Protective relaying 1

3. Protective relaying

A protective relay is a device that detects the fault and initiates the operation of the circuit
breaker to ioslate the defective element from the rest of the system.

A typical relay circuit is shown in Fig. This diagram shows one

phase of 3-phase system for simplicity. The relay circuit
connections can be divided into three parts viz.

(i) First part is the primary winding of a current transformer (C.T.)

which is connected in series with the line to be protected.
(ii) Second part consists of secondary winding of C.T. and the
relay operating coil.
(iii) Third part is the tripping circuit which may be either a.c. or
d.c. It consists of a source of supply, the trip coil of the circuit
breaker and the relay stationary contacts.
When a short circuit occurs at point F on the transmission
line, the current flowing in the line increases to an enormous
value.
This results in a heavy current flow through the relay coil,
causing the relay to operate by closing its contacts. This in turn
closes the trip circuit of the breaker, making the circuit breaker
open and isolating the faulty section from the rest of the system.
In this way, the relay ensures the safety of the circuit equipment
from damage and normal working of the healthy portion of the
system.

Quality requirement of protective relay system:

1. Selectivity:
It is the ability of the protective system to select correctly that part of the system in
trouble and disconnect the faulty part without disturbing the rest of the system.

2. Speed:
The relay system should disconnect the faulty section as fast as possible.

3. Sensitivity:
It is the ability of the relay system to operate with low value of actuating quantity.

4. Reliability:
It is the ability of the relay system to operate under the pre-determined conditions.
Without reliability, the protection would be rendered largely ineffective and could even
become a liability.
 Protective relaying 2

5. Simplicity:
The relaying system should be simple so that it can be easily maintained. Reliability is
closely related to simplicity. The simpler the protection scheme, the greater will be its
reliability.
6. Economy:
The most important factor in the choice of a particular protection scheme is the economic
aspect. Sometimes it is economically unjustified to use an ideal scheme of protection and
a compromise method has to be adopted.
As a rule, the protective gear should not cost more than 5% of total cost.
However, when the apparatus to be protected is of utmost importance (e.g. generator,
main transmission line etc.), economic considerations are often subordinated to
reliability.

• Basic relay terminology

Relay time: It is the minimum time interval between instant of fault occurrence and
closing of relay contacts.

Pick-up current: It is the minimum current in the relay coil at which the relay starts to
operate.

Current setting: It is often desirable to adjust the pick-up current to any required value.
This is known as current setting and is usually achieved by the use of tappings on the
relay operating coil.
Pick-up current = Rated secondary current of C.T. × Current setting

Plug-setting multiplier (P.S.M.): It is the ratio of fault current in relay coil to the pick-
up current i.e.
Fault current in relay coil Pick
P.S.M. =
pick−up current

Time-setting multiplier: A relay is generally provided with control to adjust the time of
operation. This adjustment is known as time-setting multiplier.
 Protective relaying 3

Classification of electromagnetic relay:

(i) Attracted armature type relay:

1. Fig. shows the schematic arrangement of an attracted armature type relay. It consists of a
laminated electromagnet M carrying a coil C and a pivoted laminated armature.
2. The armature is balanced by a counterweight and carries a pair of spring contact fingers
at its free end.
3. Under normal operating conditions, the current through the relay coil C is such that
counterweight holds the armature in the position shown in figer.
4. However, when a short-circuit occurs, the current through the relay coil increases
sufficiently and the relay armature is attracted upwards.
5. The contacts on the relay armature bridge a pair of stationary contacts attached to the
relay frame. This completes the trip circuit which results in the opening of the circuit
breaker and, therefore, in the disconnection of the faulty circuit.
6. The minimum current at which the relay armature is attracted to close the trip circuit is
called pickup current.
7. It is a usual practice to provide a number of tappings on the relay coil so that the number
of turns in use and hence the setting value at which the relay operates can be varied.

