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2e DANIEL BONNICI ALISTER FORD MICHAEL HICK
Copyright © 2022 McGraw Hill Education (Australia) Pty Ltd
Additional owners of copyright are acknowledged in on-page credits.
Every effort has been made to trace and acknowledge copyrighted material. The authors and publishers
tender their apologies should any infringement have occurred.
Reproduction and communication for educational purposes
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Enquiries should be made to the publisher via www.mheducation.com.au or marked for the attention of
the permissions editor at the address below.

Title: Carpentry Skills for Certificate III

Daniel Bonnici, Alister Ford, Michael Hick
ISBN: 9781743767719

Published in Australia by
McGraw Hill Education (Australia) Pty Ltd
Level 33, 680 George Street, Sydney NSW 2000
Portfolio managers: Norma Angeloni Tomaras, Sarah Cook
Content developers: Rochelle Deighton, Caroline Hunter
Production editor: Elmandi Du Toit
Copyeditor: Alison Moore
Proofreader: Meredith Lewin
Indexer: Straive, India
Cover image: Monkey Business Images/Shutterstock
Internal design image: Branislav/Getty Images
Cover and internal design: Seymour Design
Typeset in That 10/13 by Straive, India
Printed in Singapore on 70 gsm matt art by Markono Print Media Pte Ltd
Contents
Preface ix
About the authors x
Competency mapping xii

CHAPTER 1 CHAPTER 4
WORK HEALTH AND SAFETY 1 TRADE CALCULATIONS AND
Introduction 1 MEASUREMENTS 70
1.1 Train to survive your first day at work 3 Introduction 70
1.2 Know about duty of care: PPE, safety 4.1 Understand metric units 70
signage and personal wellbeing 7 4.2 Use an electronic calculator 74
1.3 Avoid construction industry injuries 11 4.3 Perform calculations using plane geometry 77
1.4 Identify major health and safety risks 14 4.4 Calculate the volume of solid figures 84
1.5 Deal with emergencies on construction sites 32 4.5 Calculate and order materials 87
1.6 Know about Australian work health and
safety legislation, regulations and codes CHAPTER 5
of practice 33 TRADE DRAWINGS 90
1.7 Analyse workplace hazards 37
Introduction 90
1.8 Prepare safe work method statements and
5.1 Locate, access and verify plans and
job safety analysis 40
specifications 90
1.9 Formulate work health and safety
5.2 Identify and interpret types of construction
management plans 41
plans and drawings and their features 92
5.3 Recognise commonly used symbols
CHAPTER 2 and abbreviations 99
CONSTRUCTION WORK HAZARDS 5.4 Locate and identify key features on
AND RISK CONTROL STRATEGIES 43 building plans 101
Introduction 43 5.5 Use drawing programs and tools and
2.1 Plan and prepare for construction work 44 determine project requirements 106
2.2 Prepare and implement a job safety
analysis (JSA) 50 CHAPTER 6
2.3 Prepare and implement a safe work method WORKING EFFECTIVELY AND
statement (SWMS) for high-risk work 51 SUSTAINABLY WITHIN THE
CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY 109
CHAPTER 3 Introduction 109
WORKPLACE COMMUNICATION 54 6.1 Know about the Australian construction
Introduction 54 industry 110
3.1 Understand important forms of communication 6.2 Understand the various occupations,
for construction workers 55 job roles and working conditions within
3.2 Communicate in work teams 63 the construction industry 112
3.3 Communicate with employers and supervisors 66 6.3 Accept responsibility for your work duties
3.4 Resolve disputes 67 and workload 117

iii
6.4 Work within a team 119 CHAPTER 10
6.5 Identify personal development needs 120 CARPENTRY POWER TOOLS 217
6.6 Identify current resource use and Introduction 217
implement resource improvements 121 10.1 Establish a power supply 218
6.7 Comply with sustainability and 10.2 Safely handle a portable power saw 222
environmental regulations in the 10.3 Safely use a mitre saw 229
construction industry 124 10.4 Safely use an electric drill 230
10.5 Safely use a portable jig saw 235
CHAPTER 7 10.6 Safely handle a portable power planer 236
CARPENTRY HAND TOOLS 134 10.7 Safely use an electric sander 239
10.8 Safely use a portable electric router 243
Introduction 134
10.9 Identify battery-powered tools 249
7.1 Understand the uses of personal
10.10 Safely use nail guns and air compressors 250
protective equipment 134
10.11 Safely use an angle grinder 252
7.2 Identify and use measuring and
10.12 Safely use a drill press 253
marking equipment 135
10.13 Identify load-handling equipment 254
7.3 Identify and use hand saws 138
10.14 Use powder-actuated tools 254
7.4 Identify and use chisels 145
7.5 Construct basic timber joints 148
7.6 Identify and use hammers 152 CHAPTER 11
7.7 Identify and use bench planes 153 STATIC MACHINES 257
7.8 Understand workbench equipment and Introduction 257
its uses 163 11.1 Categorise the different types of static
7.9 Identify and use cramps 166 machines 258
7.10 Identify and use other hand tools 168 11.2 Understand and follow safety regulations
for static machines 259
CHAPTER 8 11.3 Develop a safe work procedure (SWP) 262
TIMBER JOINTS 170 11.4 Read and interpret work instructions
and plan the sequence of work 264
Introduction 170
11.5 Safely set up, use and maintain a docking
8.1 Construct framing joints 170
saw/radial arm saw 272
8.2 Identify carcase joints 186
11.6 Safely set up, use and maintain a surface
8.3 Use joining methods for widening timber 196
planer/buzzer/jointer 275
11.7 Safely set up, use and maintain a rip
CHAPTER 9 saw/table saw 279
CONSTRUCTION FASTENINGS 11.8 Safely set up, use and maintain a panel saw 285
AND ADHESIVES 203 11.9 Safely set up, use and maintain a band saw 289
11.10 Safely set up, use and maintain a panel
Introduction 203
planer/thicknesser 296
9.1 Identify nail types and their uses 203
9.2 Identify the varieties of woodscrews
and their application 208 CHAPTER 12
9.3 Identify bolts, nuts and their uses 212 HANDLE CARPENTRY MATERIALS 307
9.4 Know about associated tools used Introduction 307
with fasteners 213 12.1 Understand safety requirements for
9.5 Identify masonry anchors 213 manual handling 307
9.6 Understand adhesives and their application 215 12.2 Identify company policies and standards 308

