The working of a nuclear power plant is exactly similar to that of steam power plant, except

steam is generated in nuclear reactor instead of boiler. The heat energy is produced by nuclear
fission
Fission of atom takes place. This process liberates large amount of heat. This heat is taken up
by the coolant circulating through the reactor core.
The working of a nuclear power plant is exactly similar to that of steam power plant, except steam
is generated in nuclear reactor instead of boiler. The heat energy is produced by nuclear fission.
Fission of atom takes place. This process liberates large amount of heat. This heat is taken up by the
coolant circulating through the reactor core.

Nuclear reactor:

Reactor is the heart of the nuclear plant. In nuclear reactor, nuclear fission of radioactive material
takes place. This liberates large amount of heat energy. This heat is taken up by the coolant
circulating through the reactor core. After absorbing the heat, the coolant becomes hot.

Heat exchanger or Steam generator:

The hot coolant coming from nuclear reactor flows through the tubes of heat exchanger (or steam
generator). In the heat exchanger, hot coolant gives up the heat to feed water, so that it can be
converted in to steam.

Steam turbine:

The steam produced in the heat exchanger is sent to steam turbine. The steam undergoes
expansion in steam turbine and produces useful work in the steam turbine.

Steam condenser:

In condenser, the steam is cooled and condensed with the help of cooling water coming from
cooling tower. exhaust steam is converted to water, which can be used as feed After cooling and
condensation.

Cooling tower:
After absorbing the heat from exhaust steam, temperature of cooling heat from exhaust steam,
temperature of cooling water increases, making it warm or hot water. This hot water is sent to
cooling tower, where it is cooled.

Alternator or Generator:

Output shaft of steam turbine is coupled to generator which converts mechanical energy into
electrical energy.

Advantages

1. A nuclear power plant needs less space as compared to other conventional power plants of
same capacity.

2. Nuclear fuel is charged to a power plant infrequently, because it has a relatively long life
(usually measured in months and years).

3. The weight of nuclear fuel required is negligible in comparison to the coal required for
thermal power plant of same capacity. This totally eliminates the cost and problem of
transportation and storage of fuel.

4. Nuclear power plant produces valuable isotopes, which are used for different purposes

5. Nuclear power plants are not affected by adverse weather conditions.

6. The operation of a nuclear power plant is more reliable.

7. The use of nuclear fuel does not require combustion air, thus minimizing thermal stack
losses and other related

disadvantages

1. The capital cost of a nuclear power station is always high.

2. The burnt fuel is highly radioactive. Therefore, it requires remote handling and special
processing before disposal as waste to the atmosphere.

3. The danger of radioactivity always persists in the nuclear stations. Therefore, specially
designed systems are required to prevent radioactivity release. The disposal of fission
products is a big problem.

4. The maintenance cost is always high.

Fission

Fission is defined as, "the process of splitting of a heavy nucleus into lighter nuclei with the release
of large amount of energy."

Each way of splitting U nucleus ejects different number of neutrons 1, 2 or 3. On an average

neutrons are ejected per neutron absorbed. Out of 2.5 neutrons, nearly 0.2 to 0.3 neutrons are lost
due to escape at the surface and remaining 2.2 neutrons are allowed to continue chain reaction.
The reaction rate will increase exponentially and large amount of energy is released

Chain reaction is defined as, "the process, in which, the number of neutrons keeps on multiplying
rapidly during fission, till whole of the fissionable material is disintegrated."

Multiplication or Reproduction factor, K =

Number of neutrons in any particular generation / Number of neutrons in any preceding

generation .

If K > 1, then fission process becomes uncontrolled.

ii) if k < 1, the fission process stops,

(iii) If K = 1, the fission chain reaction will be self-sustainable

Fusion

Fusion is the defined as, "the process of combining or fusing two lighter nuclei into a stable and
heavier nucleus".

To generate energy in fusion process, the two lighter nuclei (say Tritium and Deuterium) must be
heated up to extremely high temperatures (around 30 million degree centigrade) for fusion to take
place This not practically feasible.
1. Reactor core: The reactor core is a part of nuclear power plant, where fission chain reaction
is made to occur and where fission energy is liberated in the form of heat for operating
power plant.The core of the reactor consists of an assembly of fuel elements, control rods,
coolant and moderator.

2. fuel element: Natural Uranium (containing 0.7% U235 ) or enrich 2.5 % U235).

Moderator: To reduce the energy of neutrons evolved during fission in order to mainain the
fission chain reaction. Commonly used moderators: Ordinary water, Heavy water, Graphite and
Beryllium. By the slowing down of high-energy neutrons, the possibility of escape of neutrons is
reduced.

3.Reflector:The neutrons, which may escape from the surface of the core without taking part in
fission, can be reflected back into the core to take part in the fission reaction with the help of a
reflector. Commonly used moderators also work as reflectors.

