of DC Motor, the variation in voltage, armature resistance and field flux is taken
into consideration. There are three general methods of speed control of a DC Motor. They are as follows.

1. Variation of resistance in the armature circuit.This method is called Armature Resistance or

Rheostatic control.
2. Variation in field flux.This method is known as Field Flux Control.
3. Variation in applied voltage.This method is also known as Armature Voltage Control.
The detailed discussion of the various method of controlling the speed is given below.

Armature Resistance Control of DC Motor

Shunt Motor: The connection diagram of a shunt motor of the armature resistance control method is shown
below. In this method, a variable resistor Re is put in the armature circuit. The variation in the variable resistance
does not affect the flux as the field is directly connected to the supply mains.

Fig: Connection diagram of a shunt motor of the armature resistance control method

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 The speed current characteristic of the shunt motor is shown below.

Fig: Speed current characteristic of the shunt motor

Series Motor:
Now, let us consider a connection diagram of speed control of the DC Series motor by the armature
resistance control method.

Fig: Diagram of speed control of the DC Series motor

By varying the armature circuit resistance, the current and flux both are affected. The voltage drop in the
variable resistance reduces the applied voltage to the armature, and as a result, the speed of the motor is
reduced.

The speed–current characteristic of a series motor is shown in the figure below.

Fig: Speed–current characteristic of a series motor

When the value of variable resistance Re is increased, the motor runs at a lower speed. Since the variable
resistance carries full armature current, it must be designed to carry continuously the full armature current.
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Disadvantages of Armature Resistance Control Method

▪ A large amount of power is wasted in the external resistance Re.

▪ Armature resistance control is restricted to keep the speed below the normal speed
of the motor and increase in the speed above normal level is not possible by this
method.

▪ For a given value of variable resistance, the speed reduction is not constant but
varies with the motor load.

▪ This speed control method is used only for small motors.

Field Flux Control Method of DC Motor

Flux is produced by the field current. Thus, the speed control by this method is achieved by control of the
field current.

Shunt Motor

In a Shunt Motor, the variable resistor RC is connected in series with the shunt field windings as shown in
the figure below. This resistor RC is known as a Shunt Field Regulator.

Fig: Shunt Field Regulator

The shunt field current is given by the equation shown below.

The connection of RC in the field reduces the field current, and hence the flux is also reduced. This reduction
in flux increases the speed, and thus, the motor runs at speed higher than the normal speed. Therefore, this
method is used to give motor speed above normal or to correct the fall of speed because of the load.

The speed-torque curve for shunt motor is shown below.

Fig: speed-torque curve for shunt motor

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Series Motor: In a series motor, the variation in field current is done by any one method, i.e. either
by a diverter or by a tapped field control.

By Using a Diverter: A variable resistance Rd is connected in parallel with the series field windings as
shown in the figure below.

Fig: Diverter is connected in parallel with the series field windings

The parallel resistor is called a Diverter. A portion of the main current is diverted through a variable
resistance Rd. Thus, the function of a diverter is to reduce the current flowing through the field winding.
The reduction in field current reduces the amount of flux and as a result the speed of the motor increases.

Tapped Field Control: The second method used in a series motor for the variation in field current is
by tapped field control. The connection diagram is shown below.

Fig: Tapped Field Control

Here the ampere turns are varied by varying the number of field turns. This type of arrangement is used in
an electric traction system. The speed of the motor is controlled by the variation of the field flux. The speed-
torque characteristic of a series motor is shown below.

Fig: Speed-torque characteristic

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Advantages of Field Flux Control
The following are the advantages of the field flux control method.
▪ This method is easy and convenient.
▪ As the shunt field is very small, the power loss in the shunt field is also small.
The flux cannot usually be increased beyond its normal values because of the saturation of the iron.
Therefore, speed control by flux is limited to the weakening of the field, which gives an increase in speed.
This method is applicable over only to a limited range because if the field is weakened too much, there is a
loss of stability.

Armature Voltage Control of DC Motor:

In armature voltage control method the speed control is achieved by varying the applied voltage in the
armature winding of the motor. This speed control method is also known as Ward Leonard Method, which
is discussed in detail under the topic Ward Leonard Method or Armature Voltage Control.

Ward Leonard Method of Speed Control or Armature Voltage Control

Ward Leonard Method of speed control is achieved by varying the applied voltage to the armature. This
method was introduced in 1891. The connection diagram of the Ward Leonard method of speed control of
a DC shunt motor is shown in the figure below.

In the above system, M is the main DC motor whose speed is to be controlled, and G is a separately excited
DC generator. The generator G is driven by a 3 phase driving motor which may be an induction motor or a
synchronous motor. The combination of AC driving motor and the DC generator is called the Motor-
Generator (M-G) set.: The voltage of the generator is changed by changing the generator field current.
This voltage when directly applied to the armature of the main DC motor, the speed of the motor M changes.
The motor field current Ifm is kept constant so that the motor field flux ϕm also remains constant. While the
speed of the motor is controlled, the motor armature current Ia is kept equal to its rated value.

The generated field current Ifg is varied such that the armature voltage Vt changes from zero to its rated
value. The speed will change from zero to the base speed. Since the speed control is carried out with the
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rated current Ia and with the constant motor field flux, a constant torque is directly proportional to the
armature current, and field flux up to rated speed is obtained. The product of torque and speed is known as
power, and it is proportional to speed. Thus, with the increase in power, speed increases automatically.

The Torque and Power Characteristic is shown in the figure below.