iv Contents
12.3 Identify and follow safety requirements 16.2 Use different types of equipment and formulas
for handling carpentry materials 309 to perform construction calculations 409
12.4 Identify tools and mechanical handling 16.3 Calculate the area of lining material 413
devices 311 16.4 Perform external building calculations 421
12.5 Identify fixings and adhesives 315 16.5 Perform timber frame calculations 428
12.6 Identify carpentry construction materials 317 16.6 Calculate volume 441
12.7 Store materials safely 323
12.8 Plan to move materials around a job site 324 CHAPTER 1 7
12.9 Understand manual handling procedures 327 SUBFLOOR AND FLOORING 443
12.10 Load and unload carpentry materials 328 Introduction 443
CHAPTER 13 17.1 Identify types of flooring 445
SITE SETTING OUT 17.2 Know about brick base structures 446
AND BASIC LEVELLING 331 17.3 Install posts and stumps 447
17.4 Install bearers and joists 451
Introduction 331
17.5 Lay strip flooring 455
13.1 Identify setting out equipment 332
17.6 Lay fitted floors 458
13.2 Identify and use levelling equipment 333
17.7 Install platform floors (using strip flooring) 460
13.3 Set out on-site 338
17.8 Lay sheet flooring 460
13.4 Set out on sloping sites 347
17.9 Lay wet area flooring 462
13.5 Set out screeds for concrete slab 348
17.10 Know about alternative subfloor
CHAPTER 14 materials and their uses 463
ADVANCED LEVELLING OPERATIONS 352 17.11 Identify the building envelope 465
Introduction 352 17.12 Identify types of underfloor insulation 466
14.1 Plan and prepare for levelling operations 353 17.13 Construct decks and balconies 466
14.2 Carry out levelling procedures using
the rise and fall method 360 CHAPTER 18
14.3 Carry out levelling procedures using the WALL FRAMING 469
height of collimation method 370 Introduction 469
14.4 Calculate distances using stadia lines 376 18.1 Identify wall framing parts 470
14.5 Clean up and maintain tools 377 18.2 Arrange studs at wall junctions 474
CHAPTER 15 18.3 Identify bracing types 476
CARRY OUT EXCAVATION 380 18.4 Identify timber sizes 478
18.5 Set out wall plates 478
Introduction 380
18.6 Assemble timber wall frames 483
15.1 Plan and prepare for excavation 381
18.7 Use tie-downs and brackets 486
15.2 Prepare the excavation site and
18.8 Assemble steel wall framing 487
erect safety equipment 393
18.9 Construct two-storey dwellings 490
15.3 Follow safe excavation practices 399
CHAPTER 16 CHAPTER 19
CONSTRUCTION CALCULATIONS IN WET AREAS 496
CARPENTRY WORK 407 Introduction 496
Introduction 407 19.1 Set out wet areas 497
16.1 Understand and review drawings, 19.2 Install a shower base 498
specifications and workplace requirements 19.3 Install a bath 500
for a construction project 408 19.4 Install sinks and vanities 503

Contents v
CHAPTER 20 22.9 Do a graphic set-out 569
CEILING FRAMING 505 22.10 Erect an unequally pitched roof 571
Introduction 505 22.11 Understand the octagonal end roof 572
20.1 Know about ceiling framing components 506 22.13 Develop level shortenings for an octagonal roof 578
20.2 Construct ceiling frames 509 22.14 Develop side cuts 581
20.3 Understand ceiling framing safety 510 22.15 Pitch the roof and creeper rafters
20.4 Understand ceiling frame design 511 for an octagonal end roof 581
22.16 Understand roofs constructed with
multiple pitches 582
CHAPTER 21
PITCHED ROOFING 513
CHAPTER 23
Introduction 514
ERECT ROOF TRUSSES 585
21.1 Identify roof structures 514
21.2 Express pitch 515 Introduction 585
21.3 Calculate roof pitch 516 23.1 Plan and prepare to erect roof trusses 586
21.4 Know how to construct a skillion roof 518 23.2 Understand loads and forces 586
21.5 Identify gable roof components 520 23.3 Understand camber and deflection 587
21.6 Set out rafters 521 23.4 Understand lightweight timber trusses 588
21.7 Prepare the ridge and underpurlins 527 23.5 Understand wall framing support 590
21.8 Erect the gable roof 527 23.6 Fix trusses to wall framing 591
21.9 Finish the roof frame 532 23.7 Know about roof shapes and truss layouts 594
21.10 Identify hipped roof components 534 23.8 Undertake job storage and lifting 597
21.11 Set out the hipped roof 536 23.9 Erect roof trusses 598
21.12 Develop crown end assembly 23.10 Clean up the site and maintain tools 603
and shortening distances 539
21.13 Cut rafters to length 542 CHAPTER 24
21.14 Erect the hipped roof 545 CONSTRUCT EAVES 606
21.15 Identify hip and valley roof components 546 Introduction 606
21.16 Set out the minor roof 549 24.1 Know about types of eaves and
21.17 Set out valley rafters and creepers 552 their construction 608
21.18 Construct a scotch valley roof 555 24.2 Understand barge design and construction 610
21.19 Identify fixings, tie-downs and 24.3 Construct eaves 613
other materials 557 24.4 Construct the gable end 615
24.5 Line eaves 616
CHAPTER 22 24.6 Know about metal fascia 617
ADVANCED ROOFING 560
Introduction 561 CHAPTER 25
22.1 Understand the hipped roof with oblique end 561 WORK SAFELY AT HEIGHTS 619
22.2 Set out wall plates 561 Introduction 619
22.3 Obtain roof bevels 563 25.1 Understand the risks of working at
22.4 Calculate rafter lengths 563 heights in building and construction 620
22.5 Perform calculations 566 25.2 Follow workplace and regulatory
22.6 Develop the ridge bevel, rafter shortening, requirements for working safely at heights 623
level difference and side cuts 567 25.3 Select and prepare fall-protection equipment 625
22.7 Obtain underpurlin bevels 567 25.4 Carry out equipment safety checks 629
22.8 Understand the hipped roof of unequal pitch 568 25.5 Conduct work tasks 631

vi Contents
CHAPTER 26 29.3 Install doorsets and jambs 701
RESTRICTED-HEIGHT SCAFFOLDING 29.4 Hang doors 706
AND WORK PLATFORMS 633 29.5 Install trims 715
Introduction 633
26.1 Understand licensing and regulation 634 CHAPTER 30
26.2 Identify types of scaffolding/working ERECT AND DISMANTLE
platforms 635 FORMWORK FOR FOOTINGS AND
26.3 Understand environmental conditions SLABS ON THE GROUND 721
and scaffolding choice 637 Introduction 721
26.4 Apply scaffolding safety procedures 638 30.1 Plan and prepare 722
26.5 Identify scaffolding equipment/ 30.2 Construct formwork 731
components and their application 639 30.3 Strip, clean and prepare formwork for re-use 736
26.6 Erect scaffolding 639 30.4 Clean and maintain tools and equipment
26.7 Inspect working platforms for compliance 648 for re-use 737
26.8 Identify other types of scaffolding 648 30.5 Clean up and dispose of waste 738
26.9 Know about ladders and their use 649