(ii) Solenoid type relay:

1. Fig. shows the schematic arrangement of a solenoid

type relay. It consists of a solenoid and movable iron
plunger arranged as shown.
2. Under normal operating conditions, The current
through the relay coil C is such that it holds the plunger
by gravity or spring in the position shown.
3. However, on the occurrence of a fault, the current
through the relay coil becomes more than the pickup
value, causing the plunger to be attracted to the
solenoid.
4. The upward movement of the plunger closes the trip
circuit, thus opening the circuit breaker and
disconnecting the faulty circuit.
 Protective relaying 4

Induction type relay:-

1. Electromagnetic induction relays operate on the principle of induction motor and are
widely used for protective relaying purposes involving a.c. quantities.
2. They are not used with d.c. quantities owing to the principle of operation. An induction
relay essentially consists of a pivoted aluminium disc placed in two alternating magnetic
fields of the same frequency but displaced in time and space.
3. The torque is produced in the disc by the interaction of one of the magnetic fields with
the currents induced in the disc by the other.
4. Following are the types of induction type relay
 shaded-pole structure
 watt-hour-meter or double winding structure
 Induction cup structure

Shaded-pole structure:-

1. The general arrangement of shaded-pole structure is shown in Fig. It consists of a pivoted

aluminium disc free to rotate in the air-gap of an electromagnet.
2. Onehalf of each pole of the magnet is surrounded by a copper band known as shading
ring.
3. The alternating flux ɸs in the shaded protion of the poles will, owing to the reaction of
the current induced in the ring, lag behind the flux ɸu in the unshaded portion by an angle
α.
4. These two a.c. fluxes differing in phase will produce the necessary torque to rotate the
disc. As proved earlier, the driving torque T is given by;

T ∝ ɸs ɸu sin α

Assuming the fluxes ɸs and ɸu to be proportional to the current I in the relay coil

T ∝ I2 sin α
5. This shows that driving torque is proportional to the square of current in the relay coil.
 Protective relaying 5

Watthour-meter structure:-

1. This structure gets its name from the fact that it is used in watthour meters. The general
arrangement of this type of relay is shown in Fig.
2. It consists of a pivoted aluminium disc arranged to rotate freely between the poles of two
electromagnets.
3. The upper electromagnet carries two windings ; the pirmary and the secondary. The
primary winding carries the relay current I1 while the secondary winding is connected to
the winding of the lower magnet.
4. The primary current induces e.m.f. in the secondary and so circulates a current I2 in it.
The flux ɸ 2 induced in the lower magnet by the current in the secondary winding of the
upper magnet will lag behind ɸ1 by an angle α.
5. The two fluxes ɸ 1and ɸ 2 differing in phase by α will produce a driving torque on the
disc proportional to ɸ 1 ɸ 2 sin α.
6. An important feature of this type of relay is that its operation can be controlled by
opening or closing the secondary winding circuit.
7. If this circuit is opened, no flux can be set by the lower magnet however great the vaule
of current in the pirmary winding may be and consequently no torque will be produced.
8. Therefore, the relay can be made inoperative by opening its secondary winding circuit.
 Protective relaying 6

up based over current relay:-

1. The above block diagram shows the up based over current relay as up accepted the signal
into voltage form the current signal obtain from CT is converted into vtg signal using I to
V converter.
2. This ac voltage is converted into dc voltage by using rectifier which is proportional to
load current.
3. The output of multiplier is fed to the multiplexer, the output of multiplexer is then fed to
the ADC converter to obtain the signal in digital form. ADC 0800 converter have been
Used for this purpose.
4. The up send the signal to the ADC converter for starting the conversion and it reads the
end of conversion signal to check the conversion is over or not.
5. As soon as conversion is over the up reads the current signal in digital form and then
compare with the pick up value.
6. Then up first determines the magnitude of fault current and then select the corresponding
time of operation and then is send the signal to the trip ckt after predetermine time delay.
 Protective relaying 7

Induction type overcurrent relay:- (non directional)

