1 Interference

1.1 Young’s double slit

Fringe width
Consider sources S1 and S2 emitting monochromatic light of wavelength λ.
The separation between them is d at distance D from the source. The fringes
are of equal width and alternatively bright or dark fringes is called fringe
width β
Consider a point P on the screen at a distance yn from the center of screen
O. The angular position of the P is θ from the center of the sources
P

yn

S1
θ θ
d

S2
The path difference between the waves on arriving at point P , S2 P −S1 P,
which is equal to ∆x. From the figure above ∆x = d sin θ. For small θ, we
can write sin θ ≈ tan θ .Thus

∆x ≈ d tan θ

From the triangle SOP

yn
tan θ =
D
d yn
∆x =
D
(i) Bright fringe
There will be bright fringe at P, when ∆x = nλ. Thus the path differ-
ence
d yn
= nλ
D

1
 Or
nDλ
yn =
d
n=0,1,2,3,... The above equation represent the position of nth bright
fringe. The (n − 1)th fringe will be at a distance
(n − 1)Dλ
yn−1 =
d
Fringe width,
β = yn − yn−1
Dλ
β=
d
Dλ
β= d

(ii) Dark fringe

There will be dark fringe at P when ∆x = (2n − 1) λ2 . Thus

d yn λ
= (2n − 1)
D 2

Or
(2n − 1)Dλ
yn = ; n = 1, 2, 3, ...
2d
Note: Fringe width will still be the same
Note
The maximum path difference ∆ = d where sin θ = 1 . If n are the
number of bright fringes on one side of the central bright, then d =
nλ or n = λd . Thus the total number of fringes that can be obtained on
screen are = 2n + 1, including central fringe

Example White coherent light (4000-7000 Å) is sent through the slits of a
YDSE. The separation between the slits is 0.5mm and screen is 50cm away
from the slits. There is a hole in the screen at a point 1.0mm away (along
the width of the fringe) from the central line
(a) Which wavelength(s) will be absent in the light coming from the hole

(b) Which wavelength(s) will have a strong intensity

2
Solution
P

y = 1mm

S1
θ θ
d=0.5mm

S2 D=50cm

The absent wavelength will correspond to minima at this position order of

minima corresponding to 4000Å

(2n − 1)Dλ
yn = ; n = 1, 2, 3, ...
2d
 
1 2dyn
n= +1
2 Dλ
1 2 × 104
 
n= +1 =3
2 4000
Order of minima corresponding to 7000Å

1 2 × 104
 
n= + 1 = 1.9
2 7000

Number of integers between 1.9 and 3 inclusive are 2 and 3.

Wavelength corresponding to n=2 is;
yn 2d
λ2 = = 0.6667 × 10−6 = 667nm
(2n − 1)
Now wavelength corresponding to 3;
yn 2d
λ3 = = 400nm
(2n − 1)

3
 Hence the wavelength 400nm and 667nm will be absent at the hole.
(b)The wavelengths corresponding to strong intensity will correspond to max-
ima at the position. Order of maxima corresponding to λ
nλD yn d
yn = ⇒n=
d Dλ
n(4000) = 2.5
n(7000) = 1.4
Integers between 1.4 and 2.5 is 2

λ(2) = 500nm

1.1.1 Displacement of fringe

Suppose a transparent sheet of thickness t and refractive index µ is introduced
in front of one of the slits of YDSE. The optical path of the light wave
emerging from slit will increase by an amount (µ − 1)t. In the arrangement
shown the optical path of S1 P becomes S1 +(µ−1)t. Thus the path difference
between the waves at P .
P

t
yn

S1
θ θ
d
∆x
S2

∆x = S2 P − [S1 P + (µ − 1)t]
= (S2 P − S1 P ) − (µ − 1)t
From the geometry of the figure

