ELECTRO MAGNETIC FIELDS

(3-0-0)
LECTURE NOTES
B. TECH
(II YEAR – III SEM)
Prepared by:
SUDIPTA MOHANTY., Assistant Professor
Department of Electrical Engineering

Odisha University of Technology and Research,

Bhubaneswar

Techno Campus, P.O.-Mahalaxmi Vihar

Bhubaneswar-751029, Odisha, India
 Electromagnetic Fields (3-0-0)
Prerequisites:
1. Mathematics-I
2. Mathematics-II

Course Outcomes
At the end of the course, students will demonstrate the ability
1. To understand the basic laws of electromagnetism.
2. To obtain the electric and magnetic fields for simple configurations under static conditions.
3. To analyse time-varying electric and magnetic fields.
4. To understand Maxwell's equation in different forms and different media.
5. To understand the propagation of EM waves.

Module 1: (08 Hours)

Co-ordinate systems & Transformation: Cartesian co-ordinates, circular cylindrical coordinates, spherical
coordinates. Vector Calculus: Differential length, Area & Volume, Line, surface and volume Integrals, Del
operator, Gradient of a scalar, Divergence of a vector & Divergence theorem, Curl of a vector & Stoke's theorem,
Laplacian of a scalar.

Module 2: (10 Hours)

Electrostatic Fields: Coulomb's Law, Electric Field Intensity, Electric Fields due to a point, line, surface and
volume charge, Electric Flux Density, Gauss's Law- Maxwell's Equation, Applications of Gauss's Law, Electric
Potential, Relationship between E and V- Maxwell's Equation and Electric Dipole & Flux Lines, Energy Density
in Electrostatic Fields., Current and current density, Ohms Law in Point form, Continuity of current, Boundary
conditions. Electrostatic boundary-value problems: Poisson's and Laplace's Equations, Uniqueness Theorem,
General procedures for solving Poisson's and Laplace's equations, Capacitance.

Module 3: (06 Hours)

Magneto static Fields: Magnetic Field Intensity, Biot-Savart's Law, Ampere's circuit Law-Maxwell Equation,
applications of Ampere's law, Magnetic Flux Density-Maxwell's equations. Maxwell's equation for static fields,
Magnetic Scalar and Vector potentials. Magnetic Boundary Conditions.

Module 4: (10 Hours)

Electromagnetic Field and Wave propagation: Faraday's Law, Transformer & Motional Electromagnetic Forces,
Displacement Current, Maxwell's Equation in Final forms, Time-Harmonic Field. Electromagnetic Wave
Propagation: Wave Propagation in lossy Dielectrics, Plane Waves in loss less Dielectrics, Free space, Good
conductors Power & Poynting vector.

TEXTBOOKS:

1. Matthew N. O. Sadiku, Principles of Electromagnetics, 6th Ed., Oxford Intl. Student Edition, 2014.

REFERENCE BOOKS:

1. C. R. Paul, K. W. Whites, S. A. Nasor, Introduction to Electromagnetic Fields, 3rd Ed, TMH.

2. W.H. Hyat, Electromagnetic Field Theory, 7 th Ed, TMH.
3. A. Pramanik, "Electromagnetism - Theory and applications", PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi, 2009.
4. A. Pramanik, "Electromagnetism-Problems with solution", Prentice Hall India, 2012.
5. G.W. Carter, "The electromagnetic field in its engineering aspects", Longmans, 1954.
6. W.J. Duffin, "Electricity and Magnetism", McGraw Hill Publication, 1980.
7. W.J. Duffin, "Advanced Electricity and Magnetism", McGraw Hill, 1968.
8. E.G. Cullwick, "The Fundamentals of Electromagnetism", Cambridge University Press, 1966.
9. B. D. Popovic, "Introductory Engineering Electromagnetics", Addison- Wesley Educational Publishers,
International Edition, 1971.
10. W. Hayt, "Engineering Electromagnetics", McGraw Hill Education, 2012.
 MODULE-I

1. Co-ordinate System and Transformation

 Cartesian Co-ordinates
 Circular Cylindrical Co-ordinates
 Spherical Co-ordinates

2. Vector Calculus
 Differential length, Area & volume
 Line, surface and volume Integrals
 Del operator
 Gradient of a scalar
 Divergence of a vector & Divergence theorem
 Curl of a vector & Stoke's theorem
 Laplacian of a scalar
Chapter-1

Co-ordinate System and Transformation

1.1 Introduction

Electromagnetic is a branch of physics or electrical engineering which is

used to study the electric and magnetic phenomena. The electric and magnetic
fields are closely related to each other.
Field is a function that specifies a quantity everywhere in a region or space.
If the field produced is due to magnetic effects, it is called magnetic field.
Similarly, the field produced by an electric charge is called an electric field.
Moving charges produce a current and current-carrying conductor produces a
magnetic field. In such a case, electric and magnetic fields are related to each
other. Such a field is called the electromagnetic field.
Various applications of the electromagnetic field are:
 Electrical machines
 Radiofrequency communication
 Microwave engineering
 Sattelite communication
 Radar technology
 Antenna technology
 Nuclear research
 Fiber optics
 Elctromagnetic Interference etc.
The vector analysis is a mathematical shorthand tool with which
electromagnetic concepts can be most conviniently expressed.

1.2 Scalar and Vector

Various quantities involved in the study of electromagnetics can be

classified as
1. Scalar and 2. Vector
1.2.1 Scalar
A scalar is a quantity which is characterized by its magnitude. The various
examples of scalar quantity are temperature, mass, volume, density, speed, elctric
charge etc.
1.2.2 Vector
A vector is a quantity that is characterized by both its magnitude and
direction. The various examples of vector quantity are force, electricity,
displacement, electric field intensity, magnetic field intensity, acceleration, etc.
1.3 Co-ordinate System

The physical quantities, we shall be dealing with in the electromagnetic field

are functions of space and time. To describe the spatial variations of these
quantities, require an appropriate coordinate system which may be orthogonal or
non-orthogonal.
An orthogonal system is one in which the co-ordinates are mutually
perpendicular. For example
 Cartesian or Rectangular Co-ordinate System
 Circular Cylindrical Co-ordinate System
 Spherical Co-ordinate System etc.
A hard problem in one co-ordinate system may turn out to be easy in another
system. Hence we will study transformation of co-ordinate system.
Non-orthogonal systems are hard to work with and they are of little or no
practical use. Let us discuss orthogonal systems in detail.

