Unit 5: Pulse Code Modulation By

Dr. Shashibhushan Sharma

Assistant Professor
JK Institute of Applied Physics and
Technology,
University of Allahabad,
Prayagraj
Content
• Basic elements of a PCM System,
• Quantization Electrical representation of binary digits,
• Companding,
• Differential PCM, Delta Modulation, Adaptive delta modulation,
Comparison of ADM & DM
Basic Elements of a PCM System
• There are three basic elements of the PCM System
• Transmitter
• Transmission Path
• Receiver
• Transmitter:

Figure 1. A Practical PCM generator

Basic Elements of a PCM System
Transmitter:
• Low pass Filter: Frequency of incoming signal bandlimited to f m Hz.
• Sample and hold circuit: It sample the signal with greater than the Nyquist rate, i.e., it is
greater than the 2 f m . Numerically this represented as
fS  2 fm 1

Figure 1. A Practical PCM generator

Basic Elements of a PCM System
After sampling the obtained
signal is x(nTS ) . This signal is
discrete in time and continuous
in amplitude.
Quantizer: A q-level quantizer
compare input x(nTS ) with its q
digital levels. It assigns discrete
time signal to any one of the
nearest digital level. Thus many
number of discrete time sample
values level to a particular
digital level.
Due to this leveling error
caused which is known as
quantization error.
The output of the quantizer is Figure 2. Natural samples, quantized
sample, and pulse code modulation
indicated by the symbol xq (nTS ) .
Basic Elements of a PCM System
• Encoder: The encoder converts input signal xq (nTS ) to v digits binary word.
• It is not possible to transmit each bit of the binary word separately on transmission line.
Therefore ‘v’ binary digits are converted to serial bit stream to generate single baseband
signal, In a parallel to serial converter, usually a shift register does this job. The output of
PCM generator is thus a single baseband signal of binary bits.
• An oscillator generates the clocks for sample and hold circuit and parallel to serial
converter. In the pulse code modulation generator, sample and hold, quantizer and
encoder combinely form an analog to digital converter (ADC).

Figure 1. A Practical PCM generator

Basic Elements of a PCM System
• Transmission Path: The path between the PCM transmitter and PCM receiver over which the
PCM signal travel, is called as PCM transmission path and it is as shown in Figure 3.
• Feature of the path: The most important feature of PCM system lies in its ability to control the
effects of distortion and noise when the PCM wave travels on the channel.
• PCM accomplishes this capacity by means of using a chain of regenerative repeaters as shown in
Figure 3. Such repeaters are spaced close enough to each other on the transmission path. The
regenerative performs three basic operations namely equalization, timing and decision making.
Hence, each repeater actually reproduces the clean noise free PCM signal from the PCM signal
distorted by the channel noise. This improves the performance of PCM in presence of noise.

Figure 3. PCM transmission path

Basic Elements of a PCM System
• Figure 4 shows the block diagram of a regenerative repeater.
• Amplitude equalizer: The amplitude equalizer shapes the distorted PCM wave so as to
conmpensate for the effects of amplitude and phase distortions.
• Timing circuit: The timing circuit produces a periodic pulse train which is derived from
the input PCM pulses. This pulse train is then applied to the decision making device.
• Decision making device: The decision making device uses this pulse train for sampling
the equalized PCM pulses. The sampling is carried out at the instants where the signal to
noise ratio is maximum. The decision device makes a decision about whether the
equalized PCM wave at its input has a 0 value or l value at the instant of sampling.

Figure 4. Block diagram of regenerative repeater

Basic Elements of a PCM System
Such a decision is made by comparing equalized PCM with a reference level called decision
threshold as illustrated in Figure 5. At the output of the decision device, we get a clean PCM
signal without any trace of noise.

Figure 5. Waveforms of a regenerative repeater

Basic Elements of a PCM System
• Figure 6(a) shows
the block diagram of
PCM receiver and
Figure 6(b) shows
the reconstructed
signal.
• The regenerator at
the start of PCM
receiver reshapes the
pulse and removes
the noise. This signal
is then converted to
parallel digital words
for each sample.

Figure 6. (a) PCM receiver (b) Reconstructed waveform

Basic Elements of a PCM System
• After that, the digital word is converted to its analog value denoted as xq (t ) with the help
of a sample and hold circuit. This signal, at the output of sample and hold circuit, is
allowed to pass through a low pass reconstruction filter to get the appropriate original
message signal denoted as x(t).
• As shown in reconstructed signal of Figure 6(b), it is impossible to reconstruct exact
original signal x(t) because of permanent quantization error introduced during
quantization at the transmitter.
• In fact, this quantization error can be reduced by increasing the binary levels. This is
equivalent to increasing binary digits (bits) per sample.
• But increasing bits ‘v’ increases the signaling rate as well as transmission bandwidth.
• Therefore the choice of these parameters is made, in such a manner that noise due to
quantization error (i.e., also called as quantization noise) is in tolerable limits.
Quantization Electrical representation of
binary digits
• A q-level quantizer compares the discrete-time input x(nTs ) with its fixed digital levels. It
assigns any one of the digital level to x(nTs ) with its fixed digital levels. It then assigns
any one of the digital level to x(nTs ) which results in minimum distortion or error. This
error is called quantization error. Thus, the output of a quantizer is a digital level called xq (. nTs )
• Quantization process may be classified as

• Uniform quantizer: A uniform quantizer is that type of quantizer in which the ‘step size’
remains same throughout the input range.
• Non-uniform quantizer: A non-uniform quantizer is that type of quantizer in which the
‘step size’ varies according to the input signal values.
Quantization Electrical representation of
binary digits
Uniform Quantizer:
• There are two types of uniform quantizer as
under:
I. Symmetric quantizer of the midtread type
II. Symmetric quantizer of the midrise type
• The quantizer characteristic can also be
midtread or midrise type. Figure 7(a) shows the
input-output characteristic of a uniform
quantizer of the midtread type, which is so
called because the origin lies in the middle of a
tread of the staircase like graph.

Figure 7. Two types of Uniform quantization

(a) Midtread, and (b) Midrise
Quantization Electrical representation of
binary digits
• Figure 7(b) shows the corresponding input-output
characteristic of a uniform quantizer of the midrise type,
in which the origin lies in the middle of the rising part of
the staircase like graph.
• It may be noted that both the midtread and midrise types
of uniform quantizers illustrated in figure 7 are
symmetric about the origin.