CHAPTER 31
CHAPTER 27
CONCRETING TO SIMPLE FORMS 740
EXTERNAL CLADDING 652
Introduction 740
Introduction 652 31.1 Plan and prepare to carry out concreting 743
27.1 Identify and install different types 31.2 Consider WHS obligations for concreting 744
of cladding 653 31.3 Understand basic formwork for concreting 745
27.2 Install sheet/panel cladding 662 31.4 Identify types of reinforcement materials 748
27.3 Understand energy efficiency and 31.5 Understand reinforced concrete footings 750
the fire-resistant properties of cladding 662 31.6 Use concrete materials and ingredients 752
31.7 Consider the factors affecting concrete
CHAPTER 28 quality and strength 754
INSTALLATION OF WINDOWS 31.8 Understand batching proportions and
AND DOORS 664 ratios for concrete 755
Introduction 664 31.9 Mix, place and finish concrete 758
28.1 Identify window types 664 31.10 Cure concrete 767
28.2 Understand window construction 666 31.11 Understand the compressive strength
28.3 Set out rods 670 and slump testing of concrete 767
28.4 Assemble and glue up the sash 677
28.5 Construct vertical sliding slash windows 678 CHAPTER 32
28.6 Fit window frames and flashing 684 FORMWORK FOR STAIRS
28.7 Install glazing 688 AND RAMPS 772
28.8 Construct doors 688
Introduction 772
32.1 Know about formwork standards 773
CHAPTER 29 32.2 Understand formwork materials 775
INTERNAL LININGS AND FIXINGS 695 32.3 Understand formwork design 776
Introduction 695 32.4 Construct formwork for concrete stairs 776
29.1 Install internal lining materials 695 32.5 Finish stair treads 780
29.2 Install timber mouldings 698 32.6 Build ramps 783

Contents vii
CHAPTER 33 34.5 Carry out demolition of brickwork 847
CONSTRUCT TIMBER EXTERNAL 34.6 Re-use and recycle materials 848
STAIRS 787 34.7 Carry out demolition site clean-up 852
Introduction 787
CHAPTER 35
33.1 Understand staircase regulations 788
33.2 Know staircase terminology and components 788
PLAN AND ORGANISE WORK 857
33.3 Understand general staircase design 795 Introduction 857
33.4 Understand the general layout of staircases 797 35.1 Understand policies and standards for
33.5 Calculate the rise and going for a staircase 798 planning and organising work 858
33.6 Identify external staircase design 802 35.2 Understand safety when planning and
33.7 Understand external open-riser staircase organising work 859
set-out 804 35.3 Identify environmental considerations 860
33.8 Construct timber jigs and staircase 35.4 Identify drawings and specifications for
components 809 planning and organising work 861
33.9 Explain the considerations when building 35.5 Identify types of planning 861
in bushfire-prone areas 824 35.6 Identify tools for planning 863
35.7 Understand planning requirements 865
35.8 Develop a plan 866
CHAPTER 34 35.9 Schedule a plan 868
CARRY OUT DEMOLITION 831 35.10 Identify considerations when planning and
Introduction 831 organising a basic construction task 869
34.1 Understand the safety aspects of 35.11 Problem solve plans and tasks 874
demolition 832 35.12 Review plans and tasks 875
34.2 Plan for demolition work 835
34.3 Prepare for demolition work 836 Appendix 878
34.4 Carry out demolition of minor building Glossary 886
structures 839 Index 895

viii Contents
Preface
This text covers all core units and major elective units for the Certificate III in Carpentry
CPC30220. It also addresses the major learning areas and topics covered in:

• Certificate III in Joinery CPC31920

• Certificate II in Construction Pathways CPC20220
• Certificate II in Building and Construction Pre-apprenticeship 22338VIC
• Certificate I in Construction CPC10120.

The text, in line with Australian Standards and national building codes, is designed
to teach the underpinning knowledge and skills that are required to work effectively
in the construction industry. The student can then apply and adapt these skills to
current workplace practices. Out in the workplace, techniques will vary as a result of an
employer’s preference or building philosophy; however, the core skills remain the same.
The text aims to support students as they practise and refine their own techniques in an
ever-changing workplace.
As a teaching resource, this publication covers all skills and knowledge required by
apprentice carpenters in the domestic and industrial sectors. It will assist in the teaching
of hand and power tools, plan reading, work health and safety, and sustainability. Each
chapter is aligned to units of competency to aid trainers in their planning and delivery.
All chapters have worksheet questions that reinforce the content covered, as well as
student research tasks and end-of-chapter activities. Plan reading is integrated into
most chapters and refers to the set of plans located in the Appendix of this book.
With clear step-by-step instructions and up-to-date content, this publication will
become a valuable part of an apprentice’s toolkit.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors and publisher would like to thank The Learning Lane for contributing to
Chapter 25, Work safely at heights. We would also like to thank the following people
who provided beneficial feedback by reviewing the manuscript:
Michael Callahan—Melbourne Polytechnic, Heidelberg
Peter Kelly—Melbourne Polytechnic, Heidelberg
Geoff Leng—Sunraysia TAFE, Mildura
Nathan Pole—TAFE Queensland
Mark White—South Metropolitan TAFE, Thornlie (TAFE WA).

ix
About the authors
DANIEL BONNICI
Daniel currently teaches Carpentry and Design Technology at Bayside P–12 college
(Paisley campus, Newport) in their Technical Trades Centre. Prior to this, Daniel was
employed at Victoria University (TAFE), where he was the VET in Schools’ (VETiS)
coordinator for carpentry, bricklaying, furnishing, construction trade taster and school-
based carpentry apprentices. Daniel taught in the areas of VETiS and apprenticeship
carpentry.
Daniel has worked in Australia and the United Kingdom as a carpenter in the
domestic, industrial and commercial sectors. His qualifications include:

• Certificate III in Carpentry—industrial broad stream

• Diploma of Vocational Education and Training
• Certificate IV in Workplace Assessment (TAE)
• Graduate Certificate in Leadership in Education and Training
• Certificate IV in Building
• Graduate Diploma in Technology Education.