1.4 Rectangular or Cartesian Co-ordinate System

The most common and often preferred coordinate system is defined by the
intersection of three mutually perpendicular planes as shown in Figure 1-4a.
Lines parallel to the lines of intersection between planes define the coordinate
axes (x, y, z), where the x axis lies perpendicular to the plane of constant x or yz-
plane, the y axis is perpendicular to the plane of constant y or xz-plane, and the z
axis is perpendicular to the plane of constant z or xy-plane. Once an origin is
selected with coordinate (0, 0, 0), any other point in the plane is found by
specifying its x-directed, y-directed, and z-directed distances from this origin as
shown for the coordinate points located in Figure 1-4b.
By convention, a right-handed coordinate system is always used whereby one
curls the fingers of his or her right hand in the direction from x to y so that the
forefinger is in the x direction and the middle finger is in the y direction. The
thumb then points in the z direction. This convention is necessary to remove
directional ambiguities in theorems to be derived later.
Coordinate directions are represented by unit vectors ax, ay, and az, each of
which has a unit length and points in the direction along one of the coordinate
axes. Rectangular coordinates are often the simplest to use because the unit
vectors always point in the same direction and do not change direction from point
to point.
A rectangular differential volume is formed when one moves from a point (x,
y, z) by an incremental distance dx, dy, and dz in each of the three coordinate
directions as shown in Figure 1-4c. To distinguish surface elements, we subscript
the area element of each face with the coordinate perpendicular to the surface.

(a) (b)

(c)
1.4.1 Position and Distance Vector
Consider a point P (x1, y1, z1) in the
Cartesian coordinate system. Then the position
vector of point P is the distance of point P from
the origin, directed from origin to point P. This is
also called the radius vector as shown in figure
1.4.1.
Thus the position vector of point P can be
represented as,
𝑟⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑃 = 𝑥1 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑥 + 𝑦1 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎𝑧 …… (1)
𝑎𝑦 + 𝑧1 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
The magnitude of this vector in terms of three mutually perpendicular
components is given by
𝑂𝑃 | = √(𝑥1 ) + (𝑦1 ) + (𝑧1 ) ……. (2)
|𝑟⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 2 2 2

Thus if point P has co-ordinates (1, 2, 3) then its position vector is,
𝑟⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑃 = 1𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑥 + 2𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑦 + 3𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑧 and
|𝑟⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 2 2 2
𝑂𝑃 | = √(1) + (2) + (3) = 3.7416

Now consider the two points in a Cartesian

coordinate system, P and Q with the coordinates
(x1, y1, z1) and (x2, y2, z2) respectively. The
points are shown in Fig. 1.4.2. The individual
position vectors of the points are,
𝑃⃗ = 𝑥1 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑦1 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑦 + 𝑧1 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑧
⃗ = 𝑥2 𝑎
𝑄 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑥 + 𝑦2 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑦 + 𝑧2 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑧
Then the distance or the displacement from P to Q is represented by a
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ and is given by,
distance vector 𝑃𝑄
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑄
𝑃𝑄 ⃗ − 𝑃⃗ = (𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑥 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )𝑎 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑧 ….. (3)
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑦 + (𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )𝑎
This is also called separation vector.
The magnitude of this vector is given by,
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = √(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2 + (𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )2 …… (4)
|𝑃𝑄
Unit vector along the direction PQ as
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
PQ
aPQ = unit vector along PQ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ……. (5)
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
|PQ|
1.5 Circular Cylindrical Co-ordinate System

The circular cylindrical co-ordinate system is the three dimensional polar co-
ordinate system. The surfaces used to define the cylindrical co-ordinate system
are
1. Plane of constant z which is parallel to xy plane.
2. A cylinder of radius ρ with z-axis as the axis of the cylinder.
3. A half-plane perpendicular to xy-plane and at an angle ϕ with respect to
xz-plane. The angle ϕ is called the azimuthal angle.
The range of the variables are,
0 ≤ 𝜌 < ∞ …… (1)
0 ≤ ∅ < 2𝜋 …… (2)
−∞ < 𝑧 < ∞…… (3)
 The point P in cylindrical co-ordinate system has three co-ordinates ρ, ϕ, and
z whose values lie in the respective ranges given by the equations (1), (2), and
(3). The point P (ρ, ϕ, z) can be shown as in Fig. 1.5.1

Fig.1.5.1 Cylindrical Co-ordinate System

Key points: Note that angle ϕ is expressed in radians and for ϕ, anticlockwise
measurement is treated positive while clockwise measurement is treated negative.
The point P can be defined as the intersection of three surfaces in
cylindrical co-ordinate system. These three surfaces are,
ρ = Constant which is a circular cylinder with z-axis as its axis
ϕ = Constant plane which is a vertical plane perpendicular to xy plane
making angle ϕ with respect to xz-plane
z = Constant plane is a plane parallel to xy plane.
These surfaces are shown in Fig.1.5.2
 Similar to the Cartesian coordinate system, there are three unit vectors in
the ρ, ϕ and z directions denoted as ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎𝜌 , ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜙 and ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑧 . These are mutually
perpendicular to each other.
The ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜌 lies in a plane parallel to the xy-plane and is perpendicular to the
surface of the cylinder at a given point, coming radially outward.
The unit vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜙 lies also in a plane parallel to the xy-plane but it is
tangent to the cylinder and pointing in a direction of increasing ϕ, at the given
point.
The unit vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑧 is parallel to the z-axis and directed towards increasing
z.
Hence vector of point P in Fig. 1.5.1 can be represented as,
𝑃⃗ = 𝑃𝜌 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜌 + 𝑃𝜙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜙 + 𝑃𝑧 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎𝑧 ……. (4)
Where 𝑃𝜌 is radius, 𝑃𝜙 is angle ϕ and 𝑃𝑧 is z-co-ordinate of point P in the
cylinder.

1.5.1 Relationship between Cartesian and Cylindrical Coordinate System

Consider a point P whose Cartesian

coordinates are x, y, z while the cylindrical
co-ordinates are ρ, ϕ, and z, as shown in Fig.
1.5.3.
Looking at the xy-plane the
transformation from cylindrical to cartesian
co-ordinate can be obtained from the
equations,
𝑥 = 𝜌 cos ∅, 𝑦 = 𝜌 sin ∅ , 𝑧 = 𝑧 …… (5)

Thus transformation from cartesian to cylindrical can be obtained from the

equations,
𝑦
𝜌 = √(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 ), ∅ = tan−1 , 𝑧 = 𝑧 ………. (6)
𝑥
Key Points: While using equations (6) note that ρ is positive or zero, hence the
positive sign of square root must be considered. While calculating ϕ make sure
the signs of x and y. If both are positive, ϕ is positive in the first quadrant. If x is
negative and y is positive then the point is in the second quadrant, hence ϕ must
be within +900 and +1800 i.e. within -1800 and 2700. Thus for x = -2 and y =1 we
1
get ∅ = tan−1 [ ] = −26.560 but it should be taken as -26.560+1800 i.e.
−2
154.43 . Hence when x is negative it is necessary to add 180 0 to the ϕ calculated
0

using the tan-1 function, to obtain accurate ϕ corresponding to the point.