S2 P − S1 P = d sin θ

4
 yn
For small angle θ,sin θ ≈ tan θ = D

d yn
∆x = + (µ − 1)t
D
For bright fringes the path difference ∆x = nλ Thus
d yn
+ (µ − 1)t = nλ; n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ...
D
nDλ D(µ − 1)t
yn = +
d d
In the absence of the sheet, the position of nth bright fringe, yn = nDλ
d
thus
displacement of fringes
D(µ − 1)t
∆=
d
For the fringe width will still be the same β = Dλ d
And this show that
when a transparent sheet is introduced in path of the slit, the entire fringe
pattern will shift towards that side but fringe width remains the same.
The number of fringes shifted
∆
N=
β

(µ − 1)t
N=
λ
Example; Two transparent sheets of thickness t1 and t2 and the refractive
indexes µ1 and µ2 , are placed in front of the slits. If D is the distance of
screen from the slits, then find the distance of zero order maxima from the
center of the screen. What is the condition that zero order maxima is formed
at the center O?
Solution

Suppose P is the position of zero order maxima. The distance of P from

5
 P

t1
yo

S1 t2
θ θ
d
∆x
the center O of the screen is yo S2
The optical path of light waves from source S1
x1 = S1 P + (µ1 − 1)t1
The optical path of light waves from source S2
x2 = S2 P + (µ2 − 1)t2
The path difference
∆x = x2 − x1
∆x = (S2 P − S1 P ) + (µ2 − 1)t2 − (µ1 − 1)t1
From geometry,
dyo
(S2 P − S1 P ) = d sin θ ≈ d tan θ ≈
D
dyo
∆x = + (µ2 − 1)t2 − (µ1 − 1)t1
D
For zero order maxima, ∆x = 0.
dyo
0= + (µ2 − 1)t2 − (µ1 − 1)t1
D
D [(µ1 − 1)t1 − (µ2 − 1)t2 ]
yo =
d
For zero order maxima at the center O , yo = 0
D [(µ1 − 1)t1 − (µ2 − 1)t2 ]
0=
d
or
(µ1 − 1)t1 = (µ2 − 1)t2

6
1.2 Newton’s rings experiment
Newton’s rings are formed due to interference between the waves reflected
from top and bottom surfaces of the air film enclosed between the lens and
the plate.
From the property of circle, we have

7
 R
r

Air t
Dn = 2rn

rn × rn = t × (2R − t)
rn2 = 2Rt − t2 since t <<< R
rn2 = 2Rt

8
 rn2
∴t=
2R
For bright fringe:
λ
2µt = (2n − 1) ; n = 1, 2, 3, ..
2
rn2 λ
2µ = (2n − 1)
2R 2
(2n − 1)λR
rn2 =
2µ
Dn2 (2n − 1)λR
=
4 2µ
2(2n − 1)λR
Dn2 =
µ
For dark fringe:
2µt = nλ; n = 1, 2, 3, ..
rn2
2µ = nλ
2R
nλR
rn2 =
µ
Dn2 nλR
=
4 µ
4nλR
Dn2 =
µ

1.2.1 Production of interference by thin film

Consider a thin film of refractive index µ is enclosed between the two sur-
faces inclined at an angle of α. For small angle, the effective path difference
between two light waves originated from upper surface can taken equal to
2µt cos r. Thus for minima originated

2µt cos r = nλ

9
Figure 1:

Figure 2:

10
For normal incidence r → 0, cos r = 1

2µt = nλ

Where t is the thickness of the film at the position of nth minima

From the figure
t
tan α =
xn

t = xn tan α

2µ(xn tan α) = nλ

nλ
xn =
2µ tan α
(n − 1)λ
xn−1 =
2µ tan α
The fringe width can be obtained by;
λ
β = xn − xn−1 =
2µ tan α
Condition for construction and destruction interference in the reflected
light is given by
(
nλ for destructive interference
2µt = 1
(1)
(n + 2 )λ for construction interference

where n=0,1,2,... and λ = wavelength in free space.