Hence, with the armature voltage control method, constant torque and variable power drive is obtained from
speed below the base speed. The Field flux control method is used when the speed is above the base speed.
In this mode of operation, the armature current is maintained constant at its rated value, and the generator
voltage Vt is kept constant. The motor field current is decreased and as a result, the motor field flux also
decreases. This means that the field is weakened to obtain the higher speed. Since VtIa and EIa remain
constant, the electromagnetic torque is directly proportional to the field flux ϕm and the armature current
Ia. Thus, if the field flux of the motor is decreased the torque decreases.
Therefore, the torque decreases, as the speed increases. Thus, in the field control mode, constant power and
variable torque are obtained for speeds above the base speed. When the speed control over a wide range is
required, a combination of armature voltage control and field flux control is used. This combination permits
the ratio of maximum to minimum speed available speeds to be 20 to 40. For closed loop control, this range
can be extended up to 200. The driving motor can be an induction or synchronous motor. An induction
motor operates at a lagging power factor. The synchronous motor may be operated at a leading power factor
by over-excitation of its field. Leading reactive power is generated by over excited synchronous motor. It
compensates for the lagging reactive power taken by other inductive loads. Thus, the power factor is
improved. A Slip ring induction motor is used as p prime mover when the load is heavy and intermittent.
A flywheel is mounted on the shaft of the motor. This scheme is known as Ward Leonard-Ilgener scheme.
It prevents heavy fluctuations in supply current. When the Synchronous motor is acting as a driving motor,
the fluctuations cannot be reduced by mounting a flywheel on its shaft, because the synchronous motor
always operates at a constant speed. In another form of Ward Leonard drive, non-electrical prime movers
can also be used to drive the DC generator.
For example – In DC electric locomotive, DC generator is driven by a diesel engine or a gas turbine and
ship propulsion drives. In this system, Regenerative braking is not possible because energy cannot flow in
the reverse direction in the prime mover.
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Advantages of Ward Leonard Drives

The main advantages of the Ward Leonard drive are as follows:-

• Smooth speed control of DC motor over a wide range in both the direction is possible.
• It has an inherent braking capacity.
• The lagging reactive volt-amperes are compensated by using an overexcited synchronous motor
as the drive and thus, the overall power factor improves.
• When the load is intermittent as in rolling mills, the drive motor is an induction motor with a
flywheel mounted to smooth out the intermittent loading to a low value.

Drawbacks of Classical Ward Leonard System

The Ward Leonard system with rotating Motor Generator sets has following drawbacks.
• The Initial cost of the system is high as there is a motor generator set installed, of the same rating
as that of the main DC motor.
• Larger size and weight.
• Requires large floor area
• Costly foundation
• Maintenance of the system is frequent.
• Higher losses.
• Lower efficiency.
• The drive produces more noise.
•
Applications of Ward Leonard Drives

The Ward Leonard drives are used where a smooth speed control of the DC motors over a wide range in
both the directions is required. Some of the examples are as follows:-
• Rolling mills
• Elevators
• Cranes
• Paper mills
• Diesel-electric locomotives
• Mine hoists

Solid State Control or Static Ward Leonard System: Now a days Static Ward Leonard system is mostly
used. In this system, the rotating motor-generator (M-G) Set is replaced by a solid state converter to
control the speed of the DC motor. Controlled Rectifiers and choppers are used as a converter. In the
case of an AC supply, controlled rectifiers are used to convert fixed AC supply voltage into a variable
AC supply voltage. In the case of DC supply, choppers are used to obtain variable DC voltage from the
fixed DC voltage.

STARTING OF DC MOTORS

A starter is a device to start and accelerate a motor. A controller is a device to start the motor, control and
reverse the speed of the DC motor and stop the motor. While starting the DC motor, it draws the heavy
current which damages the motor. The starter reduces the heavy current and protects the system from
damage.

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Need of Starters for DC Motors

The dc motor has no back EMF. At the starting of the motor, the armature current is controlled by the
resistance of the circuit. The resistance of the armature is low, and when the full voltage is applied at the
standstill condition of the motor, the armature current becomes very high which damage the parts of the
motor.

Because of the high armature current, the additional resistance is placed in the armature circuit at starting.
The starting resistance of the machine is cut out of the circuit when the machine gains it speeds. The
armature current of a motor is given by

Thus, Ia depends upon E and Ra, if V is kept constant. When the motor is first switched ON, the
armature is stationary. Hence, the back EMF Eb is also zero. The initial starting armature current
Ias is given by the equation shown below.

Since, the armature resistance of a motor is very small, generally less than one ohm. Therefore,
the starting armature current Ias would be very large. For example – if a motor with the armature
resistance of 0.5 ohms is connected directly to a 230 V supply, then by putting the values in the
equation (2) we will get.

This large current would damage the brushes, commutator and windings.

As the motor speed increases, the back EMF increases and the difference (V – E) go on decreasing.
This results in a gradual decrease of armature current until the motor attains its stable speed and
the corresponding back EMF. Under this condition, the armature current reaches its desired value.
Thus, it is found that the back EMF helps the armature resistance in limiting the current through
the armature.

Since at the time of starting the DC Motor, the starting current is very large. At the time of starting
of all DC Motors, except for very small motors, an extra resistance must be connected in series
with the armature. This extra resistance is added so that a safe value of the motor is maintained
and to limit the starting current until the motor has attained its stable speed.

The series resistance is divided into sections which are cut out one by one, as the speed of the
motor rises and the back EMF builds up. The extra resistance is cut out when the speed of the
motor builds up to its normal value.

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3 POINT STARTER

3 Point Starter is a device whose main function is starting and maintaining the speed of the DC
shunt motor. The 3 point starter connects the resistance in series with the circuit which reduces the
high starting current and hence protects the machines from damage. Mainly there are three main
points or terminals in 3 point starter of DC motor. They are as follows

• L is known as Line terminal, which is connected to the positive supply.

• A is known as the armature terminal and is connected to the armature windings.
• F or Z is known as the field terminal and is connected to the field terminal windings.