 When y is negative and x is positive then ϕ is in fourth quadrant i.e. within
0 and -900 i.e. 2700 and 3600. Similarly, when x and y, both are negative, the
0

point is in the third quadrant, and accordingly, ϕ must be between -900 to -1800
i.e. +1800 and +2700. So 1800 must be subtracted from the ϕ calculated by tan-1
function, to get accurate ϕ when both x and y are negative. Thus if x = y = -3 then
ϕ = tan-1[-3/-3] = 450 but actually it is 450 – 1800 = -1350 i.e. -1350+3600 = +2250.

1.6 Spherical Coordinate System

The surfaces which are used to define the spherical coordinate system on the
three Cartesian axes are,
1. Sphere of radius r, origin as the center of the sphere.
2. A right circular cone with its apex at the origin and its axis as the z-
axis. Its half-angle is θ and called a colatitude angle. It rotates about
the z-axis and θ varies from 0 to 1800.
3. A half-plane perpendicular to xy plane containing z-axis, making an
angle ϕ with xz plane.
Thus the three coordinates of a point P in the spherical coordinate system
are (r, θ, ϕ). The surfaces are shown in the Fig.1.6.1.

The ranges of the variables are,

0 ≤ 𝑟 < ∞ …… (1)
0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 𝜋 ….. (2)
0 ≤ ∅ < 2𝜋 …… (3)
 Similar to other two co-ordinate systems,
there are three unit vectors in the r, θ and ϕ
directions denoted as ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑟 , ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜃 and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜙 . These
unit vectors are mutually perpendicular to
each other and are shown in Fig. 1.6.2.
The unit vector 𝑎𝑟 is directed from the
centre of the sphere which is the origin to the
given point P. It is directed radially outward,
normal to the sphere. It lies in the cone θ =
constant and plane ϕ = constant.

Fig.1.6.2 Spherical Co-ordinate System

The unit vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜃 is tangent to the sphere and oriented in the direction of
increasing θ. It is normal to the conical surface.
The third unit vector 𝑎 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝜙 is tangent to the sphere and also tangent to the
conical surface. It is oriented in the direction of increasing ϕ and same as defined
in the cylindrical co-ordinate system.
Hence vector of point P can be represented as
𝑃⃗ = 𝑃𝑟 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑟 + 𝑃𝜃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎𝜙 ….. (4)
𝑎𝜃 + 𝑃𝜙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Where 𝑃𝑟 is the radius r and Pθ and Pϕ are the two angle components of
point P.

1.6.1 Relationship between Cartesian and Spherical Co-ordinate System

Consider a point P whose Cartesian co-ordinates are x, y, z while the

spherical co-ordinates are r, θ and ϕ, as shown in Fig. 1.6.3.
Looking at the xy-plane, the transformation from spherical to Cartesian can
be obtained from the equations,
 x = rsinθ cos ∅ , y = r sin θsin∅ and z = rcosθ …… (5)
Now r can be expressed as,
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 = 𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 ∅ + 𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛2 ∅ + 𝑟 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃
= 𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃[𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 ∅ + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 ∅] + 𝑟 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃
= 𝑟 2 [𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃] = 𝑟 2
𝑟 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2
y 𝑧
While tan ϕ = and cos 𝜃 =
x 𝑟
As r is known, θ can be obtained.
Thus the transformation from cartesian to spherical co-ordinate system can
be obtained from the equations,
𝑧 𝑦
𝑟 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 , 𝜃 = cos −1 [ ] 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∅ = tan−1 𝑥 ……. (6)
√𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 +𝑧 2

Key Points: While using above formulae, care must be taken to place the angle
θ and ϕ in correct quadrants according to the signs of x, y and z.
1.7 Vector Multiplication
Consider two vectors 𝐴 and 𝐵 ⃗ . There are two types of products existing
depending on the result of the multiplication. These two types of products are,
1. Scalar or Dot product
2. Vector or Cross product
Let us discuss the characteristics of these two products.
1.7.1 Scalar or Dot product

The scalar or dot product of two vectors 𝐴

⃗ is denoted as 𝐴 . 𝐵
and 𝐵 ⃗ and defined as the
product of the magnitude of A and magnitude
of B and the cosine of the smaller angle
between them.
⃗ = |𝐴||𝐵
𝐴.𝐵 ⃗ | cos 𝜃𝐴𝐵 ……. (1)

The result of dot product is scalar hence it is also called as scalar product.
1.7.2 Properties of Scalar or Dot product
1. If the two vectors are parallel to each other i.e. θ = 00 then cos 𝜃𝐴𝐵 = 1 thus
⃗ = |𝐴||𝐵
𝐴.𝐵 ⃗ |…… (2)

2. If the two vectors are perpendicular to each other i.e. θ = 900 then cos 𝜃𝐴𝐵 =
⃗ = 0 ……. (3)
0 thus 𝐴 . 𝐵
 3. The dot product obeys commutative law, 𝐴 . 𝐵 ⃗=𝐵⃗ . 𝐴 …… (4)
4. The dot product obeys distributive law, 𝐴 . (𝐵 ⃗ + 𝐶 )= 𝐴 . 𝐵
⃗ +𝐴 . 𝐶 …. (5)
5. If the dot product of a vector with itself is performed, the result is square of
the magnitude of that vector.
2
𝐴 . 𝐴 = |𝐴||𝐴|cos00= |𝐴| … … . (6)
6. Dot product of different unit vectors is zero.
𝑎𝑥 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎𝑦 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑦 . 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑥 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑥 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑧 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑧 . 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑥 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑦 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑧 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎𝑦 = 𝑜 …… (7)
𝑎𝑧 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
7. Any unit vector dotted with itself is unity
𝑎⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑥 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑥 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑦 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑦 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎𝑧 = 1…… (8)
𝑎𝑧 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
8. Consider two vectors in cartesian co-ordinate system,
𝐴.𝐵⃗ = (𝐴𝑥 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑎𝑧 ). (𝐵𝑥 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎𝑦 + 𝐵𝑧 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑧 )
= 𝐴𝑥 . 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦 . 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧 . 𝐵𝑧 ………… (9)
1.7.3 Applications of Scalar or Dot product
The applications of dot product are,
1. Two determine the angle between two vectors.
The angle can be determined as,
𝐴.𝐵⃗
𝜃 = cos −1 { ⃗|
} …………. (10)
|𝐴||𝐵
2. To find the component of a vector in a given direction.