Interference will also occur in the transmitted light and here condition for
construction and destruction interference in the transmitted light is given by
(
nλ for constructive interference
2µt = 1
(2)
(n + 2 )λ for destructive interference
Example: A wedge of angle 0.5°is illuminated with sodium light whose
two lines corresponds to the wavelengths 5890Å and 5896 Å. Find the dis-
tance from the apex at which the maxima due to the two wavelengths first

11
coincide when observed in the reflected light.(The wedge contains air)

Solution

Let the thickness of the wedge at the point where the maximums of both
coincides be t. For construction interference in reflected light, we have
λ
2µt cos r = (2n + 1)
2
For normal incidence and µair =1, we have.
λ1
2t = (2n + 1)
2
Also;
λ2
2t = (2n + 1)
2
According to the given condition, we can write
λ2 λ1
(2n + 1) = (2n + 1)
2 2

n = 1499

λ1
t = (2n + 1) = 0.004cm
4
Let x be the required distance from the apex, then

t
tan θ = uθ
x
0.004
x= π = 4.58cm
0.5 × 180

12
1.3 Diffraction
Is the bending of waves around the edges of an obstacle or aperture.

ˆ Diffraction results from superposition of secondary wavelets originating

from the different parts of the same wavefront.

ˆ For diffraction to occur the size of the aperture should be small enough.

ˆ Size of aperture should be comparable to the wavelength of wave.

Differences between interference and diffraction

Interference Diffraction
It takes place between two or more It takes place the secondary wavelets
wavefronts originating from coherent originating from the same wavefront
sources
In interference pattern the regions of It is not so in diffraction pattern
minimum intensity are usually almost
dark
Fringe width may or may not be equal Fringe width are never equal
All maxima are of same intensity They are of varying intensity
FRAUNHOFFER DIFFRACTION AT SIN-
GLE SLIT
In this type of diffraction a plane wavefront falls on a slit and its response
is seen on a plane screen placed at very large distance from slit.
Suppose a plane wavefront fall on the slit of width d. Every point of the
exposed part of the wavefront acts as a source of secondary wavelets. These
wavelets superpose (interfere) and produce diffraction.

13
 Figure 3:

Position of first and higher order minima

Two understand first order minima, we can divide the slits hypothetically
into two identical zones Z1 , Z2 each of width d2 . Take wavelet from top of
the zone Z1 and the other from the top of the zone Z2 . The path difference
between them is d/2 sin θ. All other similar pair will have the same path
difference.
If these wavelets interfere destructively, then will produce minima. This
will happen when d/2 sin θis equal to λ/2. Thus for first order minima.

d/2 sin θ = λ/2

14
 The position of first minima.

sin θ = λ/d
The principle maxima spread symmetrically about central line in angle
2θ . Thus angular width of principle maxima is
 
−1 λ
2θ = sin
d

Linear width of principal maxima; β = (2θD) = 2D sin−1 λd

For second order minima, we can divide the slit hypothetically into four
zones. The wavelets of nearest two zones interfere destructively and again
produce minima. Thus for second order minima, we have;

d/4 sin θ = λ/2

d sin θ = 2λ
In general the position of minimas can be obtained as;

d sin θ = nλ; n = 1, 2, 3, ...

zd sin θ = nλ

15
 Positions of first and higher order of maxi-
mas
In order to understand first maxima, we can divide slits hypothetically
into three identical zones, each of width d/3. The wavelets of two neighbour-
ing zones Z1 , Z2 interfere destructively and cancel their mutual effect. The
wavelet of the third zone will cause first order maxima. Thus the for first
order maxima the path difference between two wavelet, one from the top of
the zone Z1 and another from the top of zone Z2 is d/3 sin θ. For destructive
interference between them.

d λ
sin θ =
3 2
Or
3λ
d sin θ =
2
Similarly for second order maximan, we get
5λ
d sin θ =
2
In general, for higher order maxima, we get;
λ
d sin θ = (2n + 1)
2
Example: A beam of light of wavelength 600nm from a distant source
falls on a single slit 1mm wide and the resulting diffraction pattern is observed

16
on a screen 2mm away. Find the distance between the first dark fringes on
either side of the central bright.
Solution
For first minima putting n=1 in the condition for minima given as;

d sin θ = nλ =⇒ d sin θ = λ
x/2
sin θ ≈ tan θ =
D
2λD
x= = 2.4 × 10−3 m
d
∴ x = 2.4mm