Figure 7. Two types of Uniform quantization

(a) Midtread, and Midrise
Working Principle of Quantizer
• We are going to see the working principle of uniform quantization. For this purpose, we
consider the uniform quantizer of midrise type.
• Figure 8(a), shows the transfer characteristics of a uniform quantizer of midrise type. In
figure 8(a), let us assume that the input to the quantizer x(nTs ) varies from 4 to 4 .
This means that the peak to peak value of x(nTs ) will be between 4 to 4. Here, ‘’ is
the step size.
• Thus, input x(nTs ) can take any value between 4 to 4 . Now, the fixed digital levels
are available at   2 ,  3 2 ,  5 2 and  7 2 . These levels are available at quantizer
because of its characteristics.
• Hence, according to figure 8(a), we have
7
if x(nTs )=4Δ, then x q (nTs )= Δ
2
7
and if x(nTs )=-4Δ, then x q (nTs )=- Δ
2
Fig. 8. (a) Transfer characteristic of a quantizer
Working Principle of Quantizer
• Thus, it may be observed from figure 8 (b) that
maximum quantization error would be   2 . From
above, we conclude that quantization error may be
expressed as
ε=x q (nTs )-x(nTs ) 2a
here,‘ε ’ represents the quantization error. To increase
the resolution of a digitizing system requires that the
number of quantization levels be increased. To
increase the number of quantization levels requires
that the number of binary digits representing each
voltage level be increased.

Fig. 8. (a) Transfer characteristic of a quantizer (b) Variation of quantization

Working Principle of Quantizer
• Now, when x(nTs ) = 0, quantizer will assign any one
of the nearest binary levels i.e., either   2 or   2 .
If  2 is assigned, then quantization error will be,
error with input = xq  nTs   x  nTs    2  0   2 2b
From figure 8(a), it may also be observed that
3
for  <x  nTs  <2Δ, x q  nTs  = Δ
2
3
3
or - <x  nTs  <-2Δ, x q  nTs  =- Δ
2
This means that the maximum quantization error will
be   2 .
In other words, maximum quantization error is given
by

ε max = 4
2
Fig. 8. (a) Transfer characteristic of a quantizer (b) Variation of quantization
Working Principle of Quantizer
A UNIFORM QUANTIZER WITH INCORRECT
QUANTIZATION CHARACTERISTICS
• The reason for taking the digital levels at   2 ,  3 2
….etc. is to reduce the quantization error. This 
has been illustrated in figure 9.
• Hence, there are two possible characteristic as
shown in figure 9 (a). That is one characeristic
‘A’ with thick line and second characteristic ‘B’
with thin line. It may be observed that for
characteristic ‘A’, we have
for 0 < x  nTs  < Δ, x q  nTs  = Δ
5
or 2 <x  nTs  <3Δ, x q  nTs  =3Δ
therefore maximum quantization error will be
equal to  as shown in figure 9 (b). Similarly for Fig. 9. (a) Incorrect quantization characteristic
characteristics ‘B’, maximum quantization error is (b) Increased quantization error
equal to  .
Working Principle of Quantizer
The dotted line shows actual transfer
characteristic which does not passes through
origin for characteristic ‘A’ shown in figure 9(a).
While actual transfer characteristic which passes
through the origin for characteristic shown in
figure 8(a) where the digital levels are taken at   2  3 2
…etc. It provides correct quantization
characteristic and reduces quantization error.
Another way of improving the accuracy of the
quantized signal is to increase the sample rate.

Fig. 9. (a) Incorrect quantization characteristic

(b) Increased quantization error
Transmission Bandwidth in a PCM System
• Let us assume that the quantizer use ‘v’ number of binary digits to represent each level.
Then, the number of levels that may be represented by ‘v’ digits will be
q  2v 6

here, q represents the total number of digital levels of a q-level quantizer. For example if
v=4 bits, the total number of levels will be,
q  24  16 levels 7
Each sample is converted to ‘v’ binary bits. i.e., Number of bits per sample=v.
We know that, number of samples per second= f S
Therefore, Number of bits per second is expressed as
(Number of bits per second) = (Number of bits per samples) x (Number of samples per
second)= v bits per sample x f S samples per second. 8

As a matter of fact, the number of bits per second is known as signaling rate of PCM and
is denoted by ‘r’ i.e., Signaling rate in PCM, r=v f S ; where f S  2 f m
Transmission Bandwidth in a PCM System
• Since bandwidth needed for PCM transmission is given by half of the signaling rate.
Transmission Bandwidth in PCM,
1
BW  r 9
2
• But, r  vf S
1
therefore BW  vf s
2 10
 vf m

This is required expression for bandwidth of a PCM system.

Quantization Noise/Error in PCM
• In this section, we shall derive an expression
for quantization noise (i.e., error) in a PCM
system for linear quantization or uniform
quantization.
• Because of quantization, inherent errors are
introduced in the signal. This error is called
quantization error.
• We have seen that the quantization error is
ε=x q  nTs  -x  nTs  11
• Let us assume that the input x  nTs  to a linear
or uniform quantizer has continuous
amplitude in the range  xmax to  xmax .
• From figure 8 (a), it may be observed that the
total excursion of input x  nTs  is mapped
into ‘q’ levels on vertical axis.
Fig. 8. (a) Transfer characteristic of a quantizer (b) Variation of quantization
Quantization Noise/Error in PCM
• This means that when input is 4 , output is 72 
and when input is  4 , output is  72  .
• Thus  xmax represents 72  and  xmax represents  72 
• Therefore the total amplitude range becomes,
Total amplitude range = x max -  -x max  = 2 x max 12
Now, if this total amplitude range is divided into
‘q’ level of quantizer, then the step size ‘ ’ will
be, x max -  -x max  2 x max
'Step Size' Δ= = 13
q q
Again, now if signal x(t) is normalized to
minimum and maximum values equal to 1, then
we have
xmax  1
14
 xmax  1
Fig. 8. (a) Transfer characteristic of a quantizer (b) Variation of quantization
Quantization Noise/Error in PCM
• Therefore, step size would be,
2
 (for normalized signal) 15
q
• Now, if step size ‘  ’ is considered as sufficiently
small, then it may be assumed that the quantization
error ‘  ’ will be an uniformly distributed random
variable. We know that the maximum quantization
error is given as,

 max  16
2
i.e.,  
   max   17
2 2

Fig. 8. (a) Transfer characteristic of a quantizer (b) Variation of quantization

Quantization Noise/Error in PCM
  
• Hence over the interval   ,   , quantization error
may be assumed as an uniformly
2 2  distributed random
variable.
• Figure 10 (a) shows an uniformly distributed random a
variable ‘X’ over an interval (a, b). Recall that the PDF of
uniformly distributed random variable ‘X’ is given as.
0 for x  a
 1

fX  x   for a<x  b 18
b  a
0 for x>b

Thus, with the help of equation (18), the probability density b

function (PDF) for quantization error ‘ ’ may be defined as Figure 10. (a) A uniform distribution (b) A
Uniform distribution for quantization error
Quantization Noise/Error in PCM
0 for   a
1

f      for a<  b 19

0 for  >b a

• Also, from figure 10 (b), it may be observed that quantization

error ‘  ’ has zero average value. In other words, the mean ‘ m ’ of
the quantization error is zero. Further, we know that the signal to
quantization noise ratio of the quantizer is defined as,
S Signal Power (Normalized)
= 20
N Noise Power (Normalized) b
• If type of signal at input i.e., x(t) is known, then it is possible to
calculate signal power.
Figure 10. (a) A uniform distribution (b) A
Uniform distribution for quantization error
Quantization Noise/Error in PCM
• The noise power is expressed as,
2
Vnoise
Noise Power = 21
R

• Here, Vnoise
2
is taken as the mean square value of noise voltage. Since, here noise is defined
by random variable ‘ ’ and PDF f    therefore, its mean square value is given as,
Mean square value= E ε 2  =ε 2 =Vnoise
2
22
• We know that the mean square value of a random variable ‘X’ is expressed as,

X  E  X  
2 2
 x 2 f X  x  dx 23
 

E  2    f    d 
 2
Here 24

Quantization Noise/Error in PCM
• Using equation (19), above equation may be written as
 2 3  2        
3 3
1 1    1 2 2 1   3
 3

E     
2 2
d           25
   3   2   3 3  3  8 8 
 2  
• Simplifying, we get
 2
E  2   26
12
• Now, using equation (22), the mean square value of noise 2voltage would be

2
Vnoise  mean square value  27
12
• Also, if load resistance, R= 1 ohm, then the noise power is normalized i.e.,
2
Vnoise  2 12  2
Noise power (normalized)    28
1 1 12
• Hence, finally, we write
Normalized noise power or Quantization noise power
 2
or Quantization error (in terms of power)= 29
12
Signal to Quantization Noise Ratio for Linear
Quantization
• We know that in a PCM system for linear quantization the signal to quantization noise
ratio is given as,
S Normalized signal power
= 30
N Normalized noise power

• But, normalized noise power has been calculated as  2

12
S Normalized signal power
=
Therefore, N  2 12  31

We know that the number of bits ‘v’ and quantization levels are related as,
q  2v 32

Let us assume that input x  nTs  to a linear quantizer has continuous amplitude in the range
,  xmax to  xmax . Therefore, total amplitude range = x max -  -x max  = 2 x max 33
Signal to Quantization Noise Ratio for Linear
Quantization
• Now, the step size will be
2 x max
= 34
q
• Here, substituting the value of q from equation (32) in equation (34), we get
2 x max
= 35
2v
• Now substituting this value in equation (31), we get,
S Normalized signal power
= 2 36
N  2 x max  1
 2v  12 .
 
• Let normalized signal power be denoted as ‘P’.
• Then, This is the required relation for
S P 3P
= 2  2 .22 v signal to quantization noise ratio for
N 4 xmax 1 xmax
2v
 linear quantization in a PCM system.
2 12
Signal to Quantization Noise Ratio for Linear
Quantization
Hence, signal to quantization noise ratio:
S 3P 2 v
= 2 .2 37
N xmax

• This expression shows that signal to noise power ratio of quantizer increases
exponentially with increasing bits per sample.
Now, if we assume that input x(t) is normalized, i.e.,
xmax  1 38

Then, signal to quantization noise ratio will be,

S
 3  22 v  P 39
N

Also, if the destination signal power ‘P’ is normalized, i.e.,

P 1 40
 Signal to Quantization Noise Ratio for Linear
Quantization
• Then, the signal to noise ratio will be given as
S
 3  22 v 41
N
• Because xmax  1 and P  1, the signal to noise ratio given by equation (41) is said to be
normalized. Expressing the signal to noise ratio in decibels, we get
S S
  dB  10 log10   dB  10 log 
10  3  2 2v
   4.8  6v  dB 42
N N
• Thus, signal to quantization noise ratio for normalized values of power ‘P’ and amplitude
of input x(t), will be
S
  dB   4.8  6v  dB 43
 
N
Note: PCM requires that the amplitude of each sample of a signal be converted to a binary number.
The more bits used for the number, the greater the accuracy, but the greater the bit rate required.
Influence of Noise on the PCM System
• In Figure 11 (a), due to the noise superimposed on the pulse, only
the PAM system shall be affected. However, the PWM, PPM and
PCM systems will remain unaffected. The regeneration of the
pulses is achieved by using a clipper circuit with reference levels
A and B.
• In Figure 11 (b), Here, the sides of the transmitted pulse are not
perfectly vertical. In practice, the transmitted pulses usually have
slightly sloping sides (edges). As the noise is superimposed on
them, the width and the position of the regenerated pulses is
changed. Now, this is going to distort the information contents in
the PWM and PPM signals.
• Important Point: However, PCM is still unaffected as it does
not contain any information in the width or the position of the
pulses. Hence, PCM has much better noise immunity as
compared to PAM, PWM and PPM systems.

Figure 11 Effect of noise on PCM

Signal to Quantization noise ratio for the
Sinusodial Signal
Question 1: Derive an expression for signal to quantization noise ratio for a PCM system
which employs linear (i.e., uniform) quantization technique. Given that input to the PCM
system is a sinusoidal signal. (U.P.S.C.I.E.S. Examination-1999)
or,
A PCM system uses a uniform quantizer followed by a v bit encoder. Show that rms signal
to quantization noise ratio is approximately given as (1.8 + 6v) dB.
Solution: Let us assume that the modulating signal is a sinusoidal voltage, having a peak
amplitude equal to Am . Also, let this signal cover the complete excursion of representation
levels.
V2
Then, the power of this signal will be, P  1
R
2
Here, V = rms value i.e.,  
V   Am 2 
2
2
Therefore, we have Am2 1
P . 3
2 R
Signal to Quantization noise ratio for the
Sinusodial Signal
In case when R = 1, the power P is normalized, i.e.,
2
Normalized power P  Am with R = 1 in equation 3.
2
We know that, signal to quantization noise ratio is given as,
S 3P
 2  22 v 3
N xmax

Am2
Here P  and xmax  Am
2
Substituting, these values in the equation 3, we get
Am2
3
S 3
 22  22 v   22 v  1.5  22 v
N Am 2
Signal to Quantization noise ratio for the
Sinusodial Signal
Expressing signal to noise power ratio in dB, we get
S S
   10 log10 1.5  2 
2v
  dB 10 log10 
N N
 10 log10 1.5   10 log10  22 v 
 1.76  2v  10  0.3
 1.8  6v
Therefore, we have
S S
  dB in PCM  10 log10   dB  1.8  6v  For Sinusodial Signal 
N N
Questions
Example 1. A Television signal having a bandwidth of 4.2 MHz is transmitted using binary
PCM system. Given that the number of quantization levels is 512. Determine:
1. Code word length
2. Transmission bandwidth
3. Final bit rate
4. Output signal to quantization noise ratio.
Solution: Given that television signal has the maximum frequency 4.2 MHz. So f m  4.2 MHz
1. The quantization level is 512. So 512  2v and v  9 bits . Thus the code word length is
9 bits.
2. Transmission bandwidth  vf m  9  4.2  106 Hz  37.8 MHz
3. Final bit rate r  vf s  9  2  4.2  106 bits/sec
4. Output signal to quantization noise ratio
S
  dB  4.8  6v  4.8  6  9  4.8  54  58.8dB
N
Questions
Example 2: The information in an analog signal voltage waveform is to be transmitted over
a PCM system with an accuracy of ± 0.1% (full scale). The analog voltage waveform has a
bandwidth of 100 Hz and an amplitude range of - 10 to + 10 volts,
i. Find the minimum sampling rate required.
ii. Find the number of bits in each PCM word.
iii. Find minimum bit rate required in the PCM signal.
iv. Find the minimun absolute channel bandwidth required for the transmission of the
PCM signal. (WBTU, Kolkata, Sem. Exam., 2004-05)
Solution: Here an accuracy is given as ± 0.1%, This means that the quantization error must
be 0.1% or the maximum quantization error must be ± 0.1%. Thus,
 max  0.1%  0.001

xmax  10 volts
Questions
Example 3: In a binary PCM system, the output signal to quantization noise ratio is to be
held to a minimum value of 40 dB. Determine the number of required levels, and find the
corresponding output signal-to-quantization-noise ratio. (Gate Examination-1997)
Solution: in a binary PCM system, q  2v where v is the number of binary digits. Since, the
output signal to quantization noise ratio is minimum, thus it is clear that the signal is
sinusoidal which has minimum signal-to-quantization-noise ratio in comparison with other.
Then, we have,
S
  dB  1.76  10 log10 2 2v
 1.76  20 log10 2 v
 1.76  6.02v dB
N
Given that minimum signal-to-quantization-noise ratio is 40 dB.
Thus, 40  1.76  6.02v dB
v  6.35 bits  7 bits
Number of levels required is= q  2  2  128
v 7

output signal-to-quantization-noise ratio in dB =1.76+6.02v=43.9 dB

Robust Quantization: Necessity of Non Uniform
Quantization in a PCM System
As discussed earlier, in uniform quantization, the quantizer has a linear characteristics. The
step size remains same throughout the range of quantizer. Therefore, over the complete
range of inputs, the maximum quantization error also remains same.
We know that the quantization error is given as under:


Maximum quantization error =  max 
2 2xmax
Also the step size ‘ ’ is expressed as, 
q
If x(t) is normalized, its maximum value i.e., xmax  1.
2 2 1
Therefore, we have,     ; for v=4
q 16 8
Hence, quantization error is given from equation (1) as,
 1 1
 max   
2 2  8 16
Robust Quantization: Necessity of Non Uniform
Quantization in a PCM System
• Hence, note that here the quantization error is (1/16)th part of the full voltage range. For
simplicity, we assume that full range voltage is 16 volts. Then maximum quantization
error will be 1 volt. However, for the low signal amplitudes like 2 volts, 3 volts etc., the
maximum quantization error of 1 volt is quite high i.e., about 30 to 50%.
• This means that for signal amplitudes which are close to 15 volts, 16 volts etc., the
maximum quantization error (which is same throughout the range) of 1 volt can be
considered to be small.
• In fact, this problem arises because of uniform quantization. Therefore non-uniform
quantization should be used in such cases.
• In other words, we can say that it is desirable that SNR, should remain essentially
constant over a wide range of input power levels. A quantizer that satisfies all these
requirements is known as a Robust Quantizer. Infact, such a robust performance can be
obtained by using a nonuniform quantization.
Necessity of Non Uniform Quantization for
Speech Signal
We know that speech and music signals are characterized by large crest factor. This means
that for such signals the ratio of peak to rms value is quite high.
Peak Value
Crest factor =  Very high for speech and music. 1
rms Value
We know that the signal to noise ratio is given by,
  3  22 v  P 
S
2
N
Expressing in decibles, the last expression becomes
S
 
N
dB  10 log10  3  2 2v
 P 3
If we normalized the signal power i.e., if P=1, then the above equation becomes,
S
  dB   4.8  6v  dB 4
N
Here, power P is defined as
2
Vsignal x2 t 
P 
R R
Necessity of Non Uniform Quantization for
Speech Signal
2
Vsignal =Mean square value of signal voltage = x 2  t 
x2 t 
Hence, normalized power will be P  [with R=1]
R 5
P  x2 t 
From equation (1), crest factor is given as,

Peak Value xmax

Crest factor = 
 x  t  
1/2
rms Value 2

6
xmax
or crest factor= since P  x 2  t 
P

When we normalize the signal x(t), then

xmax  1 7
Necessity of Non Uniform Quantization for
Speech Signal
• Substituting this value of xmax in equation (6), we get
1
crest factor = 8
P
• For a large crest factor of voice (i.e., speech) and music signals, P should be very very
less than one in above equation.
i.e., P << 1 for large crest factor
Therefore, actual signal to noise ratio would be significantly less than the value which is
given by equation (4) since in this equation P = 1.
Again, let us consider equation (2). i.e.
  3  22 v  P 
S
N

3  2 2v
 P
P 1
  3  22 v  P 
P 1
9
Necessity of Non Uniform Quantization for
Speech Signal
• This equation illustrates that the signal to noise ratio for large crest factor signal (P << 1)
would be very very less than that of the calculated theoretical value. The theoretical value
is obtained for normalized power (P = 1) by equation (4).

• Important Notes: Therefore, such large crest use factor signals (i.e., speech and music)
should use non-uniform quantization to overcome the problem just discussed. Signal to
noise ratio reduces at low power levels (P << 1) just now we have observed by equation
(9). This means that at low signal levels, signal to noise ratio reduces i.e., noise increases.
• However the quantization noise is directly related to step size. Therefore, at low signal
levels (P <<1), noise can be kept low by keeping step size low.
• This means that at low signal levels, signal to noise ratio can be increased by decreasing
step size ‘’, This means that step size ‘  ’ should be varied according to the signal level
to keep signal to noise ratio at the required value. This is nothing but nonuniform
quantization. The non uniform quantization is achieved through companding.
Nonunifom Quantization
• If the quantizer characteristics is nonlinear and the step size is not constant instead if it is
variable, dependent on the amplitude of input signal then the quantization is known as
non uniform quantization.
• In non-uniform quantization, the step size is reduced with the reduction in signal level.
For weak signals (P << 1), the step size is small, therefore the quantization noise reduces,
to improve the signal to quantization noise ratio for weak signals.
• The step size is thus varied according to the signal level to keep the signal to noise ratio
adequately high. This is non uniform quantization. The non-uniform quantization is
practically achieved through a process called companding.
Companding
• As a matter of fact, companding is non uniform quantization. It is required to be
implemented to improve the signal to quantization noise ratio of weak signals. We know
that the quantization noise is given by
2
Nq 
12
• This shows that in the uniform quantization, once the step size is fixed, the quantization
noise power remains constant. However, the signal power is not constant. It is
proportional to the square of signal amplitude.
• Hence signal power will be small for weak signals, but quantization noise power is
constant. Therefore, the signal to quantization noise for the weak signals is very poor.
This will affect the quality of signal.
• The remedy is to use companding. Companding is a term derived from two words i.e.,
compression and expansion as under:
Companding = Compressing + Expanding
Companding
• In pratice, it is difficult to implement the non-uniform quantization because it is not
known in advance about the changes in the signal level.
• Therefore, a particular method is used. The weak signals are amplified and strong signals
are attenuated before applying them to a uniform quantizer. This process is called as
compression and the block that provides it is called as a compressor.
• At the receiver exactly opposite is followed which is called expansion. The circuit used
for providing expansion is called as an expander.
• The compression of signal at the transmitter and expansion at the receiver is combined to
be called companding. The process of companding has been shown in the form of a block
diagram in figure 12.

Input Uniform Output

Compressor Expander
Quantizer

Figure 12. A Companding model

Companding
Compressor Characteristic
• In the case of non uniform quantization, quantization noise
can be made proportional to signal size. The effect is to
improve the overall SNR by reducing the noise for the
predominant weak signals at the expense of an inerease in
noise for the rarely occurring strong signals.
Figure 13 (a). Compressor charcteristics
• Figure 13 (a) shows the compressor characteristics. As
shown in figure 13 (a), the compressor provides a higher
gain to the weak signals and smaller gain to the strong input
signals.
• Thus, weak signals are artificially boosted to improve the
signal to quantization noise ratio.
• It may be noted that this compressor characteristics has been
shown only for the positive input signal but we can draw it
even for the negative input signals using the some principle.
• In fact, the compressor is included at the PCM transmitter.
Figure 13 (b). Expander charcteristics
Companding
Expander Characteristics
• Figure 13 (b) shows the expander characteristics. This
characteristics is exactly the inverse of the conmpressor
characteristics.
• This ensures that all the artificially boosted signals by the
Figure 13 (a). Compressor charcteristics
compressor are brought back to their original amplitudes at
the receiver end.

Figure 13 (b). Expander charcteristics

Companding
• Figure 14 shows the compander characteristics which is the
combination of the compressor and expander characteristics.
• Due to the inverse nature of compressor and expander, the
overall characteristics of the compander is a straight line (dotted
line in figure 14).
• This indicates that all the boosted signals are brought back to
their original amplitudes.*
DIFFERENT TYPES OF COMPRESSOR CHARACTERISTICS
Ideally, we need a linear compressor characteristics for small
amplitudes of the input signal and a logarithmic characteristic
elsewhere. In pratice, this is achieved by using following two
methods: Figure 14. Companding curves for
PCM system
i.  - law companding
ii. A - law companding * Non iniform quantization can be used
to make the SNR a constant for all
signals within the input range.
Companding
 - law Companding
• In the  - law companding, the compressor characteristic is continuous. It is
approximately linear for smaller values of input levels and logarithmic for high input
levels. The  - law compressor characteristic is mathematically expressed as under:
ln 1   x xmax 
Z  x    sgn x 
ln 1   
where 0  x xmax  1 . Here. z(x) represents the output and x is the input to the compressor.
Also, x xmaxrepresents the normalized value of input with respect to the maximum value xmax
Further, (sgn x) term represents ±1 i.e., positive and negative values of input and output.
 Companding
• The  -law compressor characteristics for different
values of  have been shown in figure 15 (a).
• The practically used value of  is 255. It may be
noted that the characteristic corresponding to  =0
corresponds to the uniform quantization.
• The  -law companding is used for speech and music
signals. It is used for PCM telephone systems in (a)
United States, Canada and Japan.
• Figure 10.23(b) shows the variation of signal to
quantization noise ratio with respect to signal level,
with and without companding. It is obvious that SNR
is almost constant at all the signal levels when
companding is used.

Figure 15 (a). Compressor characteristics of  -law compressor

(b) PCM performance with  -law companding (b)
Companding
A-law Companding
• In the A-law companding, the compressor characteristic
is piecewise, made up of a linear segment for low level
inputs and a logarithmic segment for high level inputs.
• Figure 16 shows the A-law compressor characteristics for
different values of A. Corresponding to A = 1, we
observe that the characteristic is linear which
corresponds to a uniform quantization. The practically
used value of A is 87.56.
• The A-law companding is used for PCM telephone
systems in Europe. Figure 16. Compressor characteristics
• The linear segment of the characteristics is for low level of A - law compressor
inputs whereas the logarithmic segments is for high level
input.
Companding
It is mathematically expressed as under:

 A x xmax x
 for 0  1
Z  x  1  log e A xmax

xmax 1  log e  A x xmax  1 x
 for  1
 1  log e A A xmax

Figure 16. Compressor characteristics

of A - law compressor
Companding
Effect of Companding
• Let us consider figure 17, which shows
the curves of output signal to noise ratio
versus input signal power for the uniform
and nonuniform quantizers.
• The curve for nonuniform quantizer
corresponds to the  law companding
with  = 255.
• The curves in figure 17 have been plotted
with the following assumptions:
1. Value of Q is 256.
2. Parameter  = 255

Figure 17. Output SNR characteristics for

uniform and nonuniform quantization
Companding
3. Let X denote the random variable
representing the input. Let it has the
Laplacian distribution which is
represented mathematically as under.
1
fX  x  e 2 x  X
2 X

where  X2 is the variance of X.

4. The input signal range between  xmax to
 xmax .

Figure 17. Output SNR characteristics for

uniform and nonuniform quantization
Companding
Companding Gain
• This is another important parameter used for assessing the improvement due to the
process. It is denoted by Gc , and defined as under:
dz  x 
Gc 
dx x 0

where z  x  represents the compressor characteristics.


The companding gain for a  - law compressor is given by, Gc 
log e 1   

If   255 , then Gc  255

 45.98, converting into dB, we get Gc dB = 20 log10 Gc = 33.3 dB
log e 1  255 

The value of companding gain should be as high as possible. The effect of the companding
gain of 33.3 dB has been shown in figure 17. It shows that due to companding, the smallest
step size with companding is smaller than the step size of a uniform quantizer by a factor
equal to Gc = 32.
Companding
Difference between  -law and A-law companding
The most important difference between the two types of compressors is that the A-law
compressor has a midriser at the origin whereas the  - law compressor has a midtread at
the origin. Thus, the A-law compressor has no zero value.
Application, Advantages and Drawback of PCM
• Some of the applications of PCM may be listed as under:
i. With the advent of fibre optic cables, PCM is used in telephony.
ii. In space communication, space craft transmits signals to earth. Here, the transmitted power
is quite small (i.e., 10 or l5 W) and the distances are very large (i.e., a few million km).
However, due to the high noise immunity, only PCM systems can be used in such
applications.
• Following are the advantages of a PCM system:
i. PCM provides high noise immunity.
ii. Due to digital nature of the signal, we can place repeaters between the transmitter and the receivers.
Infact, the repeaters regenerate the received PCM signal. This can not be possible in analog systems.
Repeaters further reduce the effect of noise.
iii. We can store the PCM signal due to its digital nature.
iv. We can use various coding techniques so that only the desired person can decode the received signal.
• A PCM system has few drawbacks as under:
i. The encoding, decoding and quantizing circuitry of PCM is complex.
ii. PCM requires a large bandwidth as compared to the other systems.
Delta Modulation
Reason to use Delta Modulation
• We have observed in PCM that it transmits all the bits which are used to code a sample.
Hence, signaling rate and transmission channel bandwidth are quite large in PCM. To
overcome this problem, Delta Modulation is used.
Working Principle
• Delta modulation transmits only one bit per sample. Here, the present sample value is
compared with the previous sample value and this result whether the amplitude is
increased or decreased is transmitted.
• Input signal x(t) is approximated to step signal by the delta modulator. This step size is
kept fixed.
• The difference between the input signal x(t) and staircase approximated signal is confined
to two levels, i.e., +  and -  . Now, if the difference is positive, then approximated signal
is increased by one step, i.e., ‘  ’. If the difference is negative, then approximated signal is
reduced by ‘  ’.
Delta Modulation
• When the step is reduced, 0' is transmitted
and if the step is increased, 1' is transmitted.
Hence, for each sample, only one binary bit is
transmitted. Figure 18 shows the analog
signal x(t) and its staircase approximated
signal by the delta modulator.
Mathematical Expressions
Thus, the principle of delta modulation can be
explained with the help of few equations as
under:
The error between the sampled value of x(t) and
last approximated sample is given as,
Figure 18. Delta modulation waveform
e  nTs  =x  nTs  -xˆ  nTs 
where e  nTs  = error at present sample
x  nTs  = sampled signal of x(t).
Delta Modulation
x̂  nTs  = last sample approximation of the staircase waveform.
If we assume u  nTs  as the present sample approximation of staircase output,
then, u  n-1 Ts  =xˆ  nTs  =last sample approximation of staircase waveform
Let us define a quantity b  nTs  in such a way that,
b  nTs  =Δsgn e  nTs  
This means that depending on the sign of error e  nTs  , the sign of step size  is decided. In
other words, we can write
 if x  nTs   xˆ  nTs 
b  nTs  = 
 if x  nTs  < xˆ  nTs 

Also, if b  nTs  =+ then a binary ‘1’ is transmitted,

And if b  nTs  =- then a binary ‘0’ is transmitted.
Here, Ts is sampling interval.
Delta Modulation
Transmitter Part
• Figure 19 (a) shows the transmitter (i.e.,
generation of Delta Modulated signal).
• The summer in the accumulator adds quantizer
output (  ) with the previous sample
approximation. This gives present sample
approximation. i.e.,
u  nTs  =u  nTs -Ts  +  ±Δ 

or u  nTs  =u  n-1 Ts  +b  nTs 

Figure 19 (a) A Delta modulation transmitter
The previous sample approximation u  n-1 Ts  is
restored by delaying one sample period Ts .
The sampled input signal x  nTs  and staircase
approximated signal x̂  nTs  are subtracted to get
error signal e  nTs  .
Delta Modulation
• Thus, depending on the sign of e  nTs  , one bit quantizer generates an output of  or  .
If the step size is  , then binary ‘1’ is transmitted and if it is  , then binary ‘0’ is
transmitted.
• Delta modulation transmits only one bit per sample, indicating whether the signal level is
increasing or decreasing, but it needs a higher sampling rate than PCM for equivalent
results.
Receiver Part
• At the receiver end, shown figure
19(b), the accumulator and low-
pass filter (LPF) are used.
• The accumulator generates the
staircase approximated signal
output and is delayed by one
sampling period Ts . Figure 19 (b) A Delta modulation receiver
Delta Modulation
• It is then added to the input signal. If input is binary ‘1’ then it adds  step to the
previous output (which is delayed).
• If input is binary ‘0’ then one step ‘ ’ is subtracted from the delayed signal.
• Also, the low-pass filter has the cutoff frequency equal to highest frequency in x(t). This
low-pass filter smoothens the staircase signal to reconstruct original message signal x(t).

Figure 19 (b) A Delta modulation receiver

Delta Modulation
Advantages of Delta Modulation : Salient Features of Delta Modulation
The delta modulation has certain advantages over PCM as under:
• Since, the delta modulation transmits only one bit for one sample, therefore the signaling
rate and transmission channel bandwidth is quite small for delta modulation compared to
PCM.
• The transmitter and receiver implementation is very much simple for delta modulation.
There is no analog to digital converter required in delta modulation.
Drawbacks of Delta Modulation
The delta modulation has two major drawbacks as under:
• Slope overload distortion,
• Granular or idle noise
• Now, let us discuss these two drawbacks in detail from next slide.
Delta Modulation
Slope Overload Distortion:
• This distortion arises because of large
dynamic range of the input signal.
As can be observed from figure 20, the
rate of rise of input signal x(t) is so high
that the staircase signal cannot
approximate it, the step size ‘  ’ becomes
too small for staircase signal u(t) to follow
the step segment of x(t).
Hence, there is a large error between the Figure 20. Quantization errors in delta modulation
staircase approximated signal and the
original input signal x(t). This error or
noise is known as slope overload
distortion.
Delta Modulation
• To reduce this error, the step size must be increased when slope of signal x(t) is high.
• Since the step size of delta modulator remains fixed, its maximum or minimum slopes
occur along straight lines. Therefore, this modulator is also known as Linear Delta
Modulator (LDM).
Granular or ldle Noise
• Granular or Idle noise occurs when the step size is too large compared to small variations
in the input signal. This means that for very small variations in the input signal, the
staircase signal is changed by large amount () because of large step size.
• Figure 20 shows that when the input signal is almost flat, the staircase signal u(t) keeps on
oscillating by  around the signal. The error between the input and approximated signal
is called granular noise, The solution to this problem is to make step size small.
Therefore, a large step size is required to accommodate wide dynamic range of the input
signal (to reduce slope overload distortion) and small steps are required to reduce granular
noise. Infact, Adaptive delta modulation is the modification to overcome these errors.
Delta Modulation
Bit Rate (i.e., Signaling Rate) of Delta Modulation:
Delta modulation bit rate (r) = Number of bits transmitted/second
= Number of samples/sec X Number of bits/sample = fs ×1=fs .
Therefore, the delta modulation bit rate is (1/N) times the bit rate of a PCM system, where
N is the number of bits per transmitted PCM codeword. Hence, we can say that the channel
bandwidth for the Delta modulation system is reduced to a great extent as compared to that
for the PCM system.
Example 4: Given a sine wave of frequency f m and amplitude A m , applied to a delta
modulator having step size  . Show that the slope overload distortion will occur if
Δ
Am >
2πf m Ts
here Ts is the sampling period. (GATE Examination-1999)
Solution: Let us consider that the sine wave is represented as,
x  t  =A m sin  2πf m t 
Delta Modulation
• It may be noted that the slope of x(t) will be maximum when derivative of x(t) with
respect to ‘t’ will be maximum. The maximum slope of delta modulator may be given as
step size Δ
Maximum slope= =
Saple period Ts
• We know that, slope overload distortion will take place if slope of sine wave is greater
than slope of delta modulator i.e.,
d Δ
max x  t  >
dt Ts

Am 2 f m 
Ts

Am  proved.
2 f m Ts

Example 5: A delta modulator system is designed to operate at five times the Nyquist rate
for a signal having a bandwidth equal to 3 kHz bandwidth. Calculate the maximum
amplitude of a 2 kHz input sinusoidal signal for which the delta modulator does not have
slope over load. Given that the quantizing step size is 250 mV. Also, derive the formula that
you use. (U.P,SC. I.E.S. Engg. Examination-1999))
Delta Modulation
Solution: In last example, we have derived the relation for slope overload distortion which
will occur if, 
Am 
2 f m Ts

So, slope overload will not occur if, Am 
2 f m Ts
The maximum frequency in the signal is, f m  3 kHz
Nyquist rate = 2 f m  6 kHz
Sampling frequency = 5 times Nyquist rate = f s  30 kHz
1 1
Hence, Sampling interval= Ts = = 3
seconds
fs 30×10
Given the step size =  =250 mV
And the frequency of the signal = f m  2 kHz
Substitute all these values in the expression of not occurring slop overload distortion and we
get, 
Am   0.6 volts
2 f m Ts
Adaptive Delta Modulation
Reason to use Adaptive Delta Modulation:
• To overcome the quantization errors due to slope overload and granular noise, the step
size (  ) is made adaptive to variations in the input signal x(t). Particularly in the steep
segment of the signal x(t), the step size is increased.
• Also, if the input is varying slowly, the step size is reduced. Then, this method is known
as Adaptive Delta Modulation (ADM). The adaptive delta modulators can take continuous
changes in step size or discrete changes in step size.
Transmitter Part:
• Figure 21 (a) shows the transmitter and 21 (b)
shows receiver of adaptive delta modulator.
• The logic for step size control is added in the
diagram.
• The step size increases or decreases according
to a specified rule depending on one bit
quantizer output.
Figure 21 (a). Transmitter of Adaptive Delta Modulator
 Adaptive Delta Modulation
• As an example, if one bit quantizer output is
high (i.e. 1), then step size may be doubled for
next sample. If one bit quantizer output is low,
then step size may be reduced by one step.
• Figure 22 shows the staircase waveforms of
adaptive delta modulator and the sequence of
bits to be transmitted.

Figure 21 (b) Adaptive Delta Modulator Recerver

Figure 22. Waveforms for adaptive delta modulation
Adaptive Delta Modulation
Receiver Part
• In the receiver of adaptive delta modulator shown in the figure 21(b), there are two
portions. The first portion produces the step size from each incoming bit. Exactly the
same process is followed as that in transmitter. The previous input and present input
decides the step size. It is then applied to an accumulator which builds up staircase
waveform. The low-pass filter then smoothens out the staircase waveform to reconstruct
the original signal.

Figure 21 (b) Adaptive Delta Modulator Recerver

Adaptive Delta Modulation
Advantages of Adaptive Delta Modulation : Salient Features
• Adaptive delta modulation has certain advantages over delta modulation as under: the
signal to noise ratio becomes better than ordinary delta modulation because of the
reduction in slope overload distortion and idle noise.
• Because of the variable step size, the dynamic range of ADM is wider than simple DM.
• Utilization of bandwidth is better than delta modulation.
Differential Pulse Code Modulation (DPCM)
Reason to use DPCM
• It may be observed that the samples of' a
signal are highly correlated with each
other. This is due to the fact that any
signal does not change fast. This means
that its value from present sample to next
sample does not differ by large amount.
• The adjacent samples of the signal carry
the same information with a little
difference. When these samples are
encoded by a standard PCM system, the
resulting encoded signal contains some
redundant information. Figure 23
illustrates this redundant information.
Figure 23. Illustration of redundant information in PCM
Differential Pulse Code Modulation (DPCM)
Redundant Information in PCM
• Figure 23 shows a continuous time signal x(t)
by dotted line. This signal is sampled by flat
top sampling at different time intervals Ts , 2Ts ,
, 3Ts , …, nTs .
• The sampling frequency is selected to be
higher than nyquist rate. The samples are
encoded by using 3 bit (7 levels) PCM.
• The sample is quantized to the nearest digital
level as shown by small circles in the figure
23. The encoded binary value of each sample
is written on the top of the samples.

Figure 23. Illustration of redundant information in PCM

Differential Pulse Code Modulation (DPCM)
• We can observe from figure 23 that the
samples taken at 4Ts , 5Ts and 6Ts , are encoded
to same value of (110). This information can
be carried only by one sample. But three
samples are carrying the same information
means that it is redundant.
• We consider another example of samples
taken at 9Ts , and 10Ts . The difference between
these samples only due to last bit and first two
bits are redundant, since they do not change.
• If this redundancy is reduced, then overall bit
rate will decrease and number of bits required
to transmit one sample will also be reduced.
This type of digital pulse modulation scheme
is known as Differential Pulse Code
Modulation (DPCM). Figure 23. Illustration of redundant information in PCM
Differential Pulse Code Modulation (DPCM)
Working Principle
• In fact the differential pulse code modulation
works on the principle of prediction. The
value of the present sample is predicted from
the past samples. The prediction may not be
exact but it is very close to the actual sample
value.
• Figure 24 shows the transmitter of
Differential Pulse Code Modulation (DPCM)
system. The sampled signal is denoted by x  nTs 
and the predicted signal is denoted by xˆ  nTs  .
• The comparator finds out the difference Figure 24. Illustration of redundant information in PCM
between the actual sample value x  nTs  and
predicted sample value xˆ  nTs . This is known
as Prediction error and it is denoted by e  nTs .
 Differential Pulse Code Modulation (DPCM)
• It can be defined as,
e  nTs   x  nTs   xˆ  nTs  1
• Thus, error is the difference between unquantized
input sample x  nTs  and prediction of it xˆ  nTs  .
The predicted value is produced by using a
prediction filter. The quantizer output signal gap
eq  nTs  and previous prediction is added and given as
input to the prediction filter. This signal is called xq  nTs 
• This makes the predietion more and more close
to the actual sample signal. We can observe that
the quantized error signal eq  nTs  is very small
and can be encoded by using small number of Figure 24. Illustration of redundant information in PCM
bits. Thus number of bits per sample are reduced
in DPCM.
• The quantizer output can be written as,
eq  nTs   e  nTs   q  nTs  2
 Differential Pulse Code Modulation (DPCM)
• Here, q  nTs  is the quantization error. As shown
in figure 24, the prediction filter input xq  nTs  is
obtained by sum xˆ  nTs  and quantizer output
i.e.,
xq  nTs   xˆ  nTs   eq  nTs  3
• From above three equations, we are getting,
xq  nTs   x  nTs   q  nTs  4
• Hence, the quantized version of the signal
xq  nTs  is the sum of original sample value and
quantization error q  nTs  . The quantization
error can be positive or negative. Figure 24. Illustration of redundant information in PCM
• Equation 4 does not depend on the prediction
filter characteristics.
Differential Pulse Code Modulation (DPCM)
Reception of DPCM Signal : Reconstruction of DPCM Signal
• Figure 25 shows the block diagram of DPCM receiver. The decoder first reconstructs the
quantized error signal from incoming binary signal.
• The prediction filter output and quantized error signals are summed up to give the
quantized version of the original signal. Thus the signal at the receiver differs from actual
signal by quantization error q  nTs  , which is introduced permanently in the reconstructed
signal.

Figure 25. DPCM receiver

Differential Pulse Code Modulation (DPCM)
Advantage of DPCM: Salient Features
• As the difference between x  nTs  and xˆ  nTs  is being encoded and transmitted by the
DPCM technique, a small difference voltage is to be quantized and encoded.
• This will require less number of quantization levels and hence less number of bits to
represent them.
• Thus signaling rate and bandwidth of a DPCM system will be less than that of PCM.
 Comparison
S. Parameter of Pulse Code Delta Modulation Adaptive Delta Differential Pulse
No. Comparison Modulation (PCM) (DM) Modulation Code Modulation
(DPCM)
1. Number of bits It can use 4, 8 or 16 It uses only one Only one bit is Bits can be more than
bits per sample. bit for one sample. used to encode one but are less than
one sample. PCM.
2. Levels and step Number of levels Step size is kept According to the Here fixed number of
size depends upon fixed and cannot signal variation, levels are used.
number of bits. be varied. step size varies
Level size is kept (i.e., adapted).
fixed.
3. Quatization Quantization error Slope overload Quantization Slope overload
error and depends on number distortion and noise is present distortion and
distortion of levels used. granular noise are but other errors quantization noise are
present. are absent. present.
4. Transmission Highest bandwidth is Lowest bandwidth Lowest bandwidth Bandwidth required is
bandwidth required since is required. is required. lower than PCM.
number of bits are
high.
Comparison
S. Parameter of Pulse Code Delta Modulation Adaptive Delta Differential Pulse
No. Comparison Modulation (PCM) (DM) Modulation Code Modulation
(DPCM)
5. Feedback There is no feedback Feedback exists in Feedback exists. Here, feedback exists.
in transmitter and transmitter.
receiver.
6. Complexity of System complex. Simple Simple Simple
implementation
Class Test