The scalar projection of P on Q is given by

𝑃⃗.𝑄
⃗ ⃗
𝑄
PQ =|𝑃⃗| cos 𝜃 = |𝑃⃗| ⃗ ⃗|
= 𝑃⃗. ⃗|
= 𝑃⃗. ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑄 ….. (11)
|𝑃||𝑄 |𝑄
⃗
𝑄
As ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑄 = ⃗|
|𝑄
The vector projection of P on Q is given by
⃗
𝑄
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃𝑄 = 𝑃𝑄 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑄 = 𝑃𝑄 ……. (12)
⃗|
|𝑄
1.7.4 Vector or Cross product

Cross product of two vectors 𝐴 and 𝐵 ⃗ is denoted

as 𝐴 x 𝐵 ⃗ and defined as the product of the
magnitudes of 𝐴 and 𝐵 ⃗ and the sine of the smaller
angle between 𝐴 and 𝐵 ⃗ . But this product is a
vector quantity ad has direction perpendicular to
the plane containing the two vectors 𝐴 and 𝐵 ⃗ . The
direction of the cross product is along the
perpendicular direction to the plane which is in the direction of advancement of
right hand screw when 𝐴 is turned into 𝐵 ⃗.
Mathematically the cross product is expressed as,
⃗ = |𝐴||𝐵
𝐴×𝐵 ⃗ | sin 𝜃𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑁 …….. (13)

Where ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗ in the

𝑎𝑁 = Unit vector perpendicular to the plane of 𝐴 and 𝐵
direction decided by the right hand screw rule.
1.7.5 Properties of Vector or Cross product
The various properties of cross product are,
1. The commutative law is not applicable.
⃗ ≠𝐵
𝐴×𝐵 ⃗ × 𝐴 …… (14)
 But ⃗ × 𝐴 =−[𝐴 × 𝐵
𝐵 ⃗ ]……. (15) because unit vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑁 reverses
its direction.
2. The cross product is not associative.
𝐴 × (𝐵 ⃗ × 𝐶 ) ≠ (𝐴 × 𝐵
⃗ ) × 𝐶 ……. (16)

3. With respect to addition cross product is distributive. Thus

𝐴 × (𝐵⃗ + 𝐶) = 𝐴 × 𝐵 ⃗ + 𝐴 × 𝐶 ……. (17)
4. If the two vectors are parallel to each other i.e. θ = 00 then sin 𝜃𝐴𝐵 = 0 thus
𝐴×𝐵 ⃗ = 0 …… (18)
5. If the cross product of a vector with itself is performed, the result is zero.
𝐴 × 𝐴 = |𝐴||𝐴|sin00= 0 …….. (19)
6. Cross product of unit vectors:
𝑎𝑥 × ⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎𝑧 …… (20)
𝑎𝑦 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑦 × ⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎𝑥 …… (21)
𝑎𝑧 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑧 × ⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎𝑦 …… (22)
𝑎𝑥 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
But if the order of unit vectors is reversed, the result is negative of
the remaining third unit vector. Thus,
𝑎𝑦 × ⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎𝑥 = −𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑧 , ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑧 × ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑦 = −𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑥 , ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑥 × ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑦 …… (23)
𝑎𝑧 = −𝑎
7. Any unit vector cross product with itself is zero
𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑥 × ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑥 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑦 × ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑎𝑦 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎𝑧 = 0…… (24)
𝑎𝑧 × ⃗⃗⃗⃗
8. Cross product is determinant form.
⃗ are in Cartesian co-ordinate system.
If 𝐴 and 𝐵
𝑎⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑥 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑦 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑎𝑧
𝐴×𝐵 ⃗ = |𝐴𝑥 𝐴𝑦 𝐴𝑧 |……… (25)
𝐵𝑥 𝐵𝑦 𝐵𝑧
⃗ are in Cylindrical co-ordinate system.
If 𝐴 and 𝐵
𝑎𝜌 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎𝜙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎𝑧
𝐴×𝐵 ⃗ = |𝐴𝜌 𝐴𝜙 𝐴𝑧 |……… (26)
𝐵𝜌 𝐵𝜙 𝐵𝑧
⃗ are in Spherical co-ordinate system.
If 𝐴 and 𝐵
𝑎𝑟 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎𝜃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑎𝜙
𝐴×𝐵 ⃗ = |𝐴𝑟 𝐴𝜃 𝐴𝜙 |……… (27)
𝐵𝑟 𝐵𝜃 𝐵𝜙
1.7.6 Product of three vectors
Let 𝐴, 𝐵 ⃗ and 𝐶 are the three given vectors. Then the product of these three
vectors is classified in two ways called,
1. Scalar triple product
𝐴. (𝐵⃗ × 𝐶) = 𝐵 ⃗ . (𝐶 × 𝐴) = 𝐶 . (𝐴 × 𝐵 ⃗ )……. (28)
2. Vector triple product
𝐴 × (𝐵 ⃗ × 𝐶) = 𝐵 ⃗ (𝐴. 𝐶 ) − 𝐶 (𝐴. 𝐵
⃗ )……. (29)
1.8 Transformation of Vectors
Getting familiar with the dot and cross product, it is possible now to
transform the vectors from one coordinate system to other co-ordinate system.
1.8.1 Transformation of vectors from Cartesian to Cylindrical and
Cylindrical to Cartesian

Consider a vector 𝐴 in cartesian co-ordinate system as,

𝐴 = 𝐴𝑥 𝑎⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎𝑧 ……. (1)
𝑎𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
While the same vector in cylindrical co-ordinate system as
𝐴 = 𝐴𝜌 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑎𝜌 + 𝐴𝜙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎𝑧 ……. (2)
𝑎𝜙 + 𝐴𝑧 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
The result of transformation from cartesian to cylindrical can be
expressed in matrix form as
𝐴𝜌 cos 𝜙 sin 𝜙 0 𝐴𝑥
[𝐴𝜙 ] = [− sin 𝜙 cos 𝜙 0] [𝐴𝑦 ]…….. (3)
𝐴𝑧 0 0 1 𝐴𝑧
Similarly, the result of transformation from cylindrical to cartesian can be
expressed in matrix form as
𝐴𝑥 cos 𝜙 −sin 𝜙 0 𝐴𝜌
[𝐴𝑦 ] = [ sin 𝜙 cos 𝜙 0] [𝐴𝜙 ]…….. (4)
𝐴𝑧 0 0 1 𝐴𝑧
1.8.2 Transformation of vectors from Cartesian to Spherical and Spherical
to Cartesian

Consider a vector 𝐴 in cartesian co-ordinate system as,

𝐴 = 𝐴𝑥 𝑎⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎𝑧 ……. (5)
𝑎𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
While the same vector in Spherical co-ordinate system as
𝐴 = 𝐴𝑟 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑎𝑟 + 𝐴𝜃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝜙 ……. (6)
𝑎𝜃 + 𝐴𝜙 𝑎
 The result of transformation from cartesian to cylindrical can be
expressed in matrix form as