The 3 Point DC Shunt Motor Starter is shown in the figure below

It consists of a graded resistance R to limit the starting current. The handle H is kept in the OFF
position by a spring S. The handle H is manually moved, for starting the motor and when it makes
contact with resistance stud one the motor is said to be in the START position. In this initial start
position, the field winding of the motor receives the full supply voltage, and the armature current
is limited to a certain safe value by the resistance (R = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4).

Working of 3 Point Starter

The starter handle is now moved from stud to stud, and this builds up the speed of the motor until
it reaches the RUN position. The Studs are the contact point of the resistance. In the RUN position,
three main points are considered. They are as follows.

• The motor attains the full speed.

• The supply is direct across both the windings of the motor.
• The resistance R is completely cut out.

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The handle H is held in RUN position by an electromagnet energised by a no volt trip coil (NVC).
This no volt trip coil is connected in series with the field winding of the motor. In the event of
switching OFF, or when the supply voltage falls below a predetermined value, or the complete
failure of supply while the motor is running, NVC is energised. The handle is released and pulled
back to the OFF position by the action of the spring. The current to the motor is cut off, and the
motor is not restarted without a resistance R in the armature circuit. The no voltage coil also
provides protection against an open circuit in the field windings.

The No Voltage Coil (NVC) is called NO-VOLT or UNDERVOLTAGE protection of the motor.
Without this protection, the supply voltage might be restored with the handle in the RUN position.
The full line voltage is directly applied to the armature. As a result, a large amount of current is
generated.

The other protective device incorporated in the starter is the overload protection. The Over Load
Trip Coil (OLC) and the No Voltage Coil (NVC) provide the overload protection of the motor.
The overload coil is made up of a small electromagnet, which carries the armature current. The
magnetic pull of the Overload trip coil is insufficient to attract the strip P, for the normal values of
the armature current

When the motor is overloaded, that is the armature current exceeds the normal rated value, P is
attracted by the electromagnet of the OLC and closes the contact aa thus, the No Voltage Coil is
short-circuited, shown in the figure of 3 Point Starter. As a result, the handle H is released, which
returns to the OFF position, and the motor supply is cut off.

To stop the motor, the starter handle should never be pulled back as this would result in burning
the starter contacts. Thus, to stop the motor, the main switch of the motor should be opened.

Drawbacks of a 3 Point Starter

The following drawbacks of a 3 point starter are as follows:-

• The 3 point starter suffers from a serious drawback for motors with a large variation of
speed by adjustment of the field rheostat.
• To increase the speed of the motor, the field resistance should be increased. Therefore,
the current through the shunt field is reduced.
• The field current may become very low because of the addition of high resistance to
obtain a high speed.
• A very low field current will make the holding electromagnet too weak to overcome the
force exerted by the spring.
• The holding magnet may release the arm of the starter during the normal operation of the
motor and thus, disconnect the motor from the line. This is not a desirable action.

Hence, to overcome this difficulty, the 4 Point Starter is used.

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4 POINT STARTER

A 4 Point Starter is almost similar in functional characteristics like 3 Point Starter. In the absence
of back EMF, the 4 Point Starter acts as a current limiting device while starting of the DC motor.
4 Point Starter also acts a protecting device.

The basic difference in 4 Point Starter as compared to 3 Point Starter is that in this a holding coil
is removed from the shunt field circuit. This coil after removing is connected across the line in
series with a current limiting resistance R. The studs are the contact points of the resistance
represented by 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 in the figure below. The schematic connection diagram of a 4 Point
Starter is shown below.

Fig: 4 Point Starter

The above arrangement forms three parallel circuits. They are as follows:-

• Armature, starting the resistance and the shunt field winding.

• A variable resistance and the shunt field winding.
• Holding coil and the current limiting resistance.

With the above three arrangements of the circuit, there will be no effect on the current through the
holding coil if there is any variation in speed of the motor or any change in field current of the
motor. This is because the two circuits are independent of each other.

The only limitation or the drawback of the 4 point starter is that it cannot limit or control the high
current speed of the motor. If the field winding of the motor gets opened under the running
condition, the field current automatically reduces to zero. But as some of the residual flux is still
present in the motor, and we know that the flux is directly proportional to the speed of the motor.
Therefore, the speed of the motor increases drastically, which is dangerous and thus protection is
not possible. This sudden increase in the speed of the motor is known as High-Speed Action of the
Motor.
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Nowadays automatic push button starters are also used. In the automatic starters, the ON push
button is pressed to connect the current limiting starting resistors in series with the armature circuit.
As soon as the full line voltage is available to the armature circuit, this resistor is gradually
disconnected by an automatic controlling arrangement.

The circuit is disconnected when the OFF button is pressed. Automatic starter circuits have been
developed using electromagnetic contactors and time delay relays. The main advantage of the
automatic starter is that it enables even the inexperienced operator to start and stop the motor
without any difficulty.

LOSSES IN DC MACHINE

The losses that occur in a DC Machine is divided into five basic categories. The various losses are
Electrical or Copper losses (I2R losses), Core losses or Iron losses, Brush losses, Mechanical
losses, Stray load losses. These losses are explained below in detail.

Fig: Classification of losses in DC machnes

Electrical or Copper Losses in dc machine

These losses are also known as Winding losses as the copper loss occurs because of the resistance
of the windings. The ohmic loss is produced by the current flowing in the windings. The windings
that are present in addition to the armature windings are the field windings, interpoles and
compensating windings.

Armature copper losses = Ia2Ra where Ia is armature current, and Ra is the armature resistance.
These losses are about 30 percent of the total full load losses.

In shunt machine, the Copper loss in the shunt field is I2shRsh, where Ish is the current in the shunt
field, and Rsh is the resistance of the shunt field windings. The shunt regulating resistance is
included in Rsh.

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In a series machine, the copper loss in the series windings is I2seRse, where, Ise is the current through
the series field windings, and Rse is the resistance of the series field windings.

In a Compound machine, both the shunt and the series field losses occur. These losses are almost
20 percent of the full load losses.