Daniel currently chairs the Victorian Carpentry Teachers Network, which has
representatives from all Victorian TAFEs. He has contributed to the Victorian Certificate II
in Building & Construction for the past 15 years as a subject matter expert and project
steering committee member. In 2017 Daniel was appointed to the carpentry Technical
Advisory Group (TAG) advising on the redevelopment of the Certificate III in Carpentry
CPC30220, Certificate II in Construction pathways CPC20220 and Certificate I in
Construction CPC10120.
In 2007 Daniel was recognised for his work in the VET in schools carpentry area and
awarded:

• Australian Trade Teacher of the Year in General Construction 2007 (Institute for
Trade Skills Excellence)
• Victoria University Vice Chancellor Peak Award for Excellence in Teaching and
Learning 2007
• Victoria University Vice Chancellor Citation for Excellence in Teaching and
Learning for the Faculty of Technical and Trades Innovation 2007.

Daniel is an avid supporter of WorldSkills Australia and has been a convenor and
judge for VETiS construction and Open carpentry at regional and state competitions for
the past 15 years. He was chief judge in the category of VETiS construction at the last
four national competitions.

ALISTER FORD
Alister commenced his carpentry and joinery apprenticeship in June 1979 at the age of
15 and completed in June 1983.
He then worked on some very large commercial and industrial construction sites
around Melbourne, before relocating to country Victoria in 1990 and starting his own
carpentry and joinery business that operated for 15 years.

x
 His qualifications include:
• Certificate III in Carpentry & Joinery (Trade Qualification)
• Certificate IV in Training & Assessment
• Diploma of Vocational Education and Training.
In 2002 Alister commenced teaching Carpentry Certificate II and III part-time at the
University of Ballarat TAFE division while still running his own business.
In 2005 Alister commenced full-time teaching in carpentry at the UB TAFE and also
held the position of Program Coordinator for the Building & Construction Department
that oversaw the running of the carpentry, joinery, furniture-making, cabinet-making,
painting and decorating, bricklaying/blocklaying and design/drafting programs.
In 2010 Alister transferred his employment as a building and construction teacher
to the East Gippsland TAFE, now TAFE Gippsland, based at the Bairnsdale Trade Centre
campus, to teach Certificate II and III in Carpentry.
Alister has also been a WorldSkills judge several times.

MICHAEL HICK
Michael Hick has over 20 years’ experience as a carpenter and joiner. He is an experienced
Carpentry and Joinery teacher, currently teaching in the Secondary School system.
Michael is very passionate about his teaching and trade and continues to be active in
the industry through his family’s staircase business. He has previously taught at Victoria
University (TAFE) for 10 years, teaching Carpentry and Joinery Certificate II and III. Michael
has also worked as an International Skills Assessor for Carpentry and Joinery for 13 years.
Michael’s qualifications include:
• Carpentry and Joinery Apprenticeship: Certificate III – Building and Construction
(Finish and Fit out) (Carpentry and Joinery)
• Certificate IV in Workplace Training and Assessment (TAE)
• Diploma in Vocational Education and Training Practice
• Graduate Diploma in Technology Education.
Further Trade Qualifications:
• CPC30211 Certificate III in Carpentry
• CPC32008 Certificate III in Carpentry and Joinery
• CPC31912 Certificate III in Joinery
• LMF30502 Certificate III in Cabinet Making (Wood Machinist stream).

About the authors xi

Competency mapping

CPC30220 CPC31920 CPC20220 22338VIC CPC10120

Chapter Certificate III Certificate III Certificate II in Certificate II in Certificate I in
in Carpentry in Joinery Construction Building and Construction
Pathways Construction—
Carpentry
1 Work health and CPCCWHS2001 CPCCWHS2001 CPCCWHS2001 CPCCOHS2001A CPCCWHS2001
safety
2 Construction work CPCWHS3001 CPCWHS3001
hazards and risk
control strategies
3 Workplace CPCCOM1014 CPCCOM1014 CPCCOM1014A CPCCOM1014
communication
4 Trade calculations CPCCOM1015 CPCCOM1015 CPCCOM1015 CPCCOM1015A CPCCOM1015
and measurements
5 Trade drawings CPCCCA3025 CPCCOM2001 VU22015 CPCCOM1017
CPCCOM2001
6 Working effectively CPCCOM1012 CPCCOM1012 CPCCOM1012 CPCCOM1012A CPCCOM1012
and sustainably
within the
construction industry
7 Carpentry hand CPCCCA2002 CPCCCA2002 CPCCCA2002 VU22023 CPCCCM2005
tools
8 Timber joints It is important for students who want to become carpenters within the building industry to understand the content in
Chapter 8, even though it is not explicitly covered by units of competency.
9 Construction It is important for students who want to become carpenters within the building industry to understand the content in
fastening and Chapter 9, even though it is not explicitly covered by units of competency.
adhesives
10 Carpentry power CPCCCA2002 CPCCCA2002 CPCCCA2002 VU22023 CPCCCM2005
tools
11 Static machines CPCCJN3100 CPCCJN3100
12 Handle carpentry CPCCCA2011 CPCCCA2011 CPCCCM2004 CPCCCM2004
materials
13 Site setting out CPCCCA3002 CPCCCM2006 CPCCCM2006 CPCCCM2006 CPCCCM2006
and basic levelling CPCCCM2006 VU22023
14 Advanced levelling CPCCOM3006
operations CPCCCM2006
15 Carry out CPCCCM2002 VU22031
excavation
16 Construction CPCCOM3001 CPCCOM3001 CPCCCM1011 CPCCCM1011
calculations in
carpentry work

xii
 CPC30220 CPC31920 CPC20220 22338VIC CPC10120
Chapter Certificate III Certificate III Certificate II in Certificate II in Certificate I in
in Carpentry in Joinery Construction Building and Construction
Pathways Construction—
Carpentry
17 Subfloor and CPCCCA3003 CPCCCA3003 VU22024
flooring
18 Wall framing CPCCCA3004 CPCCCA3004 VU22025
19 Wet areas CPCCCA3012 CPCCCA3012
20 Ceiling framing CPCCCA3005 VU22026
21 Pitched roofing CPCCCA3007 VU22026
22 Advanced roofing CPCCCA3009
23 Erect roof trusses CPCCCA3006 CPCCCA3006
24 Construct eaves CPCCCA3008 VU22026
25 Work safely at CPCCCM2012 CPCCCM2012 CPCCCM2012 VU22016
heights CPCCCM2008
26 Restricted height CPCCCM2008 VU22016
scaffolding and work CPCCCM2012
platforms
27 External cladding CPCCCA3017 VU22027
28 Installation of CPCCCA3010 CPCCCA3010 VU22028
windows and doors CPCCCA3024 CPCCCA3024 VU22029
29 Internal linings CPCCCA3024 CPCCCA3010 VU22028
and fixings CPCCCA3010 CPCCCA3024 VU22029
30 Erect and CPCCCA3028 VU22031
dismantle formwork CPCCCM2002
for footings and slabs
on the ground
31 Concreting to CPCCCM2012 CPCCCM2012 VU22031
simple forms CPCCCM2002
32 Formwork for CPCCCA3018
stairs and ramps
33 Construct timber CPCCCA3016 CPCCCA3016
external stairs
34 Carry out CPCCCA3001 CPCCCA3001 CPCCCM2009 VU22030
demolition
35 Plan and organise CPCCOM1013 CPCCOM1013 CPCCOM1013
work

