MATH1010 University Mathematics

Additional exercise 6
L’Hopital’s rule and Taylor series

1. Use L’Hopital’s rule to evaluate the following limits.

ex − 1 − sin x (i) lim+ x ln(1 + e x )
1
(a) lim x→0
x→0 x sin x
1
2 sin x − sin 2x (j) lim− x ln(1 + e x )
(b) lim x→0
x→0 x − sin x  
ln(1 − x2 ) 1 1
(c) lim (k) lim −
x→0 ln cos x x→0 x ex − 1
sin−1 x
 
1 1
(d) lim (l) lim −
x→0 x x→1 ln x x − 1
tan−1 x 
1 1

(e) lim √ (m) lim −
x→0 1 − 1−x x→0 ln(1 + x) sin x
(f) lim x ln(1 − cos x)
x→0 2x − 1
(n) lim
(g) lim sin x ln x x→0 tan 2x
x→0
3x − 1
(h) lim+ x3 (ln x)2 (o) lim x
x→0 x→0 2 − 1

2. Use L’Hopital’s rule to evaluate the following limits.

(ln x)2 (e) lim x(2 x − 1)

1

(a) lim x→+∞

x→+∞ x  
ln(1 + x4 ) −1 1
(b) lim (f) lim x sin
x→+∞ ln(1 + x) x→+∞ x
π
ln(2x3 − 5x2 + 3)

−1
(c) lim (g) lim x − tan x
x→+∞ ln(4x2 + x − 7) x→+∞ 2
ln(e4x + x3 )
 
3
(d) lim (h) lim x ln 1 +
x→+∞ ln(ex + x) x→+∞ x

3. Evaluate the following limits.

2 1
(a) lim+ xx (b) lim+ x 1+ln x
x→0 x→0

1
 1 1
(c) lim x 1−x e − (1 + x) x
x→1 (i) lim
(d) lim+ (sin x)x
x→0 x
x→0 3
sin x
(j) lim (1 + 5e2x ) x
(e) lim+ (sin x) x→+∞
x→0
2
1 (k) lim (1 + 3x) ln x
x→+∞
(f) lim (1 + sin x) tan x
x→0 x + sin(ex )
(e + x) 1/x (l) lim
x→+∞ x + esin x
(g) lim
x→0 e1/x  x 1
(1 + x)x − 1 e + cos x x
(h) lim (m) lim
x→0 x2 x→+∞ x2 + 1

4. For the following functions f (x), find f (k) (0) for k = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 and
write down the Taylor polynomial of f (x) of degree 3 at x = 0.

(a) f (x) = (1 + x) ln(1 + x) (c) f (x) = sec x

(b) f (x) = esin x (d) f (x) = tan x

5. Find the Taylor series of the following functions up to the term in x3

at x = 0.
1 x
(a) (e) (j) e2x cos x
(1 + x)2 (x − 1)(x − 2)
√ (k) (1 + sin x)2
(b) 1 − 3x (f) ex+2
x (g) ln(e + x) (l) 3x
(c)
(1 − 2x)3 (m) sin−1 x
(h) cos2 x
1 √
(d) (i) sin x cos 2x (n) ln(x + 1 + x2 )
x+3
6. Find the Taylor series up to the term in (x − c)3 of the functions at
x = c.
1 (e) ex ; c = 1.
(a) ; c = 1.
1+x
2−x (f) ln x; c = 1.
(b) ; c = 1.
3+x
√ (g) sin x; c = π2 .
(c) x; c = 4.
√
(d) 3 5 + 3x; c = 1. (h) cos x; c = π4 .

2
7. Find the Taylor series up to the term in xn of the functions at x = 0.
2
(a) sin(x2 ); n = 10 1 − x2

(f) ;n=6
  1 + x2
1+x
(b) ln ;n=7 cos x
1−x (g) ;n=4
1 + x2
1 
1 + x

(c) ;n=6 (h) ln ;n=4
1 + 3x2 1 + x2
√
(d) 4 − x2 ; n = 6 (i) e−2x cos(x2 ); n = 4
r
2−x 1 + x2
(e) ;n=4 (j) ;n=3
3+x 1−x

8. By considering appropriate Taylor series expansions, evaluate the limits

below.

e2x − 1 (1 − cos x) ln(1 + x)

(a) lim (e) lim
x→0 ln(1 + x) x→0 x − sin x
√
x(1 − cos x) cos 2x − 1 − 4x2
(b) lim √ (f) lim
x→0 1 − 1 − x3 x→0 x4
 
x sin 3x 1 1
(c) lim (g) lim +
x→0 x − ln(1 + x) x→0 ln(1 + x) ln(1 − x)
 
ex − x − cos x 1 1
(d) lim (h) lim −
x→0 x sin x x→0 tan x ex − 1

9. Suppose the Taylor series of f (x) at x = 0 is 1 + a1 x + a2 x2 + a3 x3 + · · · .

Find the Taylor series of f1 up to the term in x3 at x = 0 by

(a) expanding the product of the series for f and f1 .