4. Coolant: To transfer the heat generated in reactor core and use it for steam generation.
Commonly used coolants: Ordinary water, heavy water, and CO2 used in power reactors.

5. Control rods: i) To allow only one neutron evolved in each fission reaction to take part in
further fission reaction to just maintain the chain. (ii) To vary the output according to load
and shutdown the reactor under emergency conditions. When shutting-down of the reactor
is required, the control rod absorbs more number of neutrons than emitted and thus, fission
reaction ends.
 • Commonly used materials for control rods: Cadmium, Boron etc.

7. Shielding: To protect the walls of the reactor vessel from radiation

damage & To protect operating personnel from exposure to radiation

CLASSIFIACTION OF NUCLEAR REACTOR

On the basis of Neutron Energy

I) Fast reactors (II) Slow or thermal reactors III) Intermediate reactor

2. On the basis of Type of Fuel Used

i)Natural Uranium 0.7% U235 , ii) Enriched Uranium 2.5% to 10% U235

3. On the basis of Type of Coolant Used

i) Water cooled reactors , ii) Heavy water-cooled reactor

iii) Liquid metal (sodium) cooled reactors, iv) Gas cooled reactors.

4. On the basis of Type of Moderators Used:

Water (H2O),

Heavy water reactors (D20),

Graphite reactors,

Beryllium reactors.

5. On the basis of Type of fuel - Moderator Assembly

i) Homogenous reactors, ii) Heterogeneous Reactor.

6. On the basis of Type of Application or Principal Product:

i) Power reactors: to produce heat, ii) Breeder reactors :to produce fissionable
materials, iii) Production reactor: To produce isotopes.
iv) Research reactors: to produce neutrons
1. higher than PWR.
2. The capital cost is lower as the reactor vessel is designed to take low stresses, as the
pressure in the vessel is lower than PWR.
3. The number of equipment's required is less.
4. There is use of low-pressure vessels for the reactor, which further reduces capital cost.
Disadvantages of BWR
1. It is not possible to meet the sudden increase in demand.
Shielding of turbine and other components is necessary, As heat exchanger
circuit is eliminated and the steam is directly generated in the reactor, the thermal efficiency of this
plant is because radioactive steam enters into the turbine.
2. The power density is 50% of PWR.
3. The possibility of "burn out" of fuel is more than PWR.

1. The ordinary water is used as a coolant and moderator, which is considerably cheap and
easily available,

2. The reactor is compact and its power density is 65 kW/litre.

3. This reactor reduces fuel cost by extracting more energy per unit weight of fuel

4. Less number of control rods are required.

5. Steam is not contaminated by radioactivity.

6. Fission products remain contained in the reactor, i.e. they are not circulated

Disadvantages of PWR

1 The capital cost of reactor is high, as it requires strong pressure vessel

2. The running cost of reactor is high, as it uses enriched Uranium.

3. Thermodynamic efficiency of the cycle is low.

4. The erosion and corrosion problems are more severe.

ADVANTAGES

1. Natural uranium can be used as fuel.

2. Only fuel tubes are designed to withstand high pressure

and reactor vessel can be made of light material.

3. Easy to control.

4. 4. Fuel consumption is low.

5. Period required for construction is shorter than for PWR and BWR.

6. The moderator can be kept at low temperature, which increases

the effectiveness in slowing down neutrons.

DISADVANTAGES

1. The cost of heavy water is very high.

2. Leakage of heavy water is one of the major problems in construction of reactor.

3. Reactor requires high standards in the areas of design, manufacturing and maintenance.

4. The power density is low. Therefore, the reactor size is considerably large as
compared to DWP and BWR.

Advantages of Breeder Reactors

1. Breeder reactor does not require moderator.

2. Breeder reactor gives high power density.

3. The sodium as a coolant need not to be pressurized.

4. Breeder reactor gives superheated steam.

5. Size of reactor is small.

Disadvantages of Breeder Reactors

1. Breeder reactor requires highly enriched fuel, so the initial cost of fuel is very high.

2. Difficult to control.

3. The handling of the coolant sodium is very difficult.

4. Thermal stresses create problem.

5. Heat exchangers must be leak proof

6. The leakage of sodium is very dangerous as compared with other coolants.

Advantages of Gas Cooled Reactors

1. Processing of fuel is simpler.

2. No corrosion problem.

3. Use of carbon dioxide as coolant completely eliminates the possibility of explosion in the
reactor, which is always present in case of water-cooled reactors.

4. Graphite remains stable, even at high temperatures.

Disadvantages of Gas Cooled Reactors

1. Loading of fuel is more elaborate and costly.

2. As the critical mass required is more, therefore initially large

amount of fuel.