Competency mapping xiii

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Title: Biological analogies in history

Author: Theodore Roosevelt

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Language: English

Original publication: New York: Oxford University Press, American

Branch, 1910

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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BIOLOGICAL

ANALOGIES IN HISTORY ***
 THE ROMANES LECTURE
1910

BIOLOGICAL ANALOGIES
IN HISTORY
BY
THEODORE ROOSEVELT

DELIVERED
BEFORE THE UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD
JUNE 7TH, 1910

OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS

AMERICAN BRANCH
35 WEST 32d STREET, NEW YORK

LONDON: HENRY FROWDE

1910
 Copyright, 1910, by
Oxford University Press
American Branch
 BIOLOGICAL ANALOGIES
IN HISTORY
An American who, in response to such an invitation as I have
received, speaks in this university of ancient renown, cannot but feel
with peculiar vividness the interest and charm of his surroundings,
fraught as they are with a thousand associations. Your great
universities, and all the memories that make them great, are living
realities in the minds of scores of thousands of men who have never
seen them and who dwell across the seas in other lands. Moreover,
these associations are no stronger in the men of English stock than
in those who are not. My people have been for eight generations in
America; but in one thing I am like the Americans of to-morrow,
rather than like many of the Americans of to-day; for I have in my
veins the blood of men who came from many different European
races. The ethnic make-up of our people is slowly changing so that
constantly the race tends to become more and more akin to that of
those Americans who like myself are of the old stock but not mainly
of English stock. Yet I think that, as time goes by, mutual respect,
understanding, and sympathy among the English-speaking peoples
grow greater and not less. Any of my ancestors, Holland or
Huguenot, Scotchman or Irishman, who had come to Oxford in ‘the
spacious days of great Elizabeth,’ would have felt far more alien than
I, their descendant, now feel. Common heirship in the things of the
spirit makes a closer bond than common heirship in the things of the
body.
More than ever before in the world’s history we of to-day seek to
penetrate the causes of the mysteries that surround not only
mankind but all life, both in the present and the past. We search, we
peer, we see things dimly; here and there we get a ray of clear
vision, as we look before and after. We study the tremendous
procession of the ages, from the immemorial past when in ‘cramp elf
and saurian forms’ the creative forces ‘swathed their too-much
power,’ down to the yesterday, a few score thousand years distant
only, when the history of man became the overwhelming fact in the
history of life on this planet; and studying, we see strange analogies
in the phenomena of life and death, of birth, growth, and change,
between those physical groups of animal life which we designate as
species, forms, races, and the highly complex and composite entities
which rise before our minds when we speak of nations and
civilizations.
It is this study which has given science its present-day
prominence. In the world of intellect, doubtless, the most marked
features in the history of the past century have been the
extraordinary advances in scientific knowledge and investigation,
and in the position held by the men of science with reference to
those engaged in other pursuits. I am not now speaking of applied
science; of the science, for instance, which, having revolutionized
transportation on the earth and the water, is now on the brink of
carrying it into the air; of the science that finds its expression in such
extraordinary achievements as the telephone and the telegraph; of
the sciences which have so accelerated the velocity of movement in
social and industrial conditions—for the changes in the mechanical
appliances of ordinary life during the last three generations have
been greater than in all the preceding generations since history
dawned. I speak of the science which has no more direct bearing
upon the affairs of our everyday life than literature or music, painting
or sculpture, poetry or history. A hundred years ago the ordinary man
of cultivation had to know something of these last subjects; but the
probabilities were rather against his having any but the most
superficial scientific knowledge. At present all this has changed,
thanks to the interest taken in scientific discoveries, the large
circulation of scientific books, and the rapidity with which ideas
originating among students of the most advanced and abstruse
sciences become, at least partially, domiciled in the popular mind.
Another feature of the change, of the growth in the position of
science in the eyes of every one, and of the greatly increased
respect naturally resulting for scientific methods, has been a certain
tendency for scientific students to encroach on other fields. This is
particularly true of the field of historical study. Not only have scientific
men insisted upon the necessity of considering the history of man,
especially in its early stages, in connexion with what biology shows
to be the history of life, but furthermore there has arisen a demand
that history shall itself be treated as a science. Both positions are in
their essence right; but as regards each position the more arrogant
among the invaders of the new realm of knowledge take an attitude
to which it is not necessary to assent. As regards the latter of the two
positions, that which would treat history henceforth merely as one
branch of scientific study, we must of course cordially agree that
accuracy in recording facts and appreciation of their relative worth
and interrelationship are just as necessary in historical study as in
any other kind of study. The fact that a book, though interesting, is
untrue, of course removes it at once from the category of history,
however much it may still deserve to retain a place in the always
desirable group of volumes which deal with entertaining fiction. But
the converse also holds, at least to the extent of permitting us to
insist upon what would seem to be the elementary fact that a book
which is written to be read should be readable. This rather obvious
truth seems to have been forgotten by some of the more zealous
scientific historians, who apparently hold that the worth of a historical
book is directly in proportion to the impossibility of reading it, save as
a painful duty. Now I am willing that history shall be treated as a
branch of science, but only on condition that it also remains a branch
of literature; and, furthermore, I believe that as the field of science
encroaches on the field of literature there should be a corresponding
encroachment of literature upon science; and I hold that one of the
great needs, which can only be met by very able men whose culture
is broad enough to include literature as well as science, is the need
of books for scientific laymen. We need a literature of science which
shall be readable. So far from doing away with the school of great
historians, the school of Polybius and Tacitus, Gibbon and Macaulay,
we need merely that the future writers of history, without losing the
qualities which have made these men great, shall also utilize the
new facts and new methods which science has put at their disposal.
Dryness is not in itself a measure of value. No ‘scientific’ treatise
about St. Louis will displace Joinville, for the very reason that
Joinville’s place is in both history and literature; no minute study of
the Napoleonic wars will teach us more than Marbot—and Marbot is
as interesting as Walter Scott. Moreover, certain at least of the
branches of science should likewise be treated by masters in the art
of presentment, so that the layman interested in science, no less
than the layman interested in history, shall have on his shelves
classics which can be read. Whether this wish be or be not capable
of realization, it assuredly remains true that the great historian of the
future must essentially represent the ideal striven after by the great
historians of the past. The industrious collector of facts occupies an
honourable, but not an exalted, position, and the scientific historian
who produces books which are not literature must rest content with