(b) finding the first three derivatives of f1 .
(c) Find the Taylor series of the following functions up to the term in
x3 at x = 0.
1 1
(i) (iii)
1 − x − x2 1 + sin x
1
(ii) sec x (iv)
1 + tan−1 x

3
 y3
10. Given y + = x.
3
dy
(a) Find .
dx
d2 y 2y
(b) Show that 2
=− .
dx (1 + y 2 )3
(c) Let f (x) be an infinitely differentiable function which satisfies

(f (x))3
f (x) + = x, for all x ∈ R.
3
Find the Taylor series of f (x) about x = 0, up to the term in x3 .

Answers:
1 1
1. (a) 2
(e) 1 (i) 1 (m) 2
(b) 6 (f) 0 (j) 0 ln 2
1
(n) 2
(c) 2 (g) 0 (k) 2
1 ln 3
(d) 1 (h) 0 (l) 2
(o) ln 2

3
2. (a) 0 (c) 2
(e) ln 2 (g) 1
(b) 4 (d) 4 (f) 1 (h) 3

3. (a) 1 (e) 1 (h) 1 (l) 1

(b) e (i) 2e (m) e
(f) e
(c) 1e (j) e6
1
(d) 1 (g) e e (k) e2

x2 x3 x2
4. (a) x + − (c) 1 +
2 6 2
2
x x2
(b) 1 + x + (d) x +
2 3

4
5. (a) 1 − 2x + 3x2 − 4x3 + · · · (h) 1 − x2 + · · ·
3x 9x2 27x3 13x3
(b) 1 − 2
− 8
− 16
+ ··· (i) x − 6
+ ···
3x2 x3
(c) x + 6x2 + 24x3 + · · · (j) 1 + 2x + 2
+ 3
+ ···
1 x x2 x3 x3
(d) 3
− 9
+ 27
− 81
+ ··· (k) 1 + 2x + x2 − 3
+ ···
x 3x2 7x3 (ln 3)2 x2 3 x3
(e) 3
+ 4
+ 8
+ ··· (l) 1+(ln 3)x+ 2
+ (ln 3)6 +· · ·
e 2 x2 e2 x3 x x3
(f) e2 + e2 x + 2
+ 6
+ · · · (m) x + 6
+ ···
x x2 x3 x3
(g) 1 + e
− 2e2
+ 3e3
+ ··· (n) x − 6
+ ···

1
6. (a) 2
− 41 (x − 1) + 81 (x − 1)2 − 1
16
(x − 1)3 + · · ·
1 5 5 5
(b) 4
− 16 (x − 1) + 64 (x − 1)2 − 256 (x − 1)3 + · · ·
(c) 2 + 41 (x − 4) − 64 1
(x − 4)2 + 512 1
(x − 1)3 + · · ·
(d) 2 + 14 (x − 1) − 32 1
(x − 1)2 + 768 5
(x − 1)3 + · · ·
(e) e + e(x − 1) − 2e (x − 1)2 + 6e (x − 1)3 + · · ·
(f) (x − 1) − 21 (x − 1)2 + 31 (x − 1)3 + · · ·
(g) 1 − 12 (x − π2 )2 + · · ·
√ √ √ √
2 2 π 2 π 2 2
(h) 2
+ 2
(x − 4
) − 4
(x − 4
) + 12
(x − π4 )3 + · · ·
x6 x10
7. (a) x2 − 6
+ 120
+ ··· (f) 1 − 4x2 + 8x4 − 12x6 + · · ·
2x3 2x5 2x7 3x2 37x4
(b) 2x + + + + ··· (g) 1 − 2
+ 24
+ ···
3 5 7
3x2 x3 x4
(c) 1 − 3x + 9x − 27x6 + · · ·
2 4 (h) x − 2
+ 3
+ 4
+ ···
x2 x4 x6 4x3 x4
(d) 2 − 4
− 64
− 512
+ ··· (i) 1 − 2x + 2x2 − 3
+ 6
+ ···
1 3x 3x2 3x3 3x4 x 7x2 9x3
(e) 2
− 4
+ 8
− 16
+ 32
+ · · · (j) 1 + 2
+ 8
+ 16
+ ···

8. (a) 2 (c) 6 (e) 3 (g) 1

8 1
(b) 1 (d) 1 (f) 3
(h) 2

5
 9. (a) 1 − a1 x + (a21 − a2 )x2 + (2a1 a2 − a3 − a31 )x3 + · · ·
(b) Same as (a).
5x3
(c) (i) 1 + x + 2x2 + 3x3 + · · · (iii) 1 − x + x2 − 6
+ ···
x2 2x3
(ii) 1 + 2
+ ··· (iv) 1 − x + x2 − 3
+ ···

1
10. (a) 1+y 2
x3
(c) x − 3
+ ···

Solutions:

1. (a)
ex − 1 − sin x ex − cos x ex + sin x
lim = lim = lim
x→0 x sin x x→0 sin x + x cos x x→0 cos x − x sin x + cos x
= 21
(b)
2 sin x − sin 2x 2 cos x − 2 cos 2x −2 sin x + 4 sin 2x
lim = lim = lim
x→0 x − sin x x→0 1 − cos x x→0 sin x
−2 cos x + 8 cos 2x
= lim
x→0 cos x
= 6
(c)
ln(1 − x2 ) − 2x 2  x   
2 cos x
lim = lim 1+x = lim
x→0 ln cos x x→0 − sin x x→0 sin x 1 + x2
cos x
= 2
(d)
√ 1
sin−1 x 1−x2
lim = lim
x→0 x x→0 1
= 1
(e)
1
tan−1 x 1+x2
lim √ = lim
x→0 1 − 1−x x→0 √1
1−x
= 1

6
(f)
sin x
ln(1 − cos x) 1−cos x
lim x ln(1 − cos x) = lim 1 = lim
x→0 x→0 x→0 − 12
x x
−x2 sin x −x (1 + cos x) 2
= lim = lim
x→0 1 − cos x x→0 sin x
= 0
(g)
1
ln x x
lim sin x ln x = lim = lim
x→0 x→0 csc x x→0 − csc x cot x
2
− sin x
= lim
x→0 x cos x
= 0
(h)
2 ln x
(ln x)2 −2 ln x
3
lim x (ln x) 2
= lim 1 = lim x = lim
x→0 x→0 x→0 − 34 x→0 3
x3 x x3
2 3
− 2x
= lim x9 = lim
x→0 − 4 x→0 9
x
= 0
(i)
1
1 ln(1 + e x ) ln(1 + ey ) ey
lim+ x ln(1 + e ) = lim
x
1 = lim = lim
x→0 x→0 y→+∞ y y→+∞ 1 + ey
x
= 1
(j)
1
1 ln(1 + e x ) ln(1 + ey )
lim− x ln(1 + e ) = lim
x
1 = lim
x→0 x→0
x
y→−∞ y
= 0
(k)
ex − 1 − x ex − 1
 
1 1
lim − x = lim = lim
x→0 x e −1 x→0 x(ex − 1) x→0 ex − 1 + xex
x
e
= lim x
x→0 e + ex + xex
1
=
2
(l)

7
 1 − x1
 
1 1 x − 1 − ln x
lim − = lim = lim
x→1 ln x x − 1 x→1 (x − 1) ln x x→1 ln x + x−1
x
x−1 1
= lim = lim
x→1 x ln x + x − 1 x→1 1 + ln x + 1
1
=
2
(m)  
1 1
lim −
x→0 ln(1 + x) sin x
sin x − ln(1 + x) cos x − sin
1+x
x
= lim = lim
x→0 sin x ln(1 + x) x→0 cos x ln(1 + x) + sin x
1+x
(1 + x) cos x − sin x
= lim
x→0 (1 + x) cos x ln(1 + x) + sin x
cos x − (1 + x) sin x − cos x
= lim
x→0 cos x ln(1 + x) − (1 + x) sin x ln(1 + x) + cos x + cos x
1
=
2
(n)
2x − 1 2x ln 2
lim = lim
x→0 tan 2x x→0 2 sec2 2x
ln 2
=
2
(o)
3x − 1 3x ln 3
lim = lim
x→0 2x − 1 x→0 2x ln 2
ln 3
=
ln 2
2. (a)
(ln x)2 2 ln x 2
lim = lim = lim
x→+∞ x x→+∞ x x→+∞ x
= 0
(b)
4x3
ln(1 + x4 ) 1+x4 4x3 (1 + x)
lim = lim 1 = lim
x→+∞ ln(1 + x) x→+∞
1+x
x→+∞ 1 + x4
= 4
(c)

8
 6x2 −10x
ln(2x3 − 5x2 + 3) 2x3 −5x2 +3
lim = lim 8x+1
x→+∞ ln(4x2 + x − 7) x→+∞
4x2 +x−7
(6x − 10x)(4x2 + x − 7)
2
= lim
x→+∞ (8x + 1)(2x3 − 5x2 + 3)
3
=
2
(d)
4e4x +3x2
ln(e4x + x3 ) 4 3 (ex + x)(4e4x + 3x2 )
lim = lim e ex+x
x +1 = lim
x→+∞ ln(ex + x) x→+∞ x→+∞ (ex + 1)(e4 x + x3 )
ex +x
−x 2 −4x
(1 + xe )(4 + 3x e )
= lim
x→+∞ (1 + e−x )(1 + x3 )e−4x
= 4
(e)
1
1 2x − 1 2y − 1
lim x(2 − 1) =
x lim 1 = lim+
x→+∞ x→+∞
x
y→0 y
2y ln 2
= lim+
y→0 1
= ln 2
(f)  
−1 1
sin
sin−1 y
 