1.3.1 Diffraction grating

A diffraction grating a is a width of slit and b is the of opaque portion between
two adjacent slits, then (a+b) is the distance between the adjacent slits. This
is known as grating element.If there are N parallel slits (ruling) in each
centrimetre, then grating element is given by;

1
(a + b) = cm
N
The grating equation can be written as :
(a + b) sin θ = nλ ; n = 1, 2, 3, ...
The above equation gives position of nth maxima

17
2 Polarization
Light propagates as transverse EM waves. The magnitude of electric field
is much larger as compared to magnitude of magnetic field. We generally
prefer to describe light as electric field oscillations.

Unpolarized light light having electric field oscillations in all directions in

the plane perpendicular to the direction of propagation. The oscillation
may be resolved into horizontal and vertical component.

Polarized light The light having oscillations only in one plane

plane of oscillation. Is the plane in which oscillation occurs in the po-

larised light

Plane of polarization Is the plane perpendicular to the plane of oscillation

Polaroids It is a device used to produce the plane polarised light. It is based

on the principle of selective absorption and is more effective than the
tourmaline crystal.
Polaroids allow the light oscillations parallel to the transmission axis
pass through

Polariser Is a crystal or polaroid on which unpolarised light is incident

Analyser Crystal or polaroid on which polarised light is incident

Uses of polaroids
(a) in sun glasses.

(b) to prepare filters.

(c) for laboratory purpose.

(d) in head light of automobiles.

(e) in three-dimensional motion pictures.

(f) to improve color contrast in old paintings.

Methods of producing plane polarized light

18
Figure 4: Transmission axis of the analyser is perpendicular to the polariser,
hence no light passes through the analyser

A. Polarisation by reflection:Brewster’s law

When a beam of unpolarised light is reflected from a transparent medium
(refractive index = µ), then the reflected light is completely plane po-
larised at a certain angle of incidence (called the angle of polarisation
θp ). In this case, reflected and refracted waves are perpendicular to each
other.

Figure 5: polarization by reflection

By Snells law,
sin θp
=µ
sin θr

19
 sin θp
µ=
sin θr
Now, since reflected ray is perpendicular to refracted ray
90 + θP + θr = 180
θr = 90 − θp
sin θp
µ=
sin(90 − θp )
tan θp = µ

The above relation is known as Brewsters law

Example:When light of particular wavelength falls on a plane sur-
face at an angle of incidence 60, then the reflected light becomes com-
pletely plane polarised. Find the refractive index of surface material and
the angle of refraction through it. Solution

Using Brewsters law,

tan θp = µ
√
µ = tan 60 = 3
At this condition, θp + θr = 90
θr = 90 − 60
Angle of refraction,
θr = 30

20
B. Polarisation of light by scattering When a beam of white light passes
through a medium consisting of small particles of size of the order of the
wavelength of light (dust, smoke, air molecules), then the light seen in a
direction perpendicular to the incident beam appears bluish. This phe-
nomenon is known as scattering of light and the particles causing scat-
tering are called scatterers. The scattering of light is, infact, absorption
and re-radiation of light by the scatterers. The scattering of light can be
demonstrated by a simple experiment. A few drops of dilute sulphuric
acid is added to a dilute solution of hypo (sodium thiosulphate) prepared
in a glass tank. A precipitate of fine sulphur particles is formed, the par-
ticles grow in size with time. Now, a beam of light from a bright source
is sent through the tank. The light scattered by the sulphur particles in
a direction at right angles to the incident light appears bluish as shown
in figure below.

Figure 6: Polarisation of light by sulphur particles

When the scattered bluish light is seen through an analyser (e.g. a rotat-
ing Nicol) a variation in intensity with minimum intensity zero is found.
This shows that the light scattered in a direction perpendicular to the
incident light is plane polarised.

C. Polarization by double refraction

When unpolarised light(natural light) is inclined on a calcite crystal, it

splits into two rays; O-ray (Ordinary ray) and E-ray (extra-ordinary ray).