the honour, substantial, but not of the highest type, that belongs to
him who gathers material which some time some great master shall
arise to use.
Yet, while freely conceding all that can be said of the masters of
literature, we must insist upon the historian of mankind working in
the scientific spirit, and using the treasure-houses of science. He
who would fully treat of man must know at least something of
biology, of the science that treats of living, breathing things; and
especially of that science of evolution which is inseparably
connected with the great name of Darwin. Of course there is no
exact parallelism between the birth, growth, and death of species in
the animal world, and the birth, growth, and death of societies in the
world of man. Yet there is a certain parallelism. There are strange
analogies; it may be that there are homologies.
How far the resemblances between the two sets of phenomena
are more than accidental, how far biology can be used as an aid in
the interpretation of human history, we cannot at present say. The
historian should never forget, what the highest type of scientific man
is always teaching us to remember, that willingness to admit
ignorance is a prime factor in developing wisdom out of knowledge.
Wisdom is advanced by research which enables us to add to
knowledge; and, moreover, the way for wisdom is made ready when
men who record facts of vast but unknown import, if asked to explain
their full significance, are willing frankly to answer that they do not
know. The research which enables us to add to the sum of complete
knowledge stands first; but second only stands the research which,
while enabling us clearly to pose the problem, also requires us to say
that with our present knowledge we can offer no complete solution.
Let me illustrate what I mean by an instance or two taken from one
of the most fascinating branches of world-history, the history of the
higher forms of life, of mammalian life, on this globe.
Geologists and astronomers are not agreed as to the length of
time necessary for the changes that have taken place. At any rate,
many hundreds of thousands of years, some millions of years, have
passed by since in the eocene, at the beginning of the tertiary
period, we find the traces of an abundant, varied, and highly
developed mammalian life on the land masses out of which have
grown the continents as we see them to-day. The ages swept by,
until, with the advent of man substantially in the physical shape in
which we now know him, we also find a mammalian fauna not
essentially different in kind, though widely differing in distribution,
from that of the present day. Throughout this immense period form
succeeds form, type succeeds type, in obedience to laws of
evolution, of progress and retrogression, of development and death,
which we as yet understand only in the most imperfect manner. As
knowledge increases our wisdom is often turned into foolishness,
and many of the phenomena of evolution, which seemed clearly
explicable to the learned master of science who founded these
lectures, to us nowadays seem far less satisfactorily explained. The
scientific men of most note now differ widely in their estimates of the
relative parts played in evolution by natural selection, by mutation, by
the inheritance of acquired characteristics; and we study their
writings with a growing impression that there are forces at work
which our blinded eyes wholly fail to apprehend; and where this is
the case the part of wisdom is to say that we believe we have such
and such partial explanations, but that we are not warranted in
saying that we have the whole explanation. In tracing the history of
the development of faunal life during this period, the age of
mammals, there are some facts which are clearly established, some
great and sweeping changes for which we can with certainty ascribe
reasons. There are other facts as to which we grope in the dark, and
vast changes, vast catastrophes, of which we can give no adequate
explanation.
Before illustrating these types, let us settle one or two matters of
terminology. In the changes, the development and extinction, of
species we must remember that such expressions as ‘a new
species,’ or as ‘a species becoming extinct,’ are each commonly and
indiscriminately used to express totally different and opposite
meanings. Of course the ‘new’ species is not new in the sense that
its ancestors appeared later on the globe’s surface than those of any
old species tottering to extinction. Phylogenetically, each animal now
living must necessarily trace its ancestral descent back through
countless generations, through aeons of time, to the early stages of
the appearance of life on the globe. All that we mean by a ‘new’
species is that from some cause, or set of causes, one of these
ancestral stems slowly or suddenly develops into a form unlike any
that has preceded it; so that while in one form of life the ancestral
type is continuously repeated and the old species continues to exist,
in another form of life there is a deviation from the ancestral type and
a new species appears.
Similarly, ‘extinction of species’ is a term which has two entirely
different meanings. The type may become extinct by dying out and
leaving no descendants. Or it may die out because, as the
generations go by, there is change, slow or swift, until a new form is
produced. Thus in one case the line of life comes to an end. In the
other case it changes into something different. The huge titanothere,
and the small three-toed horse, both existed at what may roughly be
called the same period of the world’s history, back in the middle of
the mammalian age. Both are extinct in the sense that each has
completely disappeared and that nothing like either is to be found in
the world to-day. But whereas all the individual titanotheres finally
died out, leaving no descendants, a number of the three-toed horses
did leave descendants, and these descendants, constantly changing
as the ages went by, finally developed into the highly specialized
one-toed horses, asses, and zebras of to-day.
 The analogy between the facts thus indicated and certain facts in
the development of human societies is striking. A further analogy is
supplied by a very curious tendency often visible in cases of intense
and extreme specialization. When an animal form becomes highly
specialized, the type at first, because of its specialization, triumphs
over its allied rivals and its enemies, and attains a great
development; until in many cases the specialization becomes so
extreme that from some cause unknown to us, or at which we merely
guess, it disappears. The new species which mark a new era
commonly come from the less specialized types, the less distinctive,
dominant, and striking types, of the preceding era.
When dealing with the changes, cataclysmic or gradual, which
divide one period of palaeontological history from another, we can
sometimes assign causes, and again we cannot even guess at them.
In the case of single species, or of faunas of very restricted localities,
the explanation is often self-evident. A comparatively slight change
in the amount of moisture in the climate, with the attendant change in
vegetation, might readily mean the destruction of a group of huge
herbivores with a bodily size such that they needed a vast quantity of
food, and with teeth so weak or so peculiar that but one or two kinds
of plants could furnish this food. Again, we now know that the most
deadly foes of the higher forms of life are various lower forms of life,
such as insects, or microscopic creatures conveyed into the blood by
insects. There are districts in South America where many large
animals, wild and domestic, cannot live because of the presence
either of certain ticks or of certain baleful flies. In Africa there is a
terrible genus of poison fly, each species acting as the host of
microscopic creatures which are deadly to certain of the higher
vertebrates. One of these species, though harmless to man, is fatal
to all domestic animals, and this although harmless to the closely-
related wild kinsfolk of these animals. Another is fatal to man himself,
being the cause of the ‘sleeping sickness,’ which in many large
districts has killed out the entire population. Of course the
development or the extension of the range of any such insects, and