−1 1 x
lim x sin = lim 1 = lim+
x→+∞ x x→+∞
x
y→0 y
1
= lim p
1 − y2
y→0+
= 1
(g)
π 1
π − tan−1 x −
1 + x2

lim x − tan−1 x = lim 2 1 = lim
x→+∞ 2 x→+∞
x
x→+∞ − x12
x2
= lim
x→+∞ 1 + x2
= 1
(h)

9
 ln(1 + x3 )
 
3 ln(1 + 3y
lim x ln 1 + = lim 1 = lim+
x→+∞ x x→+∞
x
y→0 y
3
= lim+
y→0 1 + 3y
= 3

3. (a)  
2 2
ln lim xx = lim ln(xx ) = lim x2 ln x
x→0 x→0 x→0
1
ln x −x2 .
= lim 1 = lim x2 = lim
x→0 x→0 − 3 x→0 2
x2 x
= 0
x2
Thus lim x = e0 = 1.
x→0

(b)
 1
 ln x 1
ln lim x 1+ln x = lim = lim 1
x→0 x→0 1 + ln x x→0 +1 .
ln x
= 1
1
Thus lim x 1+ln x = e1 = e.
x→0

(c)
1
 1
 ln x
ln lim x 1−x = lim = lim x .
x→1 x→1 1 − x x→1 −1
= −1
2
Thus lim xx = e−1 .
x→0

(d)
  ln sin x
ln lim (sin x)x = lim x ln sin x = lim 1
x→0 x→0 x→0
cos x x
.
= lim sin x
x→0 − 12
x
= 0
Thus lim (sin x) = e0 = 1.
x
x→0

(e)
  ln sin x
ln lim (sin x)sin x = lim sin x ln sin x = lim
x→0 x→0 x→0 csc x
cos x
.
= lim sin x
= lim (− sin3 x)
x→0 − csc x cot x x→0
= 0

10
 Thus lim (sin x)sin x = e0 = 1.
x→0

(f)
cos x
 1
 ln(1 + sin x)
ln lim (1 + sin x) tan x = lim = lim 1+sin x
x→0 x→0 tan x x→0 sec2 x
.
cos3 x
= lim =1
x→0 1 + sin x
1
Thus lim (1 + sin x) tan x = e1 = e.
x→0

(g) !
1
(e + x) x  x  x1 ln(1 + xe )
ln lim 1 = lim ln 1 + = lim
x→0 ex x→0 e x→0 x . Thus
1
=
1
e
(e + x) x 1
lim 1 = ee .
x→0 e x

(h)
x
(1 + x)x − 1 ex ln(1+x) − 1 ex ln(1+x) ( 1+x + ln(1 + x))
lim 2
= lim 2
= lim
x→0 x x→0 x x→0 2x
(x + (1 + x) ln(1 + x))
= lim ex ln(1+x) lim
x→0 x→0 2x(1 + x) .
(1 + (1 + ln(1 + x)))
= lim
x→0 2 + 4x
= 1
(i)
1 ln(1+x) x
e − (1 + x) x e−e x ln(1+x) 1+x − ln(1 + x)
lim = lim = lim (−e x )
x→0 x x→0 x x→0 x2
(1 + x) ln(1 + x) − x ln(1 + x)
= e lim = e lim
x→0 x2 (1 + x) x→0 2x + 3x2 .
1
= e lim 1+x
x→0 2 + 6x
e
=
2
(j)
3 ln(1 + 5e2x ) 30e2x
 
3
2x
ln lim (1 + 5e ) x =
= lim lim
x→+∞ x→+∞ x x→+∞ 1 + 5e2x .
= 6
2x x3
Thus lim (1 + 5e ) = e6 .
x→+∞

11
 (k)
  6
2 2 ln(1 + 3x) 1+3x
ln lim (1 + 3x) ln x = lim = lim 1
x→+∞ x→+∞ ln x x→+∞
x .
6x
= lim =2
x→+∞ 1 + 3x
1
Thus lim (1 + 3x) ln x = e2 .
x→+∞

(l) Since | sin(ex )| ≤ 1 and |esin x | ≤ e are bounded, we have

sin(ex ) esin x
lim = lim = 0. Therefore
x→+∞ x x→+∞ x
x)
x + sin(ex ) 1 + sin(e
x
lim = lim sin x =1
x→+∞ x + esin x x→+∞ 1 + e
x
cos x
(m) Since | cos x| ≤ 1 is bounded, we have lim = 0. Thus
x→+∞ ex
1
1
 cos x  x
lim (ex + cos x) x = lim e 1 + x = e.
x→+∞ x→+∞ e
On the other hand,
1 ln(1+x2 ) 2x
lim (x2 + 1) x = lim e x = lim e 1+x2 = e0 = 1.
x→+∞ x→+∞ x→+∞
 x  x1
e + cos x
Therefore lim = e.
x→+∞ x2 + 1

k 0 2 1 3
1 1
4. (a) f (k) (x) (1 + x) ln(1 + x) 1 + ln(1 + x) −
1+x (1 + x)2
f (k) (0) 0 1 1 −1
The Taylor polynomial of (1 + x) ln(1 + x) of degree 3 at x = 0 is