Copper losses in the interpole windings are written as I a2Ri where Ri is the resistance of the
interpole windings.

Copper loss in the compensating windings if any is Ia2Rc where Rc is the resistance of compensating
windings.

Magnetic Losses or Core Losses or Iron Losses in dc machine

The core losses are the hysteresis and eddy current losses. These losses are considered almost
constant as the machines are usually operated at constant flux density and constant speed. These
losses are about 20 percent of the full load losses.

Brush Losses in dc machine

Brush losses are the losses taking place between the commutator and the carbon brushes. It is the
power loss at the brush contact point. The brush drop depends upon the brush contact voltage drop
and the armature current Ia. It is given by the equation shown below.

The voltage drop occurring over a large range of armature currents, across a set of brushes is
approximately constant If the value of brush voltage drop is not given than it is usually assumed
to be about 2 volts. Thus, the brush drop loss is taken as 2I a.

Mechanical Losses in dc machine

The losses that take place because of the mechanical effects of the machines are known as
mechanical losses. Mechanical losses are divided into bearing friction loss and windage loss. The
losses occurring in the moving parts of the machine and the air present in the machine is known
as Windage losses. These losses are very small.

Stray Losses in dc machine

These losses are the miscellaneous type of losses. The following factors are considered in stray
load losses.

• The distortion of flux because of armature reaction.

• Short circuit currents in the coil, undergoing commutation.

These losses are very difficult to determine. Therefore, it is necessary to assign the reasonable
value of the stray loss. For most machines, stray losses are taken by convention to be one percent
of the full load output power.

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 SWINBURNE’S TEST

Swinburne’s Test is an indirect method of testing of DC machines. In this method the losses are measured
separately and the efficiency at any desired load is predetermined. Machines are tested for finding out losses,
efficiency and temperature rise. For small machines direct loading test is performed. For large shunt machines,
indirect methods are used like Swinburne’s or Hopkinson’s test.

The machine is running as a motor at rated voltage and speed. The connection diagram for DC shunt
machine is shown in the figure below.

Fig: Swinburne’s Test

Let V be the supply voltage I0 is the no-load current

Ish is the shunt field current

Therefore, no load armature current is given by the equation shown below.

No-load input = VI0

The no-load power input to the machine supplies the following, as given below.

• Iron loss in the core

• Friction losses in the bearings and commutators.

• Windage loss

• Armature copper loss at no load.

When the machine is loaded, the temperature of the armature winding and the field winding increases due
to I2R losses. For calculating I2R losses hot resistances should be used. A stationary measurement of
resistances at room temperature of t degree Celsius is made by passing current through the armature and
then field from a low voltage DC supply. Then the heated resistance, allowing a temperature rise of 50⁰C
is found. The equations are as follows:-

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Where, α0 is the temperature coefficient of resistance at 0⁰C

Therefore,

Stray loss = iron loss + friction loss + windage loss = input at no load – field copper loss – no load
armature copper loss

Also, constant losses

If the constant losses of the machine are known, its efficiency at any other load can be determined as
follows.

Let I be the load current at which efficiency is required.

Efficiency when the machine is running as a Motor.

Therefore, total losses is given as

The efficiency of the motor is given below.

Efficiency when the machine is running as a Generator.

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Therefore, total losses is given as

The efficiency of the generator is given below.

Advantages of Swinburne’s Test:

The main advantages of the Swinburne’s test are as follows:-

• The power required to test a large machine is small. Thus, this method is an economical and
convenient method of testing of DC machines.

• As the constant loss is known the efficiency can be predetermined at any load.

Disadvantages of Swinburne’s Test:

• Change in iron loss is not considered at full load from no load. Due to armature reaction flux is
distorted at full load and, as a result, iron loss is increased.

• As the Swinburne’s test is performed at no load. Commutation on full load cannot be determined
whether it is satisfactory or not and whether the temperature rise is within the specified limits or
not.

Limitations of Swinburne’s Test:

• Machines having a constant flux are only eligible for Swinburne’s test. For examples – shunt
machines and level compound generators.

• Series machines cannot run on light loads, and the value of speed and flux varies greatly. Thus, the
Swinburne’s Test are not applicable for series machines

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 BRAKE TEST ON DC SHUNT MOTOR:
Brake test is a method of finding efficiency of dc motors. We took dc shunt motor as running machine.
Brake test also called as direct loading test of testing the motor because loading will be applied directly
on shaft of the motor by means of a belt and pulley arrangement.

Test Requirements:

1. DC shunt motor
2. Water-cooled pulley
3. Spring balance

Procedure of Brake Test on DC Shunt Motor:

1. By adjusting the handle of the pulley take different readings of the spring balance.
2. The tension in the belt can be adjusted using the handle. The tension in kg can be obtained from
the spring balance readings.
3. Adjusting the load step by step till full load, number of readings can be obtained. By increasing the
load is slowly, adjust to get rated load current.
4. The power developed gets wasted against the friction between belt and shaft. Due to the braking
action of belt the test is called brake test.
5. The speed can be measured by tachometer. Thus all the motor characteristics can be plotted.

Calculation of Brake Test on DC Shunt Motor

Let R (or) r= Radius of pulley in meters

N = Speed in R.P.M.

W1 = spring balance reading on tight side in kg

W2 = spring balance reading on slack side in kg

So, net pull on the belt due to friction at the pulley is the difference between the two spring balance
readings.

Net pull on the rope = (W - S) kg = (W - S) X 9.81 newtons ...... (1)

As radius R and speed N are known, the shaft torque developed can be obtained as,

Tsh = Net pull X R = (W - S) X 9.81 X R ....... (2)

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 Now let, V = Voltage applied in volts

I = Total line current drawn in amps.

As we know V and I are input parameters of dc motors in brake test. Then,
Pin=V.I Watts .....(3)

We have output and input. Then why late go and find the efficiency of dc shunt motor.