Construction:-
1. This type of relay works on the induction principle and initiates corrective measures
when current in the ckt exceed predetermine value.
2. It consists of aluminium disc which is free to rotate in between the poles of two
electromagnets.
3. The primary is connected to the secondary of a C.T. in the line to be protected and is
tapped at intervals. The tappings are connected to a plug-setting bridge by which we
obtain the desired current setting.
4. The secondary winding is energised by induction from primary and is connected in series
with the winding on the lower magnet. The controlling torque is provided by a spiral
spring.
5. The spindle of the disc carries a moving contact which bridges two fixed contacts
(connected to trip circuit) when the disc rotates through a pre-set angle.
6. This angle can be adjusted to any value between 0o and 360o
 Protective relaying 8

Working:-
1. The driving torque on the aluminium disc is set up due to the induction principle This
torque is opposed by the restraining torque provided by the spring.
2. Under normal operating conditions, restraining torque is greater than the driving
torque produced by the relay coil current. Therefore, the aluminium disc remains
stationary.
3. However, if the current in the protected circuit exceeds the pre-set value, the driving
torque becomes greater than the restraining torque.
4. The disc rotates and the moving contact bridges the fixed contacts when the disc has
rotated through a pre-set angle.
5. The trip circuit operates the circuit breaker which isolates the faulty section.

Induction type directional power relay :–

Construction:-
1. Fig. shows the essential parts of a typical induction type directional power relay. It
consists of an aluminum disc which is free to rotate in between the poles of two
electromagnets.
 Protective relaying 9

2. The upper electromagnet carries a winding (called potential coil) on the central limb
which is connected through a potential transformer (P.T.) to the circuit voltage source.
3. The lower electromagnet has a separate winding (called current coil) connected to the
secondary of C.T. in the line to be protected.
4. The current coil is provided with a number of tappings connected to the plug setting
bridge (not shown for clarity). This permits to have any desired current setting.
5. The restraining torque is provided by a spiral spring.

Working:-
1. The flux ɸ 1 due to current in the potential coil will be nearly 90º lagging behind the
applied voltage V.
2. The flux ɸ 2 due to current coil will be nearly in phase with the operating current I
3. The interaction of fluxes φ1 and φ2 with the eddy currents induced in the disc produces a
driving torque

given by :
T∝ ɸ1 ɸ2 sin α ɸ )
Since ɸ 1 = V, ɸ 2 = I and α = (90 - ɸ)

T∝ V I sin (90 - ɸ)
T ∝ V I cos ɸ
T ∝ power in the circuit
4. It is clear that the direction of driving torque on the disc depends upon the direction of
power flow in the circuit to which the relay is placed.
5. When the power in the circuit flows in the normal direction, the driving torque and the
restraining torque (due to spring) help each other to turn away the moving contact from
the fixed contacts.
6. Consequently, the relay remains inoperative.
7. However, the reversal of current in the circuit reverses the direction of driving torque on
the disc.
8. When the reversed driving torque is large enough, the disc rotates in the reverse direction
and the moving contact closes the trip circuit.
9. This causes the operation of the circuit breaker which disconnects the faulty section.
 Protective relaying 10

Induction type directional over current relay:-

Constructional :-
Fig shows the constructional details of a typical induction type directional ovecurrent relay. It
consists of two relay elements mounted on a common case viz. (i) directional element and (ii)
non-directional element.
i. Directional element.
 It is essentially a directional power relay which operates when power flows in a specific
direction. The potential coil of this element is connected through a potential transformer
(P.T.) to the system voltage. The current coil of the element is energised through a C.T.
by the circuit current.
 This winding is carried over the upper magnet of the non-directional element. The trip
contacts (1 and 2) of the directional element are connected in series with the secondary
circuit of the overcurrent element. Therefore, the latter element cannot start to operate
until its secondary circuit is completed. In other words, the directional element must
operate first (i.e. contacts 1 and 2 should close) in order to operate the overcurrent
element.
ii) Non-directional element.
 It is an overcurrent element similar in all respects to a non-directional overcurrent relay.
The spindle of the disc of this element carries a moving contact which closes the fixed
contacts (trip circuit contacts) after the operation of directional element.
 It may be noted that plug-setting bridge is also provided in the relay for current setting
but has been omitted (skip) in the figure for clarity and simplicity. The tappings are
provided on the upper magnet of overcurrent element and are connected to the bridge.