21
 O-ray has same speed in all directions and hence obeys law of refraction.
While E-ray has different speed in different directions in a medium and
so does not obey law refraction. These two rays are plane polarised and
their planes of vibrations are mutually perpendicular.

Figure 7: Polarisation by doble refraction

3 Doppler effect
If a wave source and a receiver are moving relative to each other, the fre-
quency observed by the receiver (f ) is different from the actual source fre-
quency ( f ).This phenomenon is called as Dopplers effect.
It is a wave phenomenon which is associated with sound as well as other
electromagnetic waves like light.

3.1 Doppler effect in sound

Doppler effect in sound depends on three factors;

(i) Velocity of sound, vs

(ii) Velocity of observer vo

(iii) Velocity of medium or wind vω

Apparent frequency when the source moves

towards the stationary observer:

22
 Consider a source produces sound of frequency f . If v is speed of sound
in air then the wavelength of the sound wave
v
λ= = vT
f
Now suppose source S moves towards stationary observer O with speed vs ,
In one time period T, S moves a distance vs T , before it emits next pulse. As
a results the wavelength becomes
0
λ = vT − vs T
(v − vs )
λ0 =
f
Because of this changed wavelength, frequency of sound appears to change.
If f 0 is the apparent frequency then,
v
f0 =
λ0
 
0 v
f =f
v − vs
If the source moves away from the observer then,
 
0 v
f =f
v + vs
Apparent frequency when the observer moves
towards or away from the stationary source :
Suppose the observer O moves toward the stationary source with a ve-
locity vo . The speed of sound relative to observer.

v 0 = v + vo

As the source is stationary, so wavelength of the sound wave remains same.

Because of the increase of relative speed of sound, the frequency appears to
increase. Thus apparent frequency

v0 v + vo
f0 = = v
λ f

23
  
0 v + vo
f = f
v
If the observer moves away from the stationary source, then
 
0 v − vo
f = f
v

General doppler effect equation

 
0 v ± vo
f = f
v ± vs

Example: A policeman is chasing a thief from behind, while riding on a

bike which is moving with a speed of 54 kmh−1 . The thief is also riding on
a bike moving with a speed of 72 kmh−1 . When the policeman blows horn
of the bike having frequency of 200 Hz. Find the apparent frequency heard by
the thief. (Take, speed of sound = 330 ms−1 ).
Solution
Apparent frequency observed by the thief,
 
0 v − vo
f = f
v − vs
 
0 330 − 20
f = × 200 = 196.82Hz
330 − 15

24
 Special cases of Dopplers effect in sound
Case I Doppler’s effect in reflected sound
When the sound wave is reflected from a reflector (wall/cliff), the observer
receives two notes: one directly from the source and other from the reflector.
If the two frequencies are different, then the observer may observe beats. The
following situation explains this fact.
(1.) A source is moving towards a wall
Consider a source of sound moving towards a stationary cliff/wall with
speed vs emitting a sound of frequency, f .
There is a stationary observer ( O ) . Apparent frequency of sound heard

Figure 8:

by the observer directly from the source in this case is

 
0 v
f = f (source is moving away)
v + vs

To find frequency of reflected sound heard by the observer, assume image

of the source S 0 in the wall. Now, this image will act as a sound source
moving towards the observer with speed vs . Apparent frequency heard
by  
00 v
f = f (image source is moving toward)
v − vs
Beat frequency heard by observer,
fb = f 00 − f 0
Example : Imagine siren emmitting a sound of frequency 1000Hz
moves away from you toward a cliff at speed of 10ms−1 .

25
 (i) What is the frequency of the sound you hear coming directly from
the siren?
(ii) What is the frequency of the sound you hear reflected off from the
cliff ?
(iii) What beat frequency would you hear? (Take the speed of sound in
air as 330ms−1 )

Solutions
(i)  
0 v
f = f = 970.6Hz
v + vs
(ii)  
00 v
f = f = 1031.3Hz
v − vs
(ii)
fb = f 00 − f 0 = 60.7Hz
Example:The driver of a car approaching a vertical wall notices that
the frequency of horn of his car changes from 400Hz to 480Hz, when it
gets reflected from the wall. Find the speed of car if that of sound is 330
m/s.
Let u be the speed of car towards the wall.
(i) Frequency received at wall The car is acting as source emitting
frequency f and wall as stationary observer.
 