(1)x2 (−1)x3 x2 x3
0 + (1)x + + =x+ −
2! 3! 2 6

k 0 1 2 3
(k) sin x sin x sin x 2 sin x 2
(b) f (x) e e cos x e (cos x − sin x) e cos x(cos x − 3 sin x − 1)
(k)
f (0) 1 1 1 0
sin x
The Taylor polynomial of e of degree 3 at x = 0 is

(1)x2 (0)x3 x2
1 + (1)x + + =1+x+
2! 3! 2

12
 k 0 1 2 3
(c) f (k) (x) sec x sec x tan x 2 sec3 x − sec x 6 sec3 x tan x − sec x tan x
f (k) (0) 1 0 1 0
The Taylor polynomial of sec x of degree 3 at x = 0 is
(1)x2 (0)x3 x2
1 + (0)x + + =1+
2! 3! 2
k 0 1 2 3
(d) f (x) tan x sec x 2 sec x tan x 2 sec x + 4 sec2 x tan2 x
(k) 2 2 4

f (k) (0) 0 1 0 2
The Taylor polynomial of tan x of degree 3 at x = 0 is
(0)x2 (2)x3 x2
0 + (1)x + + =x+
2! 3! 3

5. (a) The Taylor series of 1

1+x)2
= (1 + x)−2 at x = 0 is

(−2)(−3)x2 (−2)(−3)(−4)x3
1 − 2x + + + ···
2! 3!
= 1 − 2x + 3x2 − 4x3 + · · ·
√ 1
(b) The Taylor series of 1 − 3x = (1 − 3x) 2 at x = 0 is
1 ( 1 )(− 12 )(3x)2 ( 12 )(− 12 )(− 23 )(3x)3
1 − (3x) + 2 − + ···
2 2! 3!
3x 9x2 27x3
= 1− − − + ···
2 8 16
(c) The Taylor series of x
(1−2x)3
= x(1 − 2x)−3 at x = 0 is

(−3)(−4)(2x)2
x(1 − (−3)(2x) + + ···)
2!
= x + 6x2 + 24x3 + · · ·

(d) The Taylor series of 1

x+3
= 13 (1 + x3 )−1 at x = 0 is
 
1 x  x 2  x 3
1− + − + ···
3 3 3 3
1 x x2 x3
= − + − + ···
3 9 27 81
13
 x 1 2 1 1
(e) The Taylor series of (x−1)(x−2)
= 1−x
− 2−x
= 1−x
− 1− x2
at x = 0
is
 
2 3 x  x 2  x 3
(1 + x + x + x + · · · ) − 1 + + + + ···
2 2 2
x 3x2 7x3
= + + + ···
2 4 8
(f) The Taylor series of ex+2 = e2 ex at x = 0 is
x2 x3
e2 (1 + x + + + ···
2! 3!
e2 x2 e2 x3
= e2 + e2 x + + + ···
2 6
(g) The Taylor series of ln(e + x) = 1 + ln(1 + xe ) at x = 0 is
x ( xe )2 ( xe )3
 
1+ − + + ···
e 2 3
x x2 x3
= 1 + − 2 + 3 + ···
e 2e 3e
1+cos 2x
(h) The Taylor series of cos2 x = 2
at x = 0 is
(2x)2
 
1 1
+ 1− + ···
2 2 2!
= 1 − x2 + · · ·
(i) The Taylor series of sin x cos 2x = 21 (sin 3x − sin x) at x = 0 is
(3x)3 x3
   
1
3x − + ··· − x − + ···
2 3! 3!
13x3
= x− + ···
6
(j) The Taylor series of e2x cos x at x = 0 is
(2x)2 (2x)3 x2
  
1 + 2x + + + ··· 1− + ···
2! 3! 2!
4x3 x2
  
2
= 1 + 2x + 2x + + ··· 1− + ···
3 2
3x2 x3
= 1 + 2x + + + ···
2 3
14
 (k) The Taylor series of (1+sin x)2 = 1+2 sin x+sin2 x = 32 +2 sin x−
cos 2x
2
at x = 0 is

x3
 
3 1
1 − 2x2 + · · ·


+2 x− + ··· −
2 6 2
3
x
= 1 + 2x + x2 − + ···
3

(l) The Taylor series of 3x = e(ln 3)x at x = 0 is

(ln 3)2 x2 (ln 3)3 x3

1 + (ln 3)x + + + ···
2 6
1
(m) Let f (x) = sin−1 x. The Taylor series of f 0 (x) = (1 − x2 )− 2 at
x = 0 is
x2
1+ + ···
2
Now f (0) = 0. The Taylor series of f (x) at x = 0 is

x3
x+ + ···
6
√ 1
(n) Let f (x) = ln(x+ 1 + x2 ). The Taylor series of f 0 (x) = (1+x2 )− 2
at x = 0 is
x2
1− + ···
2
Now f (0) = 0. The Taylor series of f (x) at x = 0 is

x3
x− + ···
6
1 1
6. (a) The Taylor series of 1+x
= 2+(x−1)
= 12 ( 1+ 1x−1 ) at x = 1 is
2