Efficiency (η)=Output/Input [No units]

From equation (2) & (3)

Advantages of Brake Test on DC Shunt Motor:

1. Actual efficiency of the motor under working conditions can be found out.
2. Brake test is simple and easy to perform.
3. It is not only for dc shunt motor, also can be performed on any type of D.C. motor.

Disadvantages of Brake Test on DC Shunt Motor:

1. In brake test due the belt friction lot of heat will be generated and hence there is large dissipation
of energy.
2. Cooling arrangement is necessary to minimize the heat. Mostly in our laboratories we use water as
cooling liquid.
3. Convenient only for small rated machines due to limitations regarding heat dissipation
arrangements.
4. Power developed gets wasted hence brake test method is little expensive.
5. The efficiency observed is on lower side.

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RETARDATION TEST OR RUNNING DOWN TEST

This method is generally employed to shunt generators and shunt motors. From this method we can
get stary losses. Thus if armature and shunt copper losses at any given load current are known then
efficiency of a machine can be easily estimated.

The machine whose test is to be taken is run at a speed which is slightly above its normal speed. The
supply to the motor is cut off while the field is kept excited. The armature consequently slows down and its
kinetic energy is used in supplying the rotational or stray losses which includes iron, friction and winding
loss.

If I is the amount of inertia of the armature ans is the angular velocity.

Kinetic energy of armature = 0.5 Iω2

... Rotational losses, W = Rate of change of kinetic energy

Fig. 2 Retardation test

Angular velocity, ω = (2 πN)/60

Thus, to find the rotational losses, the moment of inertia I and dN/dt must be known.
These quantities can be found as follows;

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1.1 Determination of dN/dt
The voltmeter V1 which is connected across the armature will read the back e.m.f. of the motor. We
know that back e.m.f. is proportional to speed so that voltmeter is calibrated to read the speed directly.

When motor is cut off from the supply, the speed decrease in speed is noted with the help of stop watch.
A curve showing variation between time and speed which is obtained from voltmeter which is suitably
calibrated is shown in the Fig. 3.

Fig. 3 Determination of dN/dt

At any point C corresponding to normal speed, a tangent AB is drawn. Then

The value obtained from above can be substituted in the expression for W which can give the
rotational looses.

1.2 Determination of moment of inertia (I):

Method 1: Using Flywheel

The armature supply is cut off and time required for definite change in speed is noted to draw the
corresponding curve as we have drawn in previous case. This curve is drawn considering only armature of
the machine. Now a flywheel with known moment of the inertia say is I1 keyed onto the shaft and the same
curve is drawn again. The slowing down time will be extended as combined moment of inertia of the two
is increased.

For any given speed (dN/dt1) and (dN/dt2) are determined same as previous case. It can be seen that
the losses in both the cases are almost same as addition of flywheel will not make much difference to the
losses.

In the first case where flywheel is not there then,

Adding the flywheel to the motor armature in second case we get,

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Method 2: without using Flywheel

In this method time is noted for the machine to slow down by say 5 % considering the armature alone.
The retarding torque either mechanical or electrical is applied. Preferably electrical retarding torque is
applied and time required to slow down by 5% is noted again. The method by which electrical torque can
be provided is shown in the Fig. 1 in which the switch S after disconnecting from the supply is thrown to
terminals 1'2'. The machine then gets connected to a non-inductive load resistance RL. The power drawn by
this resistance will acts as a retarding torque on the armature which will make it slow more quickly.

The additional loss in the resistance will be equal to product of ammeter reading and the average
reading of the voltmeter (for a fall of 5% of voltmeter reading, the time is noted.) The ammeter reading is
also changing so its average reading is taken. Thus the additional losses is Ia2 (Ra + R). Let t1 be the time
when armature is considered alone and t2 be the time when armature is connected across a load resistance,
V be average voltage across R and Ia be the average current and W' is additional retarding electrical torque
supplied by motor.

If dN i.e. change in speed is same in two cases then

Here dN/dt1 is rate of change in speed without extra load whereas dN/dt2 is rate change in speed with
extra electrical load which provides retarding torque.

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 STEPPER MOTORS
A stepper motor is a “pulse-driven” motor that changes the angular position of the rotor in “steps”
Define
– β = the step angle (per input pulse)
– Resolution = the number of steps/revolution
– θ = total angle traveled by the rotor
• = β X No of steps
– n = the shaft speed = (β X fp) / 360°
• fp = No of pulses/second
TERMINOLOGIES USED IN STEPPER MOTOR
• Step angle • Resolution • Stepping rate • Hold position • Detent position • Stepping error
• Position Error
Introduction: A stepper motor is an electromechanical device which converts electrical pulses into
discrete mechanical movements. The shaft or spindle of a stepper motor rotates in discrete step increments
when electrical command pulses are applied to it in the proper sequence. The motors rotation has several
direct relationships to these applied input pulses.
The sequence of the applied pulses is directly related to the direction of motor shafts rotation. The speed
of the motor shafts rotation is directly related to the frequency of the input pulses and the length of rotation
is directly related to the number of input pulses applied.
About Stepper Motor The stepper motor uses the theory of operation for magnets to make the motor shaft
turn a precise distance when a pulse of electricity is provided. The stator has eight poles, and the rotor has
six poles. The rotor will require 24 pulses of electricity to move the 24 steps to make one complete
revolution. Another way to say this is that the rotor will move precisely 15° for each pulse of electricity that
the motor receives.

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Practical Stepper motor operation:

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Different types of stepper motor:

1. Permanent Magnet Stepper Motor: - Permanent magnet motors use a permanent magnet (PM) in
the rotor. It operate on the attraction or repulsion between the rotor PM and the stator electromagnets.
2. Variable Reluctance Stepper Motor: - Variable reluctance (VR) motors have a plain iron rotor and
operate based on the principle that minimum reluctance occurs with minimum gap, hence the rotor
points are attracted toward the stator magnet poles.