𝐴𝑟 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜙 sin 𝜃 sin 𝜙 cos 𝜃 𝐴𝑥

[ 𝐴𝜃 ] = [cos 𝜃 cos 𝜙 cos 𝜃 sin 𝜙 − sin 𝜃] [𝐴𝑦 ]…… (7)
𝐴𝜙 − sin 𝜙 cos 𝜙 0 𝐴𝑧

Similarly, the result of transformation from cylindrical to cartesian can be

expressed in matrix form as

𝐴𝑥 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜙 cos 𝜃 cos 𝜙 − sin 𝜙 𝐴𝑟

[𝐴𝑦 ] = [ sin 𝜃 sin 𝜙 cos 𝜃 sin 𝜙 cos 𝜙 ] [ 𝐴𝜃 ]…… (8)
𝐴𝑧 cos 𝜃 − sin 𝜃 0 𝐴𝜙
1.8.3 Distances in all co-ordinate system
Consider two points A and B with the position vectors as,
𝐴 = 𝑥1 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑥 + 𝑦1 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑦 + 𝑧1 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗ = 𝑥2 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑧 and 𝐵 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑦2 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑦 + 𝑧2 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑧 then the distance d
between the two points in all the three co-ordinate systems are given by,
𝑑 = √(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2 + (𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )2 ……Cartesian
𝑑 = √(𝑟2 )2 + (𝑟1 )2 − 2𝑟1 𝑟2 cos(∅2 − ∅1 ) + (𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )2 ……Cylindrical
𝑑 = √(𝑟2 )2 + (𝑟1 )2 − 2𝑟1 𝑟2 cos 𝜃2 cos 𝜃1 − 2𝑟1 𝑟2 sin 𝜃2 sin 𝜃1 𝑐𝑜𝑠(∅2 − ∅1 )
……Spherical
Chapter-2

Vector Calculus
2.1 Introduction

Vector calculus concern differential and integral operations involving

vector functions. Electromagnetic fields are functions of position in space as well
as time. So in Electromagnetic fields, we will be often required to perform line,
surface and volume integrations. The evaluation of these integral requires
knowledge of length, surface, volume.

2.2 Differential Elements in Cartesian Co-ordinate System

Consider a point P (x, y, z) in rectangular co-ordinate system. Let us

increase each co-ordinate by a differential amount. A new point P’ will be
obtained having co-ordinates (x+dx, y+dy, z+dz).
Thus, dx = Differential length in x-direction
dy = Differential length in y-direction
dz = Differential length in z-direction
Hence differential vector length also called elementary vector length can
be represented as,
⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 = 𝑑𝑥𝑎⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦𝑎 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑧 ……. (1)
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑦 + 𝑑𝑧𝑎
The distance P’ from P is given by magnitude of the differential vector length,
⃗⃗⃗ | = √(𝑑𝑥)2 + (𝑑𝑦)2 + (𝑑𝑧)2 ……. (2)
|𝑑𝑙
Hence the differential volume of the rectangular parallelepiped is given
by,
𝑑𝑣 = 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧……. (3)
⃗⃗⃗ is a vector but dv is a scalar.
Note that 𝑑𝑙
The differential surface area element 𝑑𝑆 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ is represented as,
⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑑𝑆𝑎
𝑑𝑆 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑛 …… (4)
Where dS = the differential surface area of the element
𝑎𝑛 = unit vector normal to surface dS
⃗⃗⃗⃗

Thus various differential surface elements in cartesian co-ordinate system

are shown in Fig. 2.2.2.
The vector representation of these elements are given as,
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑆𝑥 = Differential vector surface area normal to x-direction =dydz𝑎 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑥 ….. (5)
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑆𝑦 = Differential vector surface area normal to y-direction =dxdz𝑎 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑦 ….. (6)
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑧 = Differential vector surface area normal to z-direction =dxdy𝑎
𝑑𝑆 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑧 ….. (7)

2.3 Differential Elements in Cylindrical Co-ordinate System

Consider a point P (ρ, ϕ, z) in cylindrical co-ordinate system. Let us
increase each co-ordinate by a differential amount. A new point P’ will be
obtained having co-ordinates (ρ+dρ, ϕ+dϕ, z+dz).
Thus, dρ = Differential length in ρ-direction
ρdϕ = Differential length in ϕ-direction
dz = Differential length in z-direction
 Hence differential vector length also called elementary vector length can
be represented as,
⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 = 𝑑𝜌𝑎 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝜌 + 𝜌𝑑𝜙𝑎 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑧 ……. (1)
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝜙 + 𝑑𝑧𝑎
The magnitude of the differential vector length,
⃗⃗⃗ | = √(𝑑𝜌)2 + (𝜌𝑑𝜙)2 + (𝑑𝑧)2 ……. (2)
|𝑑𝑙
Hence the differential volume of the rectangular parallelepiped is given
by,
𝑑𝑣 = 𝜌𝑑𝜌𝑑𝜙𝑑𝑧……. (3)
Note that ⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 is a vector but dv is a scalar.
The differential surface areas in three directions are shown in Fig. 2.3.2

.
The vector representation of these differential elements are given as,
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑆𝜌 = Differential vector surface area normal to ρ-direction =ρdϕdz𝑎 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝜌 ….. (4)
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑆𝜙 = Differential vector surface area normal to ϕ-direction =dρdz𝑎 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝜙 ….. (5)
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑧 = Differential vector surface area normal to z-direction =ρdρdϕ𝑎
𝑑𝑆 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑧 ….. (6)
2.4 Differential Elements in Spherical Co-ordinate System

Consider a point P (r, θ, ϕ) in spherical co-ordinate system. Let us increase

each co-ordinate by a differential amount. A new point P’ will be obtained having
co-ordinates (r+dr, θ+dθ, ϕ+dϕ).
Thus, dr = Differential length in r-direction
rdθ = Differential length in θ-direction
rsinθdϕ = Differential length in ϕ-direction
Hence differential vector length also called elementary vector length can
be represented as,
⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑑𝑟𝑎
𝑑𝑙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑟 + 𝑟𝑑𝜃𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝜃 + 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜙𝑎⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝜙 ……. (1)
The magnitude of the differential vector length,
⃗⃗⃗ | = √(𝑑𝑟)2 + (𝑟𝑑𝜃)2 + (𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜙)2 ……. (2)
|𝑑𝑙
Hence the differential volume of the rectangular parallelepiped is given
by,
𝑑𝑣 = 𝑟 2 sin 𝜃𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜃𝑑∅ …… (3)
The differential surface areas in three directions are shown in Fig. 2.4.2
The vector representation of these differential elements are given as,
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑆𝑟 = Differential vector surface area normal to r-direction
=𝑟 2 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃𝑑∅𝑎 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑟 ….. (4)
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑆𝜃 = Differential vector surface area normal to θ-direction
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝜃 ….. (5)
= r sinθ dr dϕ𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑆𝜙 = Differential vector surface area normal to ϕ-direction =r dr dθ𝑎 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝜙 ….. (6)
2.5 Types of Integral Related to Electromagnetic Theory
In electromagnetic theory a charge can exist in point form, line form,
surface form or volume form. Hence while dealing with the analysis of such
charge distributions, the various types of integrals are required. These types are,
1. Line Integral
2. Surface Integral
3. Volume Integral
2.5.1 Line Integral

The line integral is the integral of the tangential

component of a vector field 𝐹 along the curved path
L in space is given as
𝑟
∫𝐿 𝐹 . ⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 = ∫𝑝 |𝐹 | 𝑑𝑙 cos 𝜃…. (1)
….. using definition of dot product
Where dl = Elementary length

This is called line integral of 𝐹 around the closed path L. If the path of
integration is a closed path or contour such as p-q-r-s-p, the corresponding
integral is called contour integral or closed integral or circular integral and
mathematically defined as,
∮𝐿 𝐹 . ⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 = circular integral …... (2)
The integral represents circulation of the vector field ⃗𝑭 around the
closed path L.