any one of many other causes which we see actually at work around
us, would readily account for the destruction of some given species
or even for the destruction of several species in a limited area of
country.
When whole faunal groups die out, over large areas, the question
is different, and may or may not be susceptible of explanation with
the knowledge we actually possess. In the old arctogaeal continent,
for instance, in what is now Europe, Asia, and North America, the
glacial period made a complete, but of course explicable, change in
the faunal life of the region. At one time the continent held a rich and
varied fauna. Then a period of great cold supervened, and a different
fauna succeeded the first. The explanation of the change is obvious.
But in many other cases we cannot so much as hazard a guess at
why a given change occurred. One of the most striking instances of
these inexplicable changes is that afforded by the history of South
America toward the close of the tertiary period. For ages South
America had been an island by itself, cut off from North America at
the very time that the latter was at least occasionally in land
communication with Asia. During this time a very peculiar fauna grew
up in South America, some of the types resembling nothing now
existing, while others are recognizable as ancestral forms of the ant-
eaters, sloths, and armadillos of to-day. It was a peculiar and
diversified mammalian fauna, of, on the whole, rather small species,
and without any representatives of the animals with which man has
been most familiar during his career on this earth.
Towards the end of the tertiary period there was an upheaval of
land between this old South American island and North America,
near what is now the Isthmus of Panama, thereby making a bridge
across which the teeming animal life of the northern continent had
access to this queer southern continent. There followed an inrush of
huge, or swift, or formidable creatures which had attained their
development in the fierce competition of the arctogaeal realm.
Elephants, camels, horses, tapirs, swine, sabre-toothed tigers, big
cats, wolves, bears, deer, crowded into South America, warring each
against the other incomers and against the old long-existing forms. A
riot of life followed. Not only was the character of the South
American fauna totally changed by the invasion of these creatures
from the north, which soon swarmed over the continent, but it was
also changed through the development wrought in the old
inhabitants by the severe competition to which they were exposed.
Many of the smaller or less capable types died out. Others
developed enormous bulk or complete armour protection, and
thereby saved themselves from the new beasts. In consequence,
South America soon became populated with various new species of
mastodons, sabre-toothed tigers, camels, horses, deer, cats, wolves,
hooved creatures of strange shapes and some of them of giant size,
all of these being descended from the immigrant types; and side by
side with them there grew up large autochthonous ungulates, giant
ground sloths wellnigh as large as elephants, and armoured
creatures as bulky as an ox but structurally of the armadillo or ant-
eater type; and some of these latter not only held their own, but
actually in their turn wandered north over the isthmus and invaded
North America. A fauna as varied as that of Africa to-day, as
abundant in species and individuals, even more noteworthy, because
of its huge size or odd type, and because of the terrific prowess of
the more formidable flesh-eaters, was thus developed in South
America, and flourished for a period which human history would call
very long indeed, but which geologically was short.
Then, for no reason that we can assign, destruction fell on this
fauna. All the great and terrible creatures died out, the same fate
befalling the changed representatives of the old autochthonous
fauna and the descendants of the migrants that had come down from
the north. Ground sloth and glyptodon, sabre-tooth, horse and
mastodon, and all the associated animals of large size, vanished,
and South America, though still retaining its connexion with North
America, once again became a land with a mammalian life small and
weak compared to that of North America and the Old World. Its
fauna is now marked, for instance, by the presence of medium-sized
deer and cats, fox-like wolves, and small camel-like creatures, as
well as by the presence of small armadillos, sloths, and ant-eaters.
In other words, it includes diminutive representatives of the giants of
the preceding era, both of the giants among the older forms of
mammalia, and of the giants among the new and intrusive kinds. The
change was widespread and extraordinary, and with our present
means of information it is wholly inexplicable. There was no ice age,
and it is hard to imagine any cause which would account for the
extinction of so many species of huge or moderate size, while
smaller representatives, and here and there medium-sized
representatives, of many of them were left.
Now as to all of these phenomena in the evolution of species,
there are, if not homologies, at least certain analogies, in the history
of human societies, in the history of the rise to prominence, of the
development and change, of the temporary dominance, and death or
transformation, of the groups of varying kind which form races or
nations. Here, as in biology, it is necessary to keep in mind that we
use each of the words ‘birth’ and ‘death,’ ‘youth’ and ‘age,’ often very
loosely, and sometimes as denoting either one of two totally different
conceptions. Of course, in one sense there is no such thing as an
‘old’ or a ‘young’ nation, any more than there is an ‘old’ or ‘young’
family. Phylogenetically, the line of ancestral descent must be of
exactly the same length for every existing individual, and for every
group of individuals, whether forming a family or a nation. All that
can properly be meant by the terms ‘new’ and ‘young’ is that in a
given line of descent there has suddenly come a period of rapid
change. This change may arise either from a new development or
transformation of the old elements, or else from a new grouping of
these elements with other and varied elements; so that the words
‘new’ nation or ‘young’ nation may have a real difference of
significance in one case from what they have in another.
As in biology, so in human history, a new form may result from the
specialization of a long-existing, and hitherto very slowly changing,
generalized or non-specialized form; as, for instance, occurs when a
barbaric race from a variety of causes suddenly develops a more
complex cultivation and civilization. This is what occurred, for
instance, in Western Europe during the centuries of the Teutonic
and, later, the Scandinavian ethnic overflows from the north. All the
modern countries of Western Europe are descended from the states
created by these northern invaders. When first created they would
be called ‘new’ or ‘young’ states in the sense that part or all of the
people composing them were descended from races that hitherto
had not been civilized, and that therefore, for the first time, entered
on the career of civilized communities. In the southern part of
Western Europe the new states thus formed consisted in bulk of the
inhabitants already in the land under the Roman Empire; and it was
here that the new kingdoms first took shape. Through a reflex action
their influence then extended back into the cold forests from which
the invaders had come, and Germany and Scandinavia witnessed
the rise of communities with essentially the same civilization as their
southern neighbours; though in those communities, unlike the
southern communities, there was no infusion of new blood, so that
the new civilized nations which gradually developed were composed
entirely of members of the same races which in the same regions
had for ages lived the life of a slowly changing barbarism. The same
was true of the Slavs and the slavonized Finns of Eastern Europe,
when an infiltration of Scandinavian leaders from the north, and an
infiltration of Byzantine culture from the south, joined to produce the
changes which have gradually, out of the little Slav communities of
the forest and the steppe, formed the mighty Russian Empire of to-
day.
Again, the new form may represent merely a splitting off from a