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 3. Hybrid Synchronous Stepper Motor: - Hybrid stepper motors are named because they use a
combination of permanent magnet (PM) and variable reluctance (VR) techniques to achieve
maximum power in a small package size.

Operation of Stepper Motor:

1. Stepper motors operate differently from DC brush motors. It rotate when voltage is applied to their
terminals. Stepper motors effectively have multiple toothed electromagnets arranged around a
central gear-shaped piece of iron. The electromagnets are energized by an external control circuit.
2. To make the motor shaft turn, first one electromagnet is given power. It makes the gear’s teeth
magnetically attracted to the electromagnet’s teeth. The point when the gear’s teeth are thus aligned
to the first electromagnet, they are slightly offset from the next electromagnet. When the next
electromagnet is turned ON and the first is turned OFF.
3. The gear rotates slightly to align with the next one and from there the process is repeated. Each of
those slight rotations is called a step, with an integer number of steps making a full rotation. In that
way, the motor can be turned by a precise.
4. Stepper motor doesn’t rotate continuously, they rotate in steps. There are 4 coils with 90o angle
between each other fixed on the stator. The stepper motor connections are determined by the way the
coils are interconnected.
5. In stepper motor, the coils are not connected together. The motor has 90o rotation step with the coils
being energized in a cyclic order. Which determining the shaft rotation direction. The working of
this motor is shown by operating the switch. The coils are activated in series in 1 sec intervals. The
shaft rotates 90o each time the next coil is activated. Its low speed torque will vary directly with
current.
Conclusion: - A Stepper Motor or a step motor is a brushless synchronous motor which divides a full
rotation into a number of steps. Unlike a brushless DC motor which rotates continuously when a fixed DC
voltage is applied to it, a step motor rotates in discrete step angles. The stepper motor can be controlled with
or without feedback.

Stepper Motor Control by Varying Clock Pulses:

1. Stepper motor control circuit is a simple and low-cost circuit, mainly used in low power applications.
The circuit is shown in figure, which consist 555 timers IC as stable multi-vibrator. The frequency
is calculated by using below given relationship: Frequency = 1/T = 1.45/(RA + 2RB)C
Where RA = RB = R2 = R3 = 4.7 kilo-ohm and C = C2 = 100 µF.

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Stepper Motor Advantages:
1. The rotation angle of the motor is proportional to the input pulse.
2. The motor has full torque at standstill.
3. Precise positioning and repeatability of movement since good stepper motors have an accuracy of 3
– 5% of a step and this error is non-cumulative from one step to the next.
4. Excellent response to starting, stopping and reversing.
5. Very reliable since there are no contact brushes in the motor. Therefore the life of the motor is simply
dependent on the life of the bearing.
6. The motors response to digital input pulses provides open-loop control, making the motor simpler
and less costly to control.
7. It is possible to achieve very low speed synchronous rotation with a load that is directly coupled to
the shaft.
8. A wide range of rotational speeds can be realized as the speed is proportional to the frequency of the
input pulses.

Stepper Motor Disadvantages:

1. Resonances can occur if not properly controlled.
2. Not easy to operate at extremely high speeds.
3. Require a dedicated control circuit.
4. Use more current than D.C. motors.
5. High torque output achieved at low speeds.

Applications:
1. Industrial Machines – Stepper motors are used in automotive gauges and machine tooling
automated production equipment's.
2. Security – new surveillance products for the security industry.
3. Medical – Stepper motors are used inside medical scanners, samplers, and also found inside digital
dental photography, fluid pumps, respirators and blood analysis machinery.
4. Consumer Electronics – Stepper motors in cameras for automatic digital camera focus and zoom
functions. Semiconductor technology.
5. Space vehicles and satellites.

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 Brushless DC (BLDC) Motor
INTRODUCTION Brushless Direct Current (BLDC) motors are one of the motor types rapidly gaining
popularity. BLDC motors are used in industries such as Appliances, Automotive, Aerospace, Consumer,
Medical, Industrial Automation Equipment and Instrumentation. As the name implies, BLDC motors do not
use brushes for commutation; instead, they are electronically commutated.
BLDC motors have many advantages over brushed DC motors and induction motors. A few of these are: •
Better speed versus torque characteristics
• High dynamic response
• High efficiency
• Long operating life
• Noiseless operation
• Higher speed ranges
In addition, the ratio of torque delivered to the size of the motor is higher, making it useful in applications
where space and weight are critical factors. In this application note, we will discuss in detail the construction,
working principle, characteristics and typical applications of BLDC motors.

CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATING PRINCIPLE:

BLDC Motors are a type of synchronous motor. This means the magnetic field generated by the stator
and the magnetic field generated by the rotor rotate at the same frequency. BLDC motors do not experience
the “slip” that is normally seen in induction motors. BLDC motors come in single-phase, 2-phase and 3-
phase configurations. Corresponding to its type, the stator has the same number of windings. Out of these,
3-phase motors are the most popular and widely used. This application note focuses on 3-phase motors.
Stator: The stator of a BLDC motor consists of stacked steel laminations with windings placed in the
slots that are axially cut along the inner periphery (as shown in Figure 3). Traditionally, the stator resembles
that of an induction motor; however, the windings are distributed in a different manner. Most BLDC motors
have three stator windings connected in star fashion. Each of these windings are constructed with numerous
coils interconnected to form a winding. One or more coils are placed in the slots and they are interconnected
to make a winding. Each of these windings are distributed over the stator periphery to form an even numbers
of poles. There are two types of stator windings variants: trapezoidal and sinusoidal motors. This
differentiation is made on the basis of the interconnection of coils in the stator windings to give the different
types of back Electromotive Force (EMF). Refer to the “What is Back EMF?” (When a BLDC motor rotates,
each winding generates a voltage known as back Electromotive Force or back EMF, which opposes the main voltage
supplied to the windings according to Lenz’s Law. The polarity of this back EMF is in opposite direction of the
energized voltage. Back EMF depends mainly on three factors: • Angular velocity of the rotor • Magnetic field
generated by rotor magnets • The number of turns in the stator windings ) section for more information. As their