If there exist a charge along a line as shown in

Fig. 2.5.2, then the total charge is obtained by
calculating the line integral,
⃗⃗⃗ ……. (3)
Q = ∫𝐿 𝜌𝐿 . 𝑑𝑙
Where 𝜌𝐿 = line charge density i.e. charge per
unit length (C/m)
 ⃗⃗⃗ direction is assumed to be always
Key Point: In evaluating line integration, the 𝑑𝑙
positive and limits of integration decide the sign of the integral.

2.5.2 Surface Integral

Let’s a vector field 𝐹 , continuous in a region containing the smooth

surface S. We define the surface integral or the flux of 𝐹 through S as ,
⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ∫ |𝐹 | cos 𝜃 𝑑𝑠 = ∫ 𝐹 . 𝑎
𝛹 = ∫𝑆 𝐹 . 𝑑𝑠 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑛 𝑑𝑠 ……. (4)
𝑆 𝑆
Where ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑛 = unit vector normal to the surface S
If the surface is closed, then it defines a volume and corresponding surface
integral is given by,
⃗⃗⃗⃗ …… (5)
𝛹 = ∮𝑆 𝐹 . 𝑑𝑠
This represents the net outward flux of vector field 𝐹 from surface S.
Key Points:
1. The closed surface defines a volume.
2. The surface integral involves the double integration procedure
mathematically.
For a charge distribution shown in Fig. 2.5.3 (a), we can write for the total
charge existing on the surface as,
⃗⃗⃗⃗ …… (6)
Q = ∫𝑠 𝜌𝑠 . 𝑑𝑠
Where 𝜌𝑠 = surface charge density in C/m2
ds = elementary surface
2.5.3 Volume Integral

If the charge distribution exists in a three dimensional volume form as

shown in Fig. 2.5.4 then a volume integral is required to calculate the total charge.
 Thus if ρv is the volume
charge density over a volume v then the
volume integral is defined as
Q = ∫𝑣 𝜌𝑣 𝑑𝑣 …… (7)
Where dv= elementary volume
𝜌𝑣 = volume charge density in C/m3
2.6 Del Operator
The del operator (∇) is a vector differential operator also known as
gradient operator and is not a vector in itself. In Cartesian co-ordinates,
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
∇= 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑥 + 𝑎𝑦 +
⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎𝑧 ……. (1)
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
The operator is useful in defining
1. The gradient of a scalar V, written as ∇𝑉
2. The divergence of a vector 𝐴, written as ∇. 𝐴
3. The curl of a vector 𝐴, written as ∇ × 𝐴
4. The Laplacian of a scalar V, written as ∇2 𝑉
In cylindrical co-ordinates as,
𝜕 1 𝜕 𝜕
∇= 𝑎𝜌 +
⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎𝜙 +
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎𝑧 ……. (2)
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝜕𝜌 𝜌 𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝑧
And in spherical co-ordinates as,
𝜕 1 𝜕 1 𝜕
∇= 𝑎𝑟 +
⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎𝜃 +
⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎𝜙 ……. (3)
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝜕𝜙
2.7 Gradient of a Scalar
The gradient of a scalar field V is a
vector that represents both the magnitude and
direction of the maximum space rate of
increase of V.
Mathematical expression for the
gradient can be obtained by evaluating the
difference in the field dV between points P
and Q, where V1, V2 are contours on which V
is constant.
Increase of scalar field V,
𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
𝑑𝑉 = 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
= ( ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑎𝑦 +
⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎 ) . (𝑑𝑥𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑦 + 𝑑𝑧𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑧 )
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝑧
𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
Let, 𝐺 = ( 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑥 + 𝑎𝑦 +
⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎𝑧 ) …… (1)
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
 Then, ⃗⃗⃗ = 𝐺𝑑𝑙𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑑𝑉 = 𝐺 . 𝑑𝑙
𝑑𝑉
𝑎𝑙 …… (2)
= 𝐺 cos 𝜃 = 𝐺 . ⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙
𝑑𝑉
Where is the directional derivative along the direction ⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑙
𝑑𝑙
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙
⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ i.e. ⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑙 is an unit vector along 𝑑𝑙 𝑎𝑙 =
𝑑𝑙
⃗⃗⃗ is the differential displacement from P to Q
𝑑𝑙
θ is the angle between 𝐺 and ⃗⃗⃗𝑑𝑙
𝑑𝑉
is maximum when θ = 00 i.e. ⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑙 is in the direction of 𝐺 or distance dl
𝑑𝑙
from P to Q must be minimum or ⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑙 is normal to the surface.
𝑑𝑣
Hence | = 𝐺 cos 00 = 𝐺……… (3)
𝑑𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑥
Thus 𝐺 has its magnitude and direction as those of maximum rate of change
of V. Therefore, for cartesian co-ordinate system,
𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑉 = ∇𝑉 = 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑥 + 𝑎𝑦 +
⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎𝑧 ……. (4)
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
For cylindrical co-ordinate system,
𝜕𝑉 1 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑉 = ∇𝑉 = 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝜙 + 𝑎𝑧 ……. (5)
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝜕𝜌 𝜌 𝜌 𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝑧
For spherical co-ordinate system,
𝜕𝑉 1 𝜕𝑉 1 𝜕𝑉
𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑉 = ∇𝑉 = 𝑎𝑟 +
⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎𝜃 +
⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝜙 ……. (6)
𝑎
𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝜕𝜙
Key Point: Gradient of scalar is a vector.