Operation:-
1. Under normal operating conditions, power flows in the normal direction in the circuit
protected by the relay.
 Protective relaying 11

2. Therefore, directional power relay (upper element) does not operate, thereby keeping the
overcurrent element (lower element) unenergised.
3. However, when a short-circuit occurs, there is a tendency for the current or power to flow in
the reverse direction. Should this happen, the disc of the upper element rotates to bridge the fixed
contacts 1 and 2. This completes the circuit for overcurrent element.
4. The disc of this element rotates and the moving contact attached to it closes the trip circuit.
This operates the circuit breaker which isolates the faulty section.
5. The two relay elements are so arranged that final tripping of the current controlled by them is
not made till the
Following conditions are satisfied:
a. Current flows in a direction such as to operate the directional element.
b. Current in the reverse direction exceeds the pre-set value.
c. Excessive current persists for a period corresponding to the time setting of overcurrent
element.

Distance or Impedance Relays:-

1. The operation of the relays discussed so far depended upon the magnitude of current or
power in the protected circuit.
2. However, there is another group of relays in which the operation is governed by the ratio
of applied voltage to current in the protected circuit. Such relays are called distance or
impedance relays.
3. In an impedance relay, the torque produced by a current element is opposed by the torque
produced by a voltage element. The relay will operate when the ratio V/I is less than a
predetermined value.

 The basic principle of operation of an impedance relay. The voltage element of the relay
is excited through a potential transformer (P.T.) from the line to be protected. The current
element of the relay is excited from a current transformer (C.T.) in series with the line.
 The portion AB of the line is the protected zone. Under normal operating conditions, the
impedance of the protected zone is ZL.
 The relay is so designed that it closes its contacts whenever impedance of the protected
section falls below the pre-determined value i.e. ZL in this case.
 Now suppose a fault occurs at point F1 in the protected zone. The impedance Z (= *V/I)
between the point where the relay is installed and the point of fault will be less than ZL
 Protective relaying 12

and hence the relay operates. Should the fault occur beyond the protected zone (say point
F2), the impedance Z will be greater than ZL and the relay does not operate.

Definite – Distance Type Impedance Relay:-

1. Fig.shows the schematic arrangement of a definite-distance type impedance relay. It

consists of a pivoted beam F and two electromagnets energised respectively by a current
and voltage transformer in the protected circuit.
2. The armatures of the two electromagnets are mechanically coupled to the beam on the
opposite sides of the fulcrum. The beam is provided with a bridging piece for the trip
contacts.
3. The relay is so designed that the torques produced by the two electromagnets are in the
opposite direction.

Operation:
1. Under normal operating conditions, the pull due to the voltage element is greater than
that of the current element. Therefore, the relay contacts remain open.
2. However, when a fault occurs in the protected zone, the applied voltage to the relay
decreases whereas the current increases.
3. The ratio of voltage to current (i.e. impedance) falls below the pre-determined value.
Therefore, the pull of the current element will exceed that due to the voltage element and
this causes the beam to tilt in a direction to close the trip contacts.
4. The pull of the current element is proportional to I2 and that of voltage element to V2.
Consequently, the relay will operate when

k1V2 < k2I2

*The value of the constants k1 and k2 depends upon the ampere-turns of the two electromagnets.
By providing tapping’s on the coils, the setting value of the relay can be changed.
 Protective relaying 13