 2  3 !
1 x−1 x−1 x−1
1− + − + ···
2 2 2 2
1 x − 1 (x − 1)2 (x − 1)3
= − + − + ···
2 4 8 16

15
(b) The Taylor series of
 
2−x 5 5 5 1
= −1 + = −1 + = −1 + (
3+x 3+x 4 + (x − 1) 4 1 + x−1
4

at x = 1 is
 2  3 !
5 x−1 x−1 x−1
−1 + 1− + − + ···
4 4 4 4
1 5(x − 1) 5(x − 1)2 5(x − 1)3
= − + − + ···
4 16 64 256
√ p 1
(c) The Taylor series of x = 4 + (x − 4) = 2(1 + x−4 4
) 2 at x = 4
is

( 12 )(− 21 ) x−4
2 ( 12 )(− 12 )(− 32 ) x−4
3
 
1 x−4
2 1+ 2 4 + 4
+ 4
+ ···
2! 3!
2 2
= 2 + x−4
4
− (x−4)
64
+ (x−4)
512
+ ···
√
3 1 3(x−1) 1
(d) The Taylor series of 5 + 3x = (8 + 3(x − 1)) 3 = 2(1 + 8
)3
at x = 1 is
!
1
− 23 9(x − 1)2 1
− 23 − 35 27(x − 1)3






1 3(x − 1) 3 3
2 1+ · + · + · + ···
3 8 2! 64 3! 512
x − 1 (x − 1)2 5(x − 1)3
=2+ − + + ···
4 32 768

(e) The Taylor series of ex = e · ex−1 at x = 1 is

(x − 1)2 (x − 1)3
 
e 1 + (x − 1) + + + ···
2! 3!
e(x − 1)2 e(x − 1)3
= e + e(x − 1) + + + ···
2 6

(f) The Taylor series of ln x = ln(1 + (x − 1)) at x = 1 is

(x − 1)2 (x − 1)3
(x − 1) − + + ···
2 3

16
 (g) The Taylor series of sinx = cos(x − π2 ) at x = π
2
is
1 π 2
1− x− + ···
2 2
(h) The Taylor series of
π π π π π π
cos x = cos((x − ) + ) = cos cos(x − ) − sin sin(x − )
√ 4 4 √ 4 4 4 4
2 π 2 π
= cos(x − ) − sin(x − )
2 4 2 4
π
at x = 4 is
√   √  
2 1 π 2 2 π 1  π 4
1− x− + ··· − x− − x− + ···
2 2 4 2 4 6 4
√ √  √  √ 
2 2 π 2 π 2 2 π 3
= − x− − x− + x− + ···
2 2 4 4 4 12 4
7. (a) The Taylor series of sin(x2 ) at x = 0 is
2 3 2 5 6 x10
x2 − (x3!) + (x5!) + · · · = x2 − x6 + 120 + ···
(b) The Taylor series of ln( 1+x
1−x
) = ln(1 + x) − ln(1 − x) at x = 0 is
x2 x3 x4 2 3 4
(x − 2 + 3 − 4 + · · · ) − (−x − x2 − x3 − x4 + · · · )
3 5 7 .
= 2x + 2x3 + 2x5 + 2x7 + · · ·
1
(c) The Taylor series of 1+3x 2 at x = 0 is

1 − 3x + (3x ) − (3x2 )3 + · · ·
2 2 2
.
= 1 − 3x2 + 9x4 − 27x6 + · · ·
√ 1
(d) The Taylor series of 4 − x2 = 2(1 − ( x2 )2 ) 2 at x = 0 is
1
(− 1 ) 1
(− 12 )(− 32 )
2(1 − 21 ( x2 )2 + 2 2! 2 ( x2 )4 − 2
( x2 )6 + · · ·
2 4 x6
3! .
= 2 − x4 − x64 − 512 + ···
1−x 3
(e) The Taylor series of 2+x
= −1 + 2+x = −1 + 32 ( 1+1 x ) at x = 0 is
2
2 3 4
−1 + 23 (1 − x2 + x4 − x8 + x16 + · · ·
2 3 4 .
= 21 − 3x
4
+ 3x8 − 3x 16
+ 3x32
+ ···
2
(f) The Taylor series of ( 1−x
1+x2
)2 = (1 − x2 )2 (1 + x2 )−2 at x = 0 is
4 6
(1 − 2x2 + x4 )(1 + 2x2 + (−2)(−3)x 2!
+ (−2)(−3)(−4)x
3!
+ ···)
2 4 2 4 6 .
= (1 − 2x + x )(1 − 2x + 3x − 4x + · · · )
= 1 − 4x2 + 8x4 − 12x6 + · · ·