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names indicate, the trapezoidal motor gives a back EMF in trapezoidal fashion and the sinusoidal motor’s
back EMF is sinusoidal, as shown in Figure 1 and Figure 2. In addition to the back EMF, the phase current
also has trapezoidal and sinusoidal variations in the respective types of motor. This makes the torque output
by a sinusoidal motor smoother than that of a trapezoidal motor. However, this comes with an extra cost, as
the sinusoidal motors take extra winding interconnections because of the coils distribution on the stator
periphery, thereby increasing the copper intake by the stator windings. Depending upon the control power
supply capability, the motor with the correct voltage rating of the stator can be chosen. Forty-eight volts, or
less voltage rated motors are used in automotive, robotics, small arm movements and so on. Motors with
100 volts, or higher ratings, are used in appliances, automation and in industrial applications.
Rotor: The rotor is made of permanent magnet and can vary from two to eight pole pairs with alternate
North (N) and South (S) poles. Based on the required magnetic field density in the rotor, the proper magnetic
material is chosen to make the rotor. Ferrite magnets are traditionally used to make permanent magnets. As
the technology advances, rare earth alloy magnets are gaining popularity. The ferrite magnets are less
expensive but they have the disadvantage of low flux density for a given volume. In contrast, the alloy
material has high magnetic density per volume and enables the rotor to compress further for the same torque.
Also, these alloy magnets improve the size-to-weight ratio and give higher torque for the same size motor
using ferrite magnets. Figure 4 shows cross sections of different arrangements of magnets in a rotor.

Hall Sensors
Unlike a brushed DC motor, the commutation of a BLDC motor is controlled electronically. To rotate the
BLDC motor, the stator windings should be energized in a sequence. It is important to know the rotor
position in order to understand which winding will be energized following the energizing sequence. Rotor
position is sensed using Hall Effect sensors embedded into the stator. Most BLDC motors have three Hall
sensors embedded into the stator on the non-driving end of the motor. Whenever the rotor magnetic poles
pass near the Hall sensors, they give a high or low signal, indicating the N or S pole is passing near the
sensors. Based on the combination of these three Hall sensor signals, the exact sequence of commutation
can be determined.

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Figure 5 shows a transverse section of a BLDC motor with a rotor that has alternate N and S permanent
magnets. Hall sensors are embedded into the stationary part of the motor. Embedding the Hall sensors into
the stator is a complex process because any misalignment in these Hall sensors, with respect to the rotor
magnets, will generate an error in determination of the rotor position. To simplify the process of mounting
the Hall sensors onto the stator, some motors may have the Hall sensor magnets on the rotor, in addition to
the main rotor magnets. These are a scaled down replica version of the rotor. Therefore, whenever the rotor
rotates, the Hall sensor magnets give the same effect as the main magnets. The Hall sensors are normally
mounted on a PC board and fixed to the enclosure cap on the non-driving end. This enables users to adjust
the complete assembly of Hall sensors, to align with the rotor magnets, in order to achieve the best
performance. Based on the physical position of the Hall sensors, there are two versions of output. The Hall
sensors may be at 60° or 120° phase shift to each other. Based on this, the motor manufacturer defines the
commutation sequence, which should be followed when controlling the motor.
Theory of Operation: Each commutation sequence has one of the windings energized to positive power
(current enters into the winding), the second winding is negative (current exits the winding) and the third is
in a non-energized condition. Torque is produced because of the interaction between the magnetic field
generated by the stator coils and the permanent magnets. Ideally, the peak torque occurs when these two
fields are at 90° to each other and falls off as the fields move together. In order to keep the motor running,
the magnetic field produced by the windings should shift position, as the rotor moves to catch up with the
stator field. What is known as “Six-Step Commutation” defines the sequence of energizing the windings.
See the “Commutation Sequence” section for detailed information and an example on six-step commutation.
Torque/Speed Characteristics: Figure 6 shows an example of torque/speed characteristics. There are
two torque parameters used to define a BLDC motor, peak torque (TP) and rated torque (TR). (Refer to
Appendix A: “Typical Motor Technical Specification” for a complete list of parameters.) During continuous
operations, the motor can be loaded up to the rated torque. As discussed earlier, in a BLDC motor, the torque
remains constant for a speed range up to the rated speed. The motor can be run up to the maximum speed,
which can be up to 150% of the rated speed, but the torque starts dropping. Applications that have frequent
starts and stops and frequent reversals of rotation with load on the motor, demand more torque than the rated
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torque. This requirement comes for a brief period, especially when the motor starts from a standstill and
during acceleration. During this period, extra torque is required to overcome the inertia of the load and the
rotor itself. The motor can deliver a higher torque, maximum up to peak torque, as long as it follows the
speed torque curve. Refer to the “Selecting a Suitable Motor Rating for the Application” section to
understand how to select these parameters for an application.

Advantages of Brushless DC Motors:

– High Reliability
• The life of brushless DC motors is almost indefinite. Bearing failure is the most likely weak point.

– Quiet
• A lack of mechanical noise from brushes makes it ideal for a people environment. An added
advantage is that there is no mechanical friction.

– High Speed
• Brush bounce limits DC motors to 10,000 RPM. Brushless DC motors have been developed for
speeds up to 100,000 RPM, limited by the mechanical strength of the permanent magnet rotors.
- High Peak Torque
• Brushless DC motors have windings on the stator housing. This gives efficient cooling and allows for
high currents (torque) during low-duty-cycle, stop-start operation. Peak torques are more than 20 times
their steady ratings compared to 10 times or less for conventional DC motors. Maximum power per unit
volume can be 5 times conventional DC motors.