2.7.1 Properties of Gradient of a Scalar

The various properties of a gradient of a scalar field V are,
1. The gradient ∇𝑉 gives the maximum rate of change of V per unit distance.
2. The gradient ∇𝑉 always indicates the direction of the maximum rate of
change of V.
3. The gradient ∇𝑉 at any point is perpendicular to the constant V surface,
which passes through the point.
4. The directional derivative of V along the unit vector ⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑙 is 𝑉. ⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑙 which is
projection of ∇𝑉 in the direction of unit vector ⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑙 .
5. ∇(𝑉 + 𝑈) = ∇𝑉 + ∇𝑈 where U is another scalar field
6. ∇(𝑉𝑈) = 𝑉∇𝑈 + 𝑈∇𝑉
𝑉 𝑈∇𝑉−𝑉∇𝑈
7. ∇ ( ) =
𝑈 𝑈2
𝑛 𝑛−1
8. ∇𝑉 = 𝑛𝑉 ∇𝑉
Example: Given 𝑊 = 𝑥 2 𝑦 2 + 𝑥𝑦𝑧, compute ∇𝑊 and the directional derivative
𝑑𝑊
in the direction 3𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑥 + 4𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑦 + 12𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑧 at (2, -1, 0).
𝑑𝑙
𝜕𝑊 𝜕𝑊 𝜕𝑊
Ans: 𝑊 = 𝑥 2 𝑦 2 + 𝑥𝑦𝑧, ∇𝑊 = 𝑎𝑥 +
⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎𝑦 +
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
2 2
=(2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦𝑧)𝑎 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑥 + (2𝑥 𝑦 + 𝑥𝑧)𝑎 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑦 + 𝑥𝑦𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑧
At (2, -1, 0), ∇𝑊 = 4𝑎⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑥 − 8𝑎⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑦 − 2𝑎⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑧
𝑑𝑊 3𝑎 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑥 + 4𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑦 + 12𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑧 12 − 32 − 24
= ∇𝑊. ⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑙 = (4𝑎⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑥 − 8𝑎⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑦 − 2𝑎 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑧 ). =
𝑑𝑙 √32 + 42 + 122 13
44
=−
13
2.8 Divergence of a Vector
As we know, the net outflow of the flux of a vector field 𝐴 from a closed
surface S is obtained as ∮ 𝐴. 𝑑𝑆⃗⃗⃗⃗ . The divergence of 𝐴 as the net outward flow of
flux per unit volume over a closed incremental surface. It is denoted as div 𝐴 and
given by,
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∮ 𝐴.𝑑𝑆
𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝐴 = ∇. 𝐴 = lim …… (1)
∆𝑣→0 ∆𝑣
Where ∆𝑣 is the differential volume element

Key Point: Divergence of a vector field 𝐴 at a point, P is the outward flux per
unit volume as the volume shrinks about point P i.e. lim ∆𝑣 → 0 representing
differential volume element at point P.
Symbolically it is denoted as,
∇. 𝐴 = Divergence of 𝐴
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
Where ∇=vector operator = 𝑎𝑥 +
⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎𝑦 +
⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎𝑧
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
But 𝐴 = 𝐴𝑥 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑧
𝜕𝐴𝑥 𝜕𝐴𝑦 𝜕𝐴𝑧
Hence ∇. 𝐴 = + + =div of 𝐴 ….. (2)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
This is the divergence of 𝐴 in cartesian system.
For a cylindrical coordinate system,
1 𝜕(𝜌𝐴𝜌 ) 1 𝜕𝐴𝜙 𝜕𝐴𝑧
∇. 𝐴 = + + =div of 𝐴 ….. (3)
𝜌 𝜕𝜌 𝜌 𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝑧

For the spherical coordinate system,

1 𝜕(𝑟 2 𝐴𝑟 ) 1 𝜕(𝐴𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃) 1 𝜕𝐴𝜙
∇. 𝐴 = + + =div of 𝐴 ….. (4)
𝑟2 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝜕𝜃 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝜕𝜙
Physically divergence at a point indicates how much that vector field
diverges from that point.
Consider a solenoid i.e. electromagnet obtained by winding a coil around
the core. When current passes through it, flux is produced around it. Such a flux
completes a closed path through the solenoid hence solenoidal field does not
diverge. Thus mathematically, the vector field having its divergence zero is
called the solenoidal field. For example, solenoidal fields are velocity field of
an incompressible fluids, magnetic fields, conduction current density under
steady state condition.
Hence ∇. 𝐴=0 for 𝐴 to be solenoidal …….. (5)

2.8.1 Divergence Theorem

It is known that,
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∮𝑆 𝐴.𝑑𝑆
∇. 𝐴 = lim ……… Definition of divergence
∆𝑣→0 ∆𝑣

From the definition of divergence theorem, it can be written that,

⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ∫ (∇. 𝐴)𝑑𝑣 …….. (6)
∮𝑆 𝐴. 𝑑𝑆 𝑣

This equation (6) is known as divergence theorem.

The Divergence theorem states that,
The Integral of the normal component of any vector field over a closed
surface is equal to the integral of the divergence of this vector field throughout
the volume enclosed by that closed surface.
The theorem can be applied to any vector field but partial derivatives of
that vector field must exist. The divergence theorem as applied to the flux density,
both sides of the divergence theorem give the net charge enclosed by the closed
surface i.e. net flux crossing the closed surface.
Key Point: The divergence theorem converts the surface integral into a volume
integral, provided that the closed surface encloses a certain volume. This is
advantageous in electromagnetic theory as volume integrals are more easy to
evaluate than surface integrals.
2.8.2 Properties of Divergence of a Vector
1. It produces a scalar field.
2. The divergence of a scalar V makes no scence.
3. ⃗ ) = ∇. 𝐴 + ∇. 𝐵
∇. (𝐴 + 𝐵 ⃗
4. ∇. (𝑉𝐴) = 𝑉(∇. 𝐴) + 𝐴. (∇𝑉)
2.9 Curl of a Vector
The curl of a vector field 𝐴 is an axial (or rotational) vector at point P
whose magnitude is the maximum circulation of 𝐴 per unit area as the area
tends to zero and whose direction is the normal direction of the area when the
area is oriented so as to make the circulation maximum.
⃗⃗⃗⃗
∮ 𝐴.𝑑𝑙
𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝐴 = ∇ × 𝐴 = lim ( 𝐿 ) 𝑎𝑛 …… (1)
⃗⃗⃗⃗
∆𝑆
∆𝑆→0 𝑚𝑎𝑥
Where ∆𝑆 = area enclosed by the line integral in normal direction
𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑛 = the unit vector normal to the surface ∆𝑆 and is determined
using right hand rule.
Key Point: Curl indicates the rotational property of vector field. If curl of vector
is zero, the vector field is irrotational. For example, electrostatic field and
gravitational field.
In various coordinate systems, the curl of 𝐴 is given by,

𝜕𝐴𝑧 𝜕𝐴𝑦 𝜕𝐴𝑥 𝜕𝐴𝑧 𝜕𝐴𝑦 𝜕𝐴𝑥

∇×𝐴 =[ − ] ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑥 + [ − ] ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑦 + [ − ] ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝑧
𝑎𝑥 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎𝑦 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑧
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
∇×𝐴 =| |……Cartesian…. (2)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝐴𝑥 𝐴𝑦 𝐴𝑧