long established, highly developed and specialized nation. In this
case the nation is usually spoken of as a ‘young,’ and is correctly
spoken of as a ‘new,’ nation; but the term should always be used
with a clear sense of the difference between what is described in
such case, and what is described by the same term in speaking of a
civilized nation just developed from barbarism. Carthage and
Syracuse were new cities compared to Tyre and Corinth; but the
Greek or Phoenician race was in every sense of the word as old in
the new city as in the old city. So, nowadays, Victoria or Manitoba is
a new community compared with England or Scotland; but the
ancestral type of civilization and culture is as old in one case as in
the other. I of course do not mean for a moment that great changes
are not produced by the mere fact that the old civilized race is
suddenly placed in surroundings where it has again to go through
the work of taming the wilderness, a work finished many centuries
before in the original home of the race; I merely mean that the
ancestral history is the same in each case. We can rightly use the
phrase ‘a new people,’ in speaking of Canadians or Australians,
Americans or Afrikanders. But we use it in an entirely different sense
from that in which we use it when speaking of such communities as
those founded by the Northmen and their descendants during that
period of astonishing growth which saw the descendants of the
Norse sea-thieves conquer and transform Normandy, Sicily and the
British Islands; we use it in an entirely different sense from that in
which we use it when speaking of the new states that grew up
around Warsaw, Kief, Novgorod, and Moscow, as the wild savages
of the steppes and the marshy forests struggled haltingly and
stumblingly upward to become builders of cities and to form stable
governments. The kingdoms of Charlemagne and Alfred were ‘new,’
compared to the empire on the Bosphorus; they were also in every
way different; their lines of ancestral descent had nothing in common
with that of the polyglot realm which paid tribute to the Caesars of
Byzantium; their social problems and aftertime history were totally
different. This is not true of those ‘new’ nations which spring direct
from old nations. Brazil, the Argentine, the United States, are all
‘new’ nations, compared with the nations of Europe; but, with
whatever changes in detail, their civilization is nevertheless of the
general European type, as shown in Portugal, Spain, and England.
The differences between these ‘new’ American and these ‘old’
European nations are not as great as those which separate the ‘new’
nations one from another, and the ‘old’ nations one from another.
There are in each case very real differences between the new and
the old nation; differences both for good and for evil; but in each
case there is the same ancestral history to reckon with, the same
type of civilization, with its attendant benefits and shortcomings; and,
after the pioneer stages are passed, the problems to be solved, in
spite of superficial differences, are in their essence the same; they
are those that confront all civilized peoples, not those that confront
only peoples struggling from barbarism into civilization.
So, when we speak of the ‘death’ of a tribe, a nation, or a
civilization, the term may be used for either one of two totally
different processes, the analogy with what occurs in biological
history being complete. Certain tribes of savages, the Tasmanians,
for instance, and various little clans of American Indians, have within
the last century or two completely died out; all of the individuals have
perished, leaving no descendants, and the blood has disappeared.
Certain other tribes of Indians have as tribes disappeared or are now
disappearing; but their blood remains, being absorbed into the veins
of the white intruders, or of the black men introduced by those white
intruders; so that in reality they are merely being transformed into
something absolutely different from what they were. In the United
States, in the new State of Oklahoma, the Creeks, Cherokees,
Chickasaws, Delawares, and other tribes, are in process of
absorption into the mass of the white population; when the state was
admitted a couple of years ago, one of the two senators, and three of
the five representatives in Congress, were partly of Indian blood. In
but a few years these Indian tribes will have disappeared as
completely as those that have actually died out; but the
disappearance will be by absorption and transformation into the
mass of the American population.
A like wide diversity in fact may be covered in the statement that a
civilization has ‘died out.’ The nationality and culture of the wonderful
city-builders of the lower Mesopotamian Plain have completely
disappeared, and, though doubtless certain influences dating
therefrom are still at work, they are in such changed and hidden form
as to be unrecognizable. But the disappearance of the Roman
Empire was of no such character. There was complete change, far-
reaching transformation, and at one period a violent dislocation; but
it would not be correct to speak either of the blood or the culture of
old Rome as extinct. We are not yet in a position to dogmatize as to
the permanence or evanescence of the various strains of blood that
go to make up every civilized nationality; but it is reasonably certain
that the blood of the old Roman still flows through the veins of the
modern Italian; and though there has been much intermixture, from
many different foreign sources—from foreign conquerors and from
foreign slaves—yet it is probable that the Italian type of to-day finds
its dominant ancestral type in the ancient Latin. As for the culture,
the civilization of Rome, this is even more true. It has suffered a
complete transformation, partly by natural growth, partly by
absorption of totally alien elements, such as a Semitic religion, and
certain Teutonic governmental and social customs; but the process
was not one of extinction, but one of growth and transformation, both
from within and by the accretion of outside elements. In France and
Spain the inheritance of Latin blood is small; but the Roman culture
which was forced on those countries has been tenaciously retained
by them, throughout all their subsequent ethnical and political
changes, as the basis on which their civilizations have been built.
Moreover, the permanent spreading of Roman influence was not
limited to Europe. It has extended to and over half of that new world
which was not even dreamed of during the thousand years of brilliant
life between the birth and the death of Pagan Rome. This new world
was discovered by one Italian, and its mainland first reached and
named by another; and in it, over a territory many times the size of
Trajan’s empire, the Spanish, French and Portuguese adventurers
founded, beside the St. Lawrence and the Amazon, along the flanks
of the Andes and in the shadow of the snow-capped volcanoes of
Mexico, from the Rio Grande to the Straits of Magellan,
communities, now flourishing and growing apace, which in speech
and culture, and even as regards one strain in their blood, are the
lineal heirs of the ancient Latin civilization. When we speak of the
disappearance, the passing away, of ancient Babylon or Nineveh,
and of ancient Rome, we are using the same terms to describe
totally different phenomena.
The anthropologist and historian of to-day realize much more
clearly than their predecessors of a couple of generations back how
artificial most great nationalities are, and how loose is the
terminology usually employed to describe them. There is an element
of unconscious and rather pathetic humour in the simplicity of half a
century ago which spoke of the Aryan and the Teuton with
reverential admiration, as if the words denoted, not merely
something definite, but something ethnologically sacred; the writers
having much the same pride and faith in their own and their fellow
countryman’s purity of descent from these imaginary Aryan or
Teutonic ancestors that was felt a few generations earlier by the
various noble families who traced their lineage direct to Odin,
Aeneas, or Noah. Nowadays, of course, all students recognize that
there may not be, and often is not, the slightest connexion between
kinship in blood and kinship in tongue. In America we find three
races, white, red, and black, and three tongues, English, French, and