0 v
f = f
v−u

(ii)Frequency received by driver Now, wall will act as a source,

emitting frequency f 0 and driver as observer.
    
00 v+u 0 v+u v
f = f = f
v v v−u
  
00 v+u v
f = f
v v−u
 
00 v+u
f = f
v−u

26
  
330 + u
480 = × 400
330 − u
u = 30m/s Ans

(2.) Sound source and observer are moving in a direction making

an angle with the line joining them
Till now, we were assuming that vo and vs are along the line joining
source and observer.

If the motion is along some other direction, join S and O by a straight

line, then the components of velocities along the line joining source and
observer are considered.

Figure 9:

For example, in the figure shown,

 
00 v + vo cos θ
f = f
v + vs cos θ

Example:A car approaching a crossing at a speed of 20 ms 1 sounds

a horn of frequency 500 Hz when it is at a distance of 80 m from the
crossing. Speed of sound in air is 330 ms 1 . What frequency is heard by
an observer 60 m from the crossing on the straight road which crosses
car road at right angles?525.5 Hz Ans
Example:Two electric trains run at the same speed of 72 km/h along
the same track and in the same direction with a separation of 2.4 km
between them. The two trains simultaneously sound brief whistles. A
person is situated at a perpendicular distance of 500 m from the track

27
 and is equidistant from the two trains at the instant of the whistling. If
both the whistles were at 500 Hz and the speed of sound in air is 340
m/s, find the frequencies heard by the person.474 Hz Ans

(3.) Case III Rotating Source/Observer

Applications of Dopplers effect in sound

1. Used to measure velocities in diverse areas such as military, medical sci-
ence, astrophysics, etc.

2. It is used at airports to guide aircraft and in the military to detect enemy

aircraft.

3. Doctors use doppler echocardiography to examine the heart. It uses high

frequency sound waves to create an image of the heart while the use of
doppler technology allows to find the speed and direction of blood flow by
using the concept of doppler effect.

3.2 Dopplers effect in light

If the light source or the observer is moving with a velocity v, such that
the distance between them is decreasing, then the apparent frequency of the
source will be given by s
1 + vc

0
f =f
1 − vc
where, f = frequency emitted by source, v is relative velocity of approach
and c is speed of light.

If the distance between the light source and the observer is increasing,
then the apparent frequency of the source is given by
s
1 − vc

0
f =f
1 + vc

Note:
Dopplers effect in light depends only on the relative motion between the
source and the observer similarly the Dopplers effect in sound also depends
upon whether the source is moving or the observer is moving.

28
Red shift and violet shift
If the light source is moving away from the observer, the shift in the
spectrum is towards red and it is called Red shift. If it is moving towards
the observer, the shift is towards the violet and it is called violet shift.
Red shift v 
0
∆λ = λ − λ = λ
c
Violet shift (or blue shift)
v 
∆λ = λ0 − λ = − λ
c
Example: How fast one must move to see a red light signal as a green
one? (Take, fR = 4.8 × 1014 Hz and fG = 5.6 × 1014 Hz )
4.59 × 107 ms−1 Ans
Applications of Dopplers effect in light
1. Estimation of velocity of stars and galaxies
Spectral lines of elements like sodium, hydrogen and helium are found
in spectrum coming with stars and galaxies. We compare these spectral
lines with standard spectral lines of an element in the laboratory. If
spectral lines of the star shifts towards red wavelength (red shift), then
the star must be moving away from the earth. Similarly, if the spectral
lines are shifting towards violet wavelength (violet shift), then the star
must be moving towards the earth.

2. RADAR
Radio Detection and Ranging abbreviated as RADAR is a method used
to find position and speed of a plane or ship. Radio waves are sent from
RADAR centre towards ship and returns to it after reflection from the
plane or ship.

29