Disadvantages of Brushless DC Motors

– Cost
• The relatively high cost of brushless DC motors is usually acceptable when considering complex
machinery where normal downtime and maintenance are not only costly in itself, but often unacceptable.
– Choice
• Choice is restricted because there are few manufacturers.

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COMPARING BLDC MOTORS TO OTHER MOTOR TYPES

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 Permanent Magnet DC Motor (PMDC Motor):
Construction of Permanent Magnet DC Motor or PMDC Motor
What is a Permanent Magnet DC Motor (PMDC Motor)?
In a DC motor, an armature rotates inside a magnetic field. The basic working principle of a DC motor is
based on the fact that whenever a current carrying conductor is placed inside a magnetic field, there will be
mechanical force experienced by that conductor.
All kinds of DC motors work under this principle. Hence for constructing a DC motor, it is essential to
establish a magnetic field. The magnetic field is established by using a magnet. You can use different types
of magnets – it may be an electromagnet or it can be a permanent magnet.
A Permanent Magnet DC motor (PMDC motor) is a type of DC motor that uses a permanent magnet to
create the magnetic field required for the operation of a DC motor.

Have you ever used a battery operated toy? The motor that drives these toys is nothing but a permanent
magnet DC motor or PMDC motor. These types of motors are simple in construction.
They are commonly used as a starter motor in automobiles, windshield wipers, washers, blowers used in
heaters and air conditioners, to raise and lower windows – and they are extensively used in toys. As the
magnetic field strength of a permanent magnet is fixed it cannot be controlled externally, field control of
this type of DC motor cannot be possible. Thus permanent magnet DC motor is used where there is no need
to control the speed of the motor (which is usually done by controlling the magnetic field). Small fractional
and sub-fractional KW motors are often constructed using a permanent magnet.
As it is indicated in name of permanent magnet DC motor, the field poles of this motor are essentially made
of permanent magnet. A PMDC motor mainly consists of two parts. A stator and an armature.
Here the stator which is a steel cylinder. The magnets are mounted in the inner periphery of this cylinder.
The permanent magnets are mounted in such a way that the N-pole and S-pole of each magnet are
alternatively faced towards armature as shown in the figure below. That means, if N-pole of one magnet is
faced towards armature then S-pole of very next magnet is faced towards armature. In addition to holding
the magnet on its inner periphery, the steel cylindrical stator also serves as low reluctance return path for the
magnetic flux. Although field coil is not required in permanent magnet DC motor still it is sometimes found
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that they are used along with permanent magnet. This is because if permanent magnets lose their strength,
these lost magnetic strengths can be compensated by field excitation through these field coils. Generally,
rare earth hard magnetic materials are used in these permanent magnets.
The rotor of a PMDC motor is similar to other DC motors. The rotor or armature of a permanent magnet DC
motor also consists of a core, windings, and commutator. Armature core is made of a number of varnishes
insulated, slotted circular lamination of steel sheets.
By fixing these circular steel sheets one by one, a cylindrical shaped slotted armature core is formed. The
varnish insulated laminated steel sheets are used to reduce eddy current loss in armature of permanent
magnet DC motor. These slots on the outer periphery of the armature core are used for housing armature
conductors in them. The armature conductors are connected in a suitable manner which gives rise to armature
winding. The end terminals of the winding are connected to the commutator segments placed on the motor
shaft. Like other DC motors, carbon or graphite brushes are placed with spring pressure on the commutator
segments to supply current to the armature.
Working Principle of Permanent Magnet DC Motor or PMDC Motor
As we said earlier the working principle of PMDC motor is just similar to the general working principle of
DC motor. That is when a carrying conductor comes inside a magnetic field, a mechanical force will be
experienced by the conductor and the direction of this force is governed by Fleming’s left hand rule. As in
a permanent magnet DC motor, the armature is placed inside the magnetic field of a permanent magnet; the
armature rotates in the direction of the generated force.
Here each conductor of the armature experiences the mechanical force F = B.I.L Newton where, B is the
magnetic field strength in Tesla (weber / m2), I is the current in Ampere flowing through that conductor and
L is the length of the conductor in meter comes under the magnetic field.
Each conductor of the armature experiences a force and the compilation of those forces produces a torque,
which tends to rotate the armature.
Equivalent Circuit of Permanent Magnet DC Motor or PMDC Motor
As in the PMDC motor, the field is produced by a permanent magnet, there is no need for drawing field coils
in the equivalent circuit of a permanent magnet DC motor.

The supply voltage to the armature will have armature resistance drop and the rest of the supply voltage is
countered by the back emf of the motor. Hence the voltage equation of the motor is given by,
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 Where, I is armature current and R is armature resistance of the motor. E b is the back
emf and V is the supply voltage.

Advantages of Permanent Magnet DC Motor or PMDC Motor

The advantages of a PMDC motor are:
1. No need of field excitation arrangement.
2. No input power in consumed for excitation which improve efficiency of DC motor.
3. No field coil hence space for field coil is saved which reduces the overall size of the motor.
4. Cheaper and economical for fractional kW rated applications.

The disadvantages of a PMDC motor are:

1. The armature reaction of DC motor cannot be compensated hence the magnetic strength of the field
may get weak due to the demagnetizing effect of the armature reaction.
2. There is a chance of getting the poles permanently demagnetized (partial) due to excessive armature
current during the starting, reversal, and overloading conditions of the motor.
3. The field in the air gap is fixed and limited – it cannot be controlled externally. This makes it difficult
for this type of motor to achieve efficient speed control of DC motor in this type of motor is difficult.

Applications of Permanent Magnet DC Motor or PMDC Motor

PMDC motor is extensively used where small DC motors are required and also very effective control is not
required, such as in automobiles starter, toys, wipers, washers, hot blowers, air conditioners, computer disc
drives and in many more.

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