1 𝜕𝐴𝑧 𝜕𝐴𝜙 𝜕𝐴𝜌 𝜕𝐴𝑧 1 𝜕(𝜌𝐴𝜙 ) 1 𝜕𝐴𝜌

∇×𝐴=[ − ] ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜌 + [ − ] ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜙 + [ − ] ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎
𝜌 𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝜌 𝜌 𝜕𝜌 𝜌 𝜕𝜙 𝑧
𝑎𝜌 𝜌𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝜙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑧
1 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
∇ × 𝐴 = | 𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝑧
|……Cylindrical…. (3)
𝜌
𝐴𝜌 𝜌𝐴𝜙 𝐴𝑧

1 𝜕𝐴𝜙 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝜕𝐴𝜃 1 1 𝜕𝐴𝑟 𝜕(𝑟𝐴𝜙 )

∇×𝐴 = [ − ] ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑟 + [ − ] ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝜃
𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝜙 𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝑟
1 𝜕(𝑟𝐴𝜃 ) 𝜕𝐴𝑟
+ [ − ]𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜙
𝑎𝑟 𝑟𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝜃 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑎 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝜙
1 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
∇×𝐴 = | 𝜕𝑟 |……Spherical…. (4)
𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝜙
𝐴𝑟 𝑟𝐴𝜃 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝐴𝜙
2.9.1 Properties of Curl
1. Curl of a vector field is another vector field.
2. Curl of a scalr field makes no sense.
3. ∇ × (𝐴 + 𝐵 ⃗)=∇×𝐴+∇×𝐵 ⃗
4. ∇ × (𝐴 × 𝐵 ⃗ ) = 𝐴(∇. 𝐵 ⃗)−𝐵 ⃗ (∇. 𝐴) + (𝐵
⃗ . ∇)𝐴 − (𝐴. ∇)𝐵
⃗
5. ∇ × (𝑉𝐴) = 𝑉(∇ × 𝐴) + ∇𝑉 × 𝐴
6. The divergence of curl of a vector field vanishes i.e. ∇. (∇ × 𝐴) = 0
7. The curl of the gradient of a scalar field vanishes i.e. ∇ × (∇𝑉) = 0

2.9.2 Stoke’s Theorem

Stoke’s theorem relates the line integral to surface integral. It states that,
The line integral of 𝐴 around a closed path, L is equal to the integral of the curl
of 𝐴 over the open surface S enclosed by the closed path L.
Mathematically it is expressed as,
⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ∫(∇ × 𝐴). 𝑑𝑆
∮ 𝐴. 𝑑𝐿 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐿 𝑆
Where dL= perimeter of total surface S

Key Point: Stoke’s theorem is applicable only when

𝐴 and ∇ × 𝐴 are continuous on the surface S. The path
L and open surface S enclosed by path L for which
Stoke’s theorem is applicable are shown in Fig. 2.9.1

2.9.3 Proof of Stoke’s Theorem

Consider a surface S which is split into a number of incremental surfaces.
Each incremental surface is having area ∆𝑆 as shown in Fig. 2.9.2.
Applying the definition of curl to any of theses incremental surfaces we can write,
⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗ ) = ∮ 𝐻.𝑑𝑙∆𝑆…… (1)
(∇ × 𝐻 𝑛 ∆𝑆

Where n=normal to ∆𝑆 according to the right-hand rule

⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙∆𝑆 = perimeter of the incremental surface ∆𝑆
Now the curl of 𝐻 ⃗ in the normal direction is the dot product of curl of 𝐻⃗
with ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑛 where 𝑎 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑛 is the unit vector, normal to surface ∆𝑆, according to the right-
hand rule.
(∇ × 𝐻⃗ ) = (∇ × 𝐻 ⃗ ). ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎 𝑛 ……Using equation (1)
𝑛

⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
∮𝐻 ⃗ ). ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙∆𝑆 = (∇ × 𝐻 𝑎 𝑛 ∆𝑆
⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
∮𝐻 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ……. (2)
⃗ ). ∆𝑆
𝑑𝑙∆𝑆 = (∇ × 𝐻

Hence obtain total curl for every incremental surface, add the closed line
integrals for each ∆𝑆. From the Fig.2.9.2, it can be seen that a common boundary
between the two incremental surfaces, the line integral is getting canceled as the
boundary is getting traced in two opposite directions.
This happens to all the interior boundaries. Only at the outside boundary
cancelation does not exist. Hence summation of all closed line integrals for each
and every ∆𝑆 ends up in a single closed line integral to be obtained for the outer
boundary of the total surface S.
Hence the equation (2) becomes,
∮𝐻 ⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐿 = ∫ (∇ × 𝐻 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ …… (3)
⃗ ). 𝑑𝑆
𝐿 𝑆
Where dL = perimeter of the total surface S
Thus line integral can be expressed as a surface integral that proves Stoke’s
theorem.

Key Point: The Stoke’s theorem is applicable for the open surface closed by the
given closed path. Any Volume is a closed surface and hence application of
Stoke’s theorem to a closed surface that encloses certain volume produces zero
answers.
2.10 Laplacian of a Scalar
A single operator which is the composite of gradient and divergence
operator known as the Laplacian of a scalar.
If V is a scalar field, then the Laplacian of a scalar V is denoted as ∇2 𝑉 and
mathematically defined as the divergence of the gradient of V.
In Cartesian coordinate system it is given by,
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
∇2 𝑉 = ∇. ∇V = [ 𝑎 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑥 + 𝑎𝑦 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎𝑧 ] . [ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑎𝑦 +
⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎 ]
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝑧
𝜕2 𝑉 𝜕2 𝑉 𝜕2 𝑉
∇2 𝑉 = 2
+ 2
+ …… (1)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 2
Key Point: The Laplacian of a scalar is always a scalar.
In Cylindrical coordinate system, it is given as,
1 𝜕 𝜕𝑉 1 𝜕2 𝑉 𝜕2 𝑉
∇2 𝑉 = (𝜌 𝜕𝜌 ) + 𝜌2 (𝜕𝜙2 ) + 𝜕𝑧 2 …… (2)
𝜌 𝜕𝜌
In Spherical coordinate system, it is given as,
1 𝜕 𝜕𝑉 1 𝜕 𝜕𝑉 1 𝜕2 𝑉
∇2 𝑉 = (𝑟 2 𝜕𝑟 ) + 𝑟 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝜕𝜃 (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝜕𝜃 ) + 𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 𝜕𝜙2 …… (3)
𝑟 2 𝜕𝑟
Harmonic Field: A scalar field is said to be harmonic in a given region, if
its Laplacian vanishes in that region.
Mathematically for a scalar field V to be harmonic,
∇2 𝑉 = 0….. (4)
This equation is called Laplace’s equation.