17
 cos x
(g) The Taylor series of 1+x 2 at x = 0 is
x 2 x 4
(1 − 2 + 24 + · · · )(1 − x2 + x4 + · · · )
2 4 .
= 1 − 3x2 + 37x 24
+ ···
1+x 2
(h) The Taylor series of ln( 1+x 2 ) = ln(1 + x) − ln(1 + x ) at x = 0 is
2 3 4 4
(x − x2 + x3 − x4 + · · · ) − (x2 − x2 + · · · )
2 3 4 .
= x − 3x2 + x3 + x4 + · · ·
(i) The Taylor series of e−2x cos(x2 ) at x = 0 is
2 3 4 4
(1 − 2x + 4x2! − 8x3! + 16x4!
+ · · · )(1 − x2 + · · · )
3 4 .
= 1 − 2x + 2x2 − 4x3 + x6 + · · ·
q
2 1 1
(j) The Taylor series of 1+x1−x
= (1 + x2 ) 2 (1 − x)− 2 at x = 0 is
2 (− 12 )(− 32 )x2 (− 12 )(− 32 )(− 52 )x3
(1 + x2 + · · · )(1 − (− 21 )x + 2!
− 3!
+ ···)
2 2 5x3
= (1 + x2 + · · · )(1 + x2 + 3x8 + 16
+ · · · ) .
2 3
= 1 + x2 + 7x8 + 9x 16
+ ···

8. (a)
e2x − 1 (1 + 2x + · · · ) − 1 2x + · · ·
lim = lim = lim
x→0 ln(1 + x) x→0 x + ··· x→0 x + · · · .
= 2
(b)
2 x3
x(1 − cos x) x(1 − (1 − x2 + · · · )) 2
+ ···
lim √ = lim 3 = lim x3
x→0 1 − 1 − x2 x→0 1 − (1 − x + · · · )
2
x→0
2
+ ··· .
= 1
(c)
x sin 3x x(3x + · · · ) 3x2 + · · ·
lim = lim 2 = lim 2
x→0 x − ln(1 + x) x→0 x − (x − x + · · · ) x→0 x + · · · .
2 2
= 6
(d)
x2 x2
ex − x − cos x (1 + x + 2
+ · · · ) − x − (1 − 2
+ ···)
lim = lim
x→0 x sin x x→0 x(x + · · · )
x2 + · · · .
= lim 2
x→0 x + · · ·
= 1
(e)

18
 2
(1 − cos x) ln(1 + x) (1 − (1 − x2 + · · · ))(x + · · · )
lim = lim 3
x→0 x − sin x x→0 x − (x − x6 + · · · )
x 3
+ ··· .
= lim x23
x→0
6
+ ···
= 3
(f) √
cos 2x − 1 − 4x2
lim
x→0 x4
(2x)2 4 2 2
(1 − 2! + (2x) 4!
+ · · · ) − (1 − 12 (4x2 ) + ( 21 )(− 12 ) (4x2! ) + · · · )
= lim
x→0 x4
2x4
2
(1 − 2x + 3 + · · · ) − (1 − 2x2 − 2x4 + · · · ) .
= lim
x→0 x4
8x4
+ · · ·
= lim 3 4
x→0 x
= 83
(g)  
1 1 ln(1 + x) + ln(1 − x)
lim + = lim
x→0 ln(1 + x) ln(1 − x) x→0 ln(1 + x) ln(1 − x)
2 2
(x − x2 + · · · ) + (−x − x2 + · · · )
= lim .
x→0 (x + · · · )(−x + · · · )
2
−x + · · ·
= lim
x→0 −x2 + · · ·
= 1
(h)  
1 1
lim −
x→0 tan x ex − 1
cos x(ex − 1) − sin x
= lim
x→0 sin x(ex − 1)
2 2 x3
(1 − x2 + · · · )(x + x2 + · · · ) − (x − 6
+ ···) .
= lim 3
x→0 (x − x6 + · · · )(x + · · · )
x2
+ ···
= lim 22
x→0 x + · · ·
= 12
1
9. (a) Suppose the Taylor series of f
is b0 + b1 x + b2 x2 + b3 x3 + · · · . Then

19
 1
the Taylor series of f · f
= 1 is

(1 + a1 x + a2 x2 + a3 x3 + · · · )(b0 + b1 x + b2 x2 + b3 x3 + · · · )
= b0 + (b1 + a1 b0 )x + (b2 + a1 b1 + a2 b0 )x2 + (b3 + a1 b2 + a2 b1 + a3 b0 )x3 + · · ·
It follows that


 b0 = 1

b + a b = 0
1 1 0


 b 2 + a 1 b 1 + a2 b 0 = 0

b 3 + a1 b 2 + a2 b 1 + a3 b 0 = 0
which implies


 b0 = 1

b = −a b0 = −a
1 1 1


 b2 = −a1 b1 − a2 b0 = −a1 (−a1 ) − a2 = a21 − a2
b3 = −a1 b2 − a2 b1 − a3 b0 = −a1 (a21 − a2 ) − a2 (−a1 ) − a3 = −a31 + 2a1 a2 − a3


1
Thus the Taylor series of f
at x = 0 is

1 − a1 x + (a21 − a2 )x2 + (−a31 + 2a1 a2 − a3 )x3 + · · ·

1
(b) Let g(x) = f (x) Then derivatives of g(x) are
1


 g(x) =

 f
f0


g 0 (x) = − 2



f
00 f 2 f 00 − f 0 (2f f 0 ) 2f 02 − f f 00

 g (x) = − =
f4 f3



f (4f f − f f − f f ) − (2f 02 − f f 00 )(3f 2 f 0 )
3 0 00 0 00 (3)
6f f 0 f 00 − f 2 f (3) − 6f 03


g (3) =

 =
f6 f4
Since the Taylor series of f (x) is 1+a1 x+a2 x2 +a3 x3 +· · · , we see
that f (0) = 1, f 0 (0) = a1 , f 00 (0) = 2a2 and f (3) (0) = 6a3 . Thus


 g(0) = 1
g 0 (0) = −a

1
00 2
g (0) = 2a 1 − 2a2



 (3)
g = 12a1 a2 − 6a3 − 6a31

20
 1
Therefore the Taylor series of g(x) = f (x)
at x = 0 is

g 00 (0)x2 g (3) (0)x2

g(0) + g 0 (0)x + + + ···
2! 3!
= 1 − a1 x + (a21 − a2 )x2 + (2a1 a2 − a3 − a31 )x3 + · · ·

(i) The Taylor serious of 1 − x − x2 at x = 0 is 1 − x − x2 . Thus

1
the Taylor serious of 1−x−x 2 at x = 0 is

1 − a1 x + (a21 − a2 )x2 + (2a1 a2 − a3 − a31 )x3 + · · ·

= 1 − (−1)x + ((−1)2 − (−1))x2 + (2(−1)(−1) − 0 − (−1)3 )x3 + · · ·
= 1 + x + 2x2 + 3x3 + · · ·
2
(ii) The Taylor serious of cos x at x = 0 is 1 − x2 + · · · . Thus the
Taylor serious of sec x = cos1 x at x = 0 is

1 − a1 x + (a21 − a2 )x2 + (2a1 a2 − a3 − a31 )x3 + · · ·

1 1
= 1 − (0)x + (02 − (− ))x2 + (2(0)(− ) − 0 − 03 )x3 + · · ·
2 2
x
= 1 + + ···
2
x3
i. The Taylor serious of 1 + sin x at x = 0 is 1 + x − 6
+ ···.
1
Thus the Taylor series of 1+sin x
at x = 0 is

1 − a1 x + (a21 − a2 )x2 + (2a1 a2 − a3 − a31 )x3 + · · ·

1
= 1 − (1)x + (12 − 0)x2 + (2(1)(0) − (− ) − 13 )x3 + · · ·
6
3
5x
= 1 − x + x2 − + ···
6
3
ii. The Taylor serious of 1 + tan−1 x at x = 0 is 1 + x − x3 + · · · .
Thus the Taylor series of 1+tan1 −1 x at x = 0 is

1 − a1 x + (a21 − a2 )x2 + (2a1 a2 − a3 − a31 )x3 + · · ·

1
= 1 − (1)x + (12 − 0)x2 + (2(1)(0) − (− ) − 13 )x3 + · · ·
3
3
2x
= 1 − x + x2 − + ···
3
21
10. (a)

dy dy
+ y2 = 1
dx dx
dy 1
=
dx 1 + y2

(b)

d2 y 2y dy
2
= − ·
dx (1 + y 2 )2 dx
2y 1
= − ·
(1 + y 2 )2 1 + y2
2y
= −
(1 + y 2 )3

(f (0))3
(c) Let y = f (x). Putting x = 0, we have f (0) + 3
= 0 which
implies f (0) = 0. By (a) and (b), we have
1
f 0 (0) = =1
1 + (f (0))2
2f (0)
f 00 (0) = − =0
1 + (f (0))3

Moreover
d3 y 2y(3(1 + y 2 )2 )(2y) − 2(1 + y 2 )3 dy
= ·
dx3 (1 + y 2 )6 dx
2 2
12y − 2(1 + y ) 1
= 2 4
·
(1 + y ) 1 + y2
10y 2 − 2
=
(1 + y 2 )5

Thus f (3) (0) = −2. Therefore the Taylor serious of f (x) at x = 0

is
f 00 (0)x2 f (3) (0)x3 x3
f (0) + f 0 (0)x + + + ··· = x − + ··· .
2! 3! 3

22