Time-Distance Impedance Relay:-

A time-distance impedance relay is one which automatically adjusts its operating time according
to the distance of the relay from the fault point i.e.
Operating time,
T ∝ V/I
∝Z
∝ Distance
Construction:-
1. Fig shows the schematic arrangement of a typical induction type time distance impedance
relay.
2. It consists of a current driven induction element similar to the double winding type
induction overcurrent relay.
3. The spindle carrying the disc of this element is connected by means of a spiral spring
coupling to a second spindle which carries the piece of the relay trip contacts.
4. The bridge is normally held in the open position by an armature held against the pole face
of an electromagnet excited by the voltage of the circuit to be protected.
 Protective relaying 14

Operation:-
1. Under normal load conditions, the pull of the armature is more than that of the induction
element and hence the trip circuit contacts remain open.
2. However, on the occurrence of a short-circuit; the disc of the induction current element
starts to rotate at a speed depending upon the operating current.
3. As the rotation of the disc proceeds, the spiral spring coupling is wound up till the
tension of the spring is sufficient to pull the armature away from the pole face of the
voltage-excited magnet.
4. Immediately this occurs, the spindle carrying the armature and bridging piece moves
rapidly in response to the tension of the spring and trip contacts are closed.
5. This opens the circuit breaker to isolate the faulty section.
6. The speed of rotation of the disc is approximately proportional to the operating current,
neglecting the effect of control spring.
7. Also the time of operation of the relay is directly proportional to the pull of the voltage-
excited magnet and hence to the line voltage V at the point where the relay is connected.
Therefore, the time of operation of relay would vary as V/I i.e. as Z or distance.

Differential Relay is one that operates when the phasor difference of two or
more similar electrical quantities exceeds a pre-determined value.

Current Differential Relay:-

1. Fig shows an arrangement of an overcurrent relay connected to operate as a differential
relay.
2. A pair of identical current transformers is fitted on either end of the section to be
protected (alternator winding in this case).
3. The secondaries of CT’s are connected in series in such a way that they carry the induced
currents in the same direction.
4. The operating coil of the overcurrent relay is connected across the CT secondary circuit.
5. This differential relay compares the current at the two ends of the alternator winding.

6. Under normal operating conditions, suppose the alternator winding carries a normal
current of 1000 A.
7. Then the currents in the two secondaries of CT’s are equal. These currents will merely
circulate between the two CT’s and no current will flow through the differential relay.
 Protective relaying 15

8. Therefore, the relay remains inoperative. If a ground fault occurs on the alternator
winding as shown in Fig the two secondary currents will not be equal and the current
flows through the operating coil of the relay, causing the relay to operate.
9. The amount of current flow through the relay will depend upon the way the fault is being
fed.

Voltage Balance Differential Relay:-

1. Fig.shows the arrangement of voltage balance protection. In this scheme of protection,

two similar current transformers are connected at either end of the element to be
protected (e.g. an alternator winding) by means of pilot wires.
2. The secondaries of current transformers are connected in series with a relay in such a way
that under normal conditions, their induced e.m.f.s’ are in opposition.

3. Under healthy conditions, equal currents (I1 = I2) flow in both primary windings.
4. Therefore, the secondary voltages of the two transformers are balanced against each other
and no current will flow through the relay operating coil.
5. When a fault occurs in the protected zone, the currents in the two primaries will differ
from one another (i.e. I1 ≠ I2) and their secondary voltages will no longer be in balance.
6. This voltage difference will cause a current to flow through the operating coil of the relay
which closes the trip circuit.
 Protective relaying 16

Mho relay:-

Construction:-
1. In mho relay 4 poles are arranged. The polarizing coil wound on upper and lower poles
and energized by voltage which produces polarizing flux.
2. The operating coil wound on left pole and it is energized by current which is the
operating quantity.

3. The flux produced by operating coil interacts with polarizing flux and gives the operating
torque.
4. The restraining coil is wound on right side of the pole and it energized by voltage which
produces restraining flux.
5. Thus flux interact with polarizing flux and produce restraining torque
6. under normal operating condition restraining torque is great than operating torque, hence
relay remains inoperative
7. when fault occurs the operating torque become greater than restraining torque and hence
relay will operate which gives signal to CB and contact of CB get open