3. If helium is used instead of carbon dioxide as coolant , the leakage of gas is a major
problem.

Coolant circulation requires more power.

To absorb the kinetic energy of neutrons. The neutrons collide directly with moderator and
thus, get slowed down the neutrons from high velocities (high energy level) to low velocities
(low energy)

Desirable Properties of Moderator

1. High slowing down power.

2. Non-corrosiveness.

3. Good machinability.

4. High melting point for solids and low melting point for liquids.

5. Chemical and radiation stability.

6. High thermal conductivity.

Availability in pure form in abundant quantity.

Functions of AERB:

1. To develop safety policies in nuclear radiation and industrial

safety areas for facilities under its purview.

2. To develop safety codes, guides and standards for siting, design, construction
Commissioning, operation .

3. To grant consents for siting, construction, commissioning, operation and decommissioning,

after an appropriate safety review and assessment, for establishment of nuclear and
radiation facilities.

4. To ensure compliance with the regulatory requirements prescribed by AERB during all
stages of consenting through a system of review and assessment.

To prescribe the acceptance limits of radiation exposure to occupational workers and members
of the public and acceptable limits of environmental releases of radioactive substances.

To review the emergency preparedness plans for nuclear and radiation facilities and during
transport of large radioactive sources, irradiated fuel and fissile material

7. To review the training program, qualifications and licensing policies for personnel of nuclear
& radiation facilities and prescribe the syllabi for training of personnel in safety aspects at all
levels.

8. To take necessary steps so as to keep the public informed on

major issues of radiological safety significance.

9. To maintain liaison with statutory bodies in the country as well as abroad regarding safety
matters.

10. To promote research and development efforts in the areas of

safety

11. To review the nuclear and industrial safety aspects in nuclear facilities under its purview.

12. To review the safety related nuclear security aspects in nuclear facilities under its preview.

Functions of AERB:

1. To assist its Member States (i.e. the countries, which are members of IAEA) in planning for &
using nuclear science & technology for various purposes, including the gene. of electricity.

2. To develop nuclear safety standards.

3. To verify through its inspection system that states comply with their commitments, to use
nuclear material and facilities only for peaceful purposes.

4. To encourage and assist research, development and practical

application of atomic energy for peaceful uses throughout world.

5. To establish and administer safeguards designed to ensure that, activity assisted by the
agency is not used to further any military purpose.

. Apply safeguards to relevant activities at the request of Member States; apply, under the
Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) and other international treaties, mandatory
comprehensive safeguards.

7. To take action needed to promote research on development of practical applications of

nuclear energy for peaceful purpose.

8. To provide material, services, equipment and facilities for such research and development
and for practical applications of atomic energy.

9. To do exchange of scientific and technical information.

10. To encourage the exchange and training of scientists and experts in the field of peaceful
uses of atomic energy.

11 To establish and administer safeguards to ensure that, any nuclear assistance or supplies
(with which IAEA was associated)

12. To establish or adopt nuclear safety standards.

Factors To Be Considered For Selection Of Site For Nuclear Power Plant:

 1. Proximity to Load Center.

2. Population distribution.

3. Meteorology.

4. Geology.

5. Cost of Land.

6. Availability of Water or Hydrology.

7. Availability of Labor.

8. Future Extensions.

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS/MEASURES FOR NUCLEAR

POWER PLANT

Plant should be constructed away from human habitation. An exclusion zone of 106 km radius
around the plant should be provided, where no public habits.

ii) The materials to be used for the construction of a

nuclear power plant is standards.

iii) Waste water from plant should be purified.

iv) The plant must be provided with such a safety system which is shutdown the plant as and
when necessity arises.

V) There must be periodic checks to ensure that, radioactivity does not

exceed the permissible.

vi) While disposing off the waste from the nuclear plants, there is no pollution of water of river or
sea.

Nuclear waste disposal

1. Solid waste:

It consists of discarded control rods, fuel cans, scrap material etc. Out of these, the combustible
matter is burnt and the resulting gases are disposed to atmosphere, after dilution.

The remaining material is mixed with concrete in the form of shielded vaults and buried deep in sea
or ground.

2. Liquid waste:

Liquid waste coming from treatment plant is diluted by adding water to it. Then it is released to
ground (deep pits or dry wells), if the activity level is low.

In this method, there is a danger of contaminating ground water, if dilution is not adequate.
Another method is to fill the concentrated liquid in steel tanks and buried in ground. The leakage
from these tanks is more dangerous for human and plant life. So, care should be taken to have leak
proof tanks.

3. Gaseous Waste:

They do not require any treatment except filtration.

The gases are treated in a cleanup plant to remove radioactive iodine, which is more hazardous for
human health.

The gaseous wastes are commonly diluted with air and after passing through, filter they are
released to atmosphere through a high